Chapter 1



Education for Life: Expanding Vocational Education Opportunities for High School and Beyond

by David G. Prentice

Abstract

There is a growing economic inequality in America. The top wage-earners are earning several times what other Americans are. To reduce the inequality, there are really only two things our government can do. It can punish successful people by raising taxes on their wages, or it can develop programs to create more opportunities for lower-income Americans which will allow them to be successful, too. The former would discourage work and skill development; the latter would increase both.

The goal of this paper is to examine the role that lack of skills and education plays in economic inequality, and to offer recommendations which would increase opportunities for skill development. This paper addresses the growing problem of uneducated and unskilled workers in America. The hardships of low-income workers are discussed, as well as the individual and social costs of these workers.

Next, this paper examines vocational education programs that are currently available to high school students and young adults. A strong emphasis is given to the programs available in Oklahoma. A detailed analysis of the effects of vocational education on the Oklahoma economy follows. A brief look at growing labor industries is also included.

Finally, this paper concludes by setting forth recommended changes which would expand vocational education opportunities available to low-income students, and thus promote economic justice.

Table of Contents

Introduction—Education and Income Inequality 2

The Plight of the Unskilled, Uneducated Worker. 6

Greater Difficulty Becoming Employed 6

Greater Difficulty Rising Above the Poverty Level 7

Intergenerational Poverty Issues 9

Social Costs of the Unskilled, Uneducated worker. 10

High School Dropout Rates 10

Welfare and Unemployment 11

Crime 12

Programs which are Currently Available 15

The Oklahoma Model 16

Labor Industries which are Growing and Expanding 18

Suggested Changes which would Promote Economic Justice 20

Expand the Vocational Training Opportunities to All Students 20

Repeal Certain Tax Credits for College Tuition Payments 22

Allow More Vo-Tech Courses to Qualify for High School Credit 22

Increase funding for in-school training 25

More Funds for Vocational Training for Out-of-school Adults 27

Increase Awareness of Vocational Programs Among High School Students 28

Conclusion 28

Introduction—Education and Income Inequality

Economic inequality is a growing reality in America. The top wage-earners are earning more than ever, while for bottom wage-earners, it is a continual struggle just to make a living wage. While a host of studies, research, and statistics address the issue of economic inequality, one particular statistic provides an especially telling snapshot of the inequality facing our nation today. According to the United States Census Bureau, in 2006, households at the top fifth, or 80th percentile of the income level, had income of over $97,000 per year, while households at the bottom fifth, or 20th percentile, had income of only $20,035.[1]

A certain amount of economic inequality is inevitable. Most Americans readily concede that a purely egalitarian society, where everyone is paid the same amount regardless of age, education, skills, or effort, is undesirable. Our society rightfully rewards talent, ingenuity, and most importantly, hard work. Such rewards are necessary to ensure future effort and technological advancement.

Furthermore, the answer to this income inequality is not to simply raise taxes on higher wage earners in order to redistribute income to low wage earners. This would reduce the incentive to work harder, be more creative, and invest in new businesses. One study suggests that the top fifth of households performs one third of all labor in the United States, and invests money into the economy which is needed to create jobs and further economic growth.[2]

The key to helping low-income workers is to empower them to work better jobs and thus gain financial security for their families. We as Americans must address the difficulties facing low wage-earners that make it hard for them to advance beyond the poverty level, and evaluate what resources and opportunities we can provide to help them overcome those difficulties.

No single factor is responsible for one’s economic status. Education, skills, gender, race, and a host of other factors all have a role in affecting one’s income. This paper focuses on the effect that education and training have on one’s wages.

Differences in educational attainment are a major factor of income inequality. For those who have a high school diploma and college degree, income increases and unemployment decreases significantly. The rewards for higher education are significant, and the penalty for a lack thereof is often great. However, not all Americans are cut out for higher education.

We live in a society that highly rewards intelligence. Specifically, we reward the types of intelligence that allows students to perform well in traditional educational venues, such as high school and college, as well as on standardized tests. This type of intelligence usually is evidenced by strong linguistic, verbal, math and logic skills. Some people simply call it “book smarts.”

People who are “book smart” tend to perform better at the high school level and in traditional educational venues, and are more likely to obtain a college degree. The rewards for higher education are significant. For instance, as shown by the data compiled in Table 1 below, in 2006, the average full-time worker age 25 and over earned $671 per week. Those with a college degree, however, earned $962 per week. Additionally the unemployment rate for college graduates was only 2.3%, significantly lower than the national average of 4.6%. The bottom line is simple: for those who are “book smart,” income increases and unemployment decreases significantly.

Table 1. Income and Unemployment by Educational Attainment in the United States, 2006

|Education Level |Avg. Weekly Earnings |Unemployment |

|Median |$671 |4.6% |

|College Degree |$962 |2.3% |

|Some College, No Degree |$734 |3.9% |

|High School Diploma |$595 |4.3% |

|Less than HS Diploma |$419 |6.8% |

Source: U.S. Census Bureau and Dept. of Labor.[3]

The rewards for higher education are significant. Not all Americans, however, are cut out for higher education. In fact, some scholars have suggested that there are many types of intelligence, measured in different ways, and manifested by different abilities.[4] Now more than ever, though, people who are not “book smart” are facing an uphill battle to make a living wage. People who do not perform as well in traditional educational venues earn lower incomes and have higher unemployment rates. They have a harder time finding a job in the first place, and they make less money at the jobs they do find.

There is certainly nothing wrong with rewarding book smarts. Those who are gifted with certain types of logical, linguistic, and scientific intelligence contribute a great deal to society by advancing the sciences, law, economics, medicine, and a host of other disciplines.

Not all intelligence, however, is seen on a college campus. The over-emphasis on “book smarts” disadvantages many people who could work fine jobs, but are not gifted with the same types of intelligence. Many well-paying and respectable jobs, such as plumbing, auto mechanics, carpentry, construction, and certain levels of nursing, just to name a few, do not require a college degree: only a willingness to work and proper training. Many service-based industries are growing rapidly, and will soon need more workers.

There are many who are simply not cut out for traditional higher education. We can help these people, by increasing opportunities for them to gain skills and learn a trade. The current system, at least to some degree, favors those who are book smart, and unjustly disadvantages people who are not. Policy decisions at the federal and state level could provide funding and opportunities for uneducated people to receive vocational training and enter the workforce. Such opportunities would equip them for meaningful employment, and promote economic justice.

The Plight of the Unskilled, Uneducated Worker.

The penalty for a lack of higher education- which often translates to a lack of “book smarts”- is often great. Life for unskilled, uneducated workers has always been difficult. As one might expect, a person with only a high school diploma earns less than one with a college degree, and without a high school diploma earns less than both. Similarly, someone with a specific skill, such as carpentry, is able to command higher wages than one with no skill at all. Right now, however, the outlook for the unskilled or uneducated worker is looking bleaker than ever before.

Greater Difficulty Becoming Employed

Unemployment figures for those who have not advanced beyond high school or college are not encouraging either. Recall from Table 1 that a high school graduate without a college degree in 2006 faced an unemployment rate of 4.3%. The unemployment rate is 6.8% for those who haven’t received a high school diploma or equivalent, compared with the national average of 4.6%. While there are still jobs available to people of all skill and education levels, the higher unemployment rates reflect a lower demand for workers without specific education or skills.

One factor in unemployment for unskilled workers is the globalization of the labor market. Many low-skilled jobs, such as manufacturing, for instance, are being outsourced overseas. American workers now have to compete with workers from Mexico, China, Hong Kong, and many other countries for jobs. The only problem is that they cannot compete. “Hourly Compensation Costs” represent the overall expense that employers pay for each employee, including direct pay and labor taxes and other social insurance expenses. In 2005, the hourly compensation cost for U.S. production workers in manufacturing was $23.65.[5] The hourly compensation cost in countries like Mexico, Hong Kong, and Taiwan during the same year was $2.63-$6.38, or only 17-27% of that in the U.S.[6] In China, the hourly compensation cost was only $0.71 per hour, or 3% of that in the United States.[7] If we want to help lower-income, uneducated, and unskilled workers have a better chance at getting employed, then we have to help them get the skills they need to become marketable.

Greater Difficulty Rising Above the Poverty Level

Not only do Americans that lack skills or education have a harder time finding a job, but they face greater difficulty in rising above the poverty level in the jobs they do find. For 2007, the Federal Poverty Guidelines for a family of four is just over $20,500 per year, or roughly $400 per week.[8] How does the average American fare? The somewhat good news is that only 12.3% of Americans are below the poverty level.[9] That is still a significant amount, however. An analysis of certain wage and poverty level statistics shows that there are many things we can do to help reduce the number of citizens whose incomes are below poverty level.

Income inequality increases as educational levels decrease. A larger disparity in educational attainment levels translates into a wider gap in income levels.[10] The average weekly earnings for an American over the age of twenty-five is $671.[11] For one who has some college experience but not a college degree, the average weekly earnings are $702.[12] Those who have graduated from high school but have no college experience average $609.[13] And Americans over the age of twenty-five who have not graduated from high school fare even worse at only $419 per week.[14] In 2006, of the people over twenty-five who had never graduated from high school, over 20% had incomes which were below the poverty level.[15] This is the group that struggles just to achieve poverty level incomes.

Studies suggest that skill development increases hourly earnings.[16] Particularly among women and ethnic minorities, vocational education can lead to a significant increase in income levels. In Oklahoma, those who complete vocational training are estimated to earn over their lifetimes an additional $371,000 over the amount they would have earned with just a high school diploma.[17]

Not long ago, unskilled workers could support a family working full-time at a factory or manufacturing plant. Now, due at least in part to globalization, it is becoming increasingly hard for the unskilled worker to rise above the poverty level. It will only continue to get harder for unskilled workers to compete with foreign labor markets. In order to help them, we need to make it possible for them to be trained and to develop skills that will allow them to work a higher paying job.

Intergenerational Poverty Issues

Wealth, or the lack thereof, tends to run in families. A cycle is created where children from high-income families tend to grow up to have higher incomes, and those from poorer families tend to grow up to have lower incomes. People tend to marry someone who is at about the same wealth level.[18] While these facts may not be surprising, they do help paint a picture of how generational poverty can exacerbate the difficulties facing an unskilled worker.

High school dropouts tend to come from lower income families. High school age students from low-income families in 2005 were six times as likely to drop out as their counterparts from upper-income families (8.9% as opposed to 1.5%).[19] Notably, minorities also have higher dropout rates than whites[20] and face lower average incomes. As reflected in the statistics above, failing to complete high school has a major impact on one’s earnings.

These and other factors create a vicious cycle. Not only is life for low-skilled workers harder than ever, but generational poverty issues make it harder for them to break the cycle and provide a better life for their children. Low-income workers have a greater tendency to remain at a lower income all of their life. Their children are less likely to finish high school, and far less likely to pursue higher education. As a result, the children are faced with lower incomes upon reaching adulthood. Policy changes that provide greater training opportunities would make it possible for our current low-income high school students and young adults to break this cycle and would promote economic justice.

Social Costs of the Unskilled, Uneducated worker.

High School Dropout Rates

High school dropout rates are a growing concern in our country today. Studies by several independent researchers suggest that nearly a third of our nation’s high school age students do not complete high school.[21] More and more students are dropping out of high school before obtaining a diploma or other substitute, such as a GED. As of 2005, America had slipped to tenth in the world for high school completion rates.[22]As discussed above, studies show a correlation between dropout rates and low-income families. Because a greater number of high school dropouts come from low-income families, and a greater number of low-income families are unskilled, it is safe to say that more high school dropouts come from families where the primary breadwinner is unskilled as opposed to skilled.

High school dropouts cost American taxpayers money by virtue of the fact that they are more likely to be involved in several negative economic outcomes. For instance, dropouts are earning less and less money. In 1971, an average dropout earned $35,087 (adjusted for inflation), but in 2002, the average dropout earned only $23,903.[23] According to recent U.S. Census Bureau data, a high school dropout now earns only $19,169 per year. Lower incomes for dropouts translates into lost tax revenue and a narrower tax base.

Dropouts are also far more likely to receive welfare benefits at some point in their lives. Dropouts account for nearly half of all the heads of households on welfare.[24] Dropouts are less likely to be employed and enter the workforce.[25] Dropouts are more likely to be involved in gang activity.[26] High school dropouts also have a greater chance of being imprisoned, both in the general prison population and on death-row.[27] Government estimates based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Department of Justice suggest that 30% of federal inmates, 40% of state inmates, and 50% of death row inmates are dropouts.[28] An overwhelming 68% of state prison inmates in 2003 did not have a high school diploma.[29]

There are many factors which affect a student’s choice to drop out of high school. But some of the studies below suggest that at least one of the reasons is that some students aren’t cut out for traditional education- they are not “book smart.” They are however, capable of working.

Welfare and Unemployment

Unskilled and uneducated workers tend to earn lower incomes, which means they are more likely to end up receiving government provided welfare benefits. Means-tested welfare costs our country more and more each year. In 2000, our nation spent over $438 billion on means-tested welfare at the federal and state levels.[30] Dropouts account for nearly half of all the heads of households on welfare.[31]

Crime

The costs of crime are huge for our country. The burden of these costs is borne by our taxpayers. While there are many factors and motivations for crime, money is certainly one of them. Many people who feel they can’t otherwise make a living wage will turn to crime as their primary source of income. And that should come as no surprise. If one has a college degree and is likely to earn $40,000-$50,000 per year, he is not going to give that up and risk time in prison to deal drugs. If one is uneducated, unskilled, and is facing dim career prospects, crime suddenly becomes much more appealing. The chance to make several thousand dollars dealing drugs may be worth the risk of being arrested, going to jail, or perhaps even being shot in the open streets during a gang confrontation. As people face greater difficulty obtaining honest employment that pays a living wage, they will become more likely to pursue a life of crime.

Interestingly, people are also committing crime to get money in order to purchase drugs. In 2004, 18.4% of federal inmates were arrested for an offense they committed in order to get money for drugs. Arguably, if they had turned to honest work for income earlier on instead of the crime of drug dealing, they would have been less likely to get addicted to drugs in the first place.

Another striking, but less prevalent example is prostitution. In 2004, there were 87,900 prostitution arrests.[32] While most drug-related arrests tend to be men, the majority of prostitution arrests are women. Again, prostitution, like other crimes, can be the result of many motivating factors. However, economic factors- a desire to escape poverty- definitely plays a role. As one scholar aptly said, “prostitution has an unusual feature: it is well paid despite being low-skill, labor intensive and, one might add, female-dominated. Earnings even in the worst paid type, streetwalking, may be several multiples of full time earnings in jobs with comparable skill requirements.”[33] While not as prevalent as drug trafficking, prostitution has an economic element to it. Arguably, women who become prostitutes out of economic motivations would most likely work a real job if they had the skills to do so.

It would seem that the old adage, “crime doesn’t pay,” is only partially true. Not only does crime not ultimately pay, but it comes with significant costs as well. Not all of the “costs” to our society that are associated with crime are economic. Commercial crime is destroying lives, and in some cases, costing them. For example, 4% of homicides in 2005 were drug related.[34] The social effects of crime are bringing grief to families and individuals across America on a daily basis.

There are economic costs associated with crime as well, however. Commercial crime costs a lot of hard-earned taxpayer money at the enforcement, judicial, and correctional levels. Trends show that the amounts being spent each year are increasing at all levels. Between 1982 and 2005, the costs of crime at the enforcement, judicial, and correctional levels increased at the alarming rates of 396%, 619%, and 474% respectively.[35]

Law enforcement expenditures in 2005 totaled more than $94.4 billion.[36] Judicial expenditures totaled over $44.6 billion. Correctional costs in 2005 were significant as well, totaling over $65 billion. As of September of 2007, of the 199,843 inmates in federal prisons, 98,675, or nearly half, were incarcerated for drug related offenses.[37] Of all the inmates incarcerated, over half were sentenced to 5 or more years in prison.[38] And each of those inmates costs taxpayers over $23,000 per year.[39] In Oklahoma, incarceration even of a minimum security inmate costs the state $17,343 per year.[40] To give a broader view of the costs of incarceration borne by our state taxpayers, the 2008 appropriated budget for Oklahoma correctional facilities is now set at $482,619,998.[41]

Crime costs end up being borne by all taxpayers in the long run. There are many steps the government can take (and has taken) in order to reduce crime, which are outside the scope of this paper. One way to reduce crime, and crime costs, however, is to provide better training opportunities for uneducated and unskilled workers. Reducing the amount of unskilled workers would mean more children would grow up in homes that weren’t impoverished. Better vocational training could open a whole new world of job opportunities to high school youth and college age adults, and possibly be instrumental in inducing them to pursue a career of work rather than crime.

In order to reduce the negative social effects of uneducated and unskilled workers, we have to make the prospect of valuable skills training and an honest, well-paying job become more to them than a distant dream. We have to show our youth that a real job can be a real possibility, and convince them of that before they drop out of high school, turn to gangs, or become involved in crime. They will never be convinced, however, as long as they are unskilled and uneducated, and see traditional high school as their only viable road to success.

Programs which are Currently Available

There are some opportunities for high school students and young adults to pursue a vocational education. Many states have adopted programs which help high school students train for a specific vocation and enter the workforce upon graduation. This paper is not meant as a criticism of existing programs, as many of them are successful. On the contrary, this paper suggests providing more funding to programs that are already successful, as well as the implementation of new programs.

One example of a successful program is “Pro Tech,” a Boston-based program for high school students. It focuses on the field of health care careers, financial services, business services, and utilities and communication.[42] The program targets non-college bound youth, 63% of whom are from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and provides technical training and even helps them secure paid internships.[43] One year after graduating, 87% of the students are working, 78% are pursuing postsecondary education, 52% are combining work and school.[44]

Career Academies is a nationwide program that networks with schools and local employers in order to help high school students train for jobs, and stay engaged in their studies in high school.[45] Four years after graduating from Career Academies, graduating young men earned on average 18% more than those in a non-academy control group.[46]

We can also learn from the programs available in other countries. One scholar, in a paper studying efforts of European countries to promote equity through vocational training, suggests that vocational education is a viable option for those who are unable to succeed in higher education.[47] In several European countries, postsecondary education ends at age 16, and for two years students must take either vocational education or college at the end of the compulsory school cycle. The vocational education focuses primarily on specific, rather than general skills, and is often of significant benefit to disadvantaged students. It is also suggested that these programs reduce the dropout rates among high school students.[48]

The Oklahoma Model

Oklahoma has strong cooperative programs between high schools and local vocational education centers. In 2006, over 77,500 high school students in the 11th and 12th grades were enrolled in these programs statewide. The Oklahoma Deptartment of Career and Technology Centers, also known as “CareerTech,” is a major resource for high schools and vocational education centers alike, providing programs and services to further vocational education statewide.[49] CareerTech trains more than 11,000 adults and secondary students annually, in diverse programs such as nursing, aviation maintenance, and computer sciences, just to name a few.[50] Vocational education is a significant part of the Oklahoman economy. It is the most common level of educational attainment beyond high school, as nearly 1 in 5 Oklahoma workers over the age of 18 have completed a vocational or technical education program.[51] Oklahoma workers who have completed a vocational education program earn on average $2.00 per hour more than those with only a high school education.[52] This amounts to nearly $4,100 more per year.[53] A 2006 study of the lifetime impact of vocational education on individual earnings estimates that over the course of an individual workers lifetime, he will earn $371,000 more ($152,000 in current dollars) if he completes a vocational education program, as opposed to just completing high school.[54] Individuals who completed vocational programs were also found to be more likely to become professionals or managers, and enter the labor force at higher rates.

Individuals are not the only ones who benefit. The 11,680 students who completed a vocational education program are estimated to earn collectively an additional $1.1 billion over their lifetimes as a result of vocational training.[55] This has the effect of stimulating the economy and adding tax revenue, not to mention reducing the need for reliance on state support such as welfare and unemployment.

CareerTech works with local high schools to provide vocational training to students. They are developing programs to recruit and train students in vocational fields which are growing in Oklahoma and will need more workers in the near future. These programs focus on equipping the students with “academic skills, technical skills and the work-ready knowledge they need to be competent employees.”[56]

Oklahoma’s CareerTech department also has a dropout recovery program, where students who have dropped out of high school can receive vocational training. These students spend full days at a vocational education center, and in addition to completing a vocational training program, they also earn a GED by the time they complete the program.

Oklahoma has one of the best overall vocational programs, and it serves as a wonderful model that other states could follow. The economic benefits of vocational training are clearly evidenced in Oklahoma as well. Federal funding to establish similar programs in other states, as well as to improve programs like CareerTech, would increase opportunities for low-income students and promote economic justice.

Labor Industries which are Growing and Expanding

Due to the globalization of the labor economy, manufacturing and agricultural related jobs are not nearly as plentiful as they were a half a century ago. For uneducated and unskilled workers to be able to enter the workforce and make a living wage, they will need to be prepared for jobs in industries that can support them.

Unlike the industry of manufacturing children’s toys or women’s clothes, certain service-based labor cannot be shipped overseas to China or Hong Kong. Labor in industries such as nursing, construction, janitorial services, and retail sales, just to name a few, requires in person and face-to-face interaction at a specific location. These are the jobs that have to be filled by someone locally, and the demand for workers at these jobs is growing.

In 2005, the Bureau of Labor Statistics published a report on Occupations with the Largest Estimated Job Growth between 2004-2014, which examined industry trends and projected employment needs for various occupations.[57] There are many jobs for which workers with a high school degree and proper vocational training would be more than qualified, and would pay above the poverty level. Significant growth is projected for all of these occupations.

Many of these jobs require only on-the-job type training, although one’s marketability for a specific position would be greatly enhanced if he already has some vocational training in the field. For instance, the occupation of customer service representative has a projected growth of 22.8% between 2004 and 2014. For receptionists and information clerks, the projected growth is 21.7%. For landscaping workers and light delivery truck drivers, the projected growth rates are 19.5% and 15.7%, respectively.

Other occupations specifically require a post-secondary vocational award. An example would be a job as a nursing aide, orderly, or attendant, which has a projected growth of 22.3% by 2014.

Some occupations require a higher level of skill, but not a college degree. A job as carpenter pays better than the jobs above, averaging in the $28,580 to $43,590 range. While the Bureau of Labor Statistics study found that all that was needed was long-term on-the-job training, a vocational degree and training specific to carpentry would make one much more likely to secure a job as a carpenter. The number of jobs available for carpenters is expected to grow 13.8% by 2014.

In a separate report specifically on the construction industry, the U.S. Department of Labor found that “job opportunities are expected to be excellent.” While it is hard work, it is work that pays well. The average construction laborer earns $12.10 per hour.

There are jobs available for workers with a good work ethic and proper training. The jobs listed above are just a sampling of what is available. Many of these jobs will be available in the years to come because they are found in growing industries. Workers in these fields may not need a college degree, but they will need the proper training.

Suggested Changes which would Promote Economic Justice

Expand the Vocational Training Opportunities to All Students

There are some existing programs that provide funds indiscriminately, or even target low-income students. Others, however, are achievement or merit based. These programs are fine. We want to consistently reward skills and achievement through hard work, but at the same time, they leave some opportunities unavailable to lower-income students. Many vocational training opportunities for high school students are a part of “honors” programs, available to the academically successful students. These students, however, are likely to have many educational opportunities, and are likely to be employed at well-paying jobs even without the vocational program.

Right now, even in Oklahoma, there are many students who would like to participate in vocational education, but are unable to do so. This is because there is limited funding for vocational education programs, and the vo-tech centers can only take a limited number of students. In Oklahoma, there are currently over 12,000 people on waiting lists to participate in CareerTech vocational programs.[58] Over 7,400 of these are high school students. Clearly, “the demand for CareerTech education and training far outweighs the funding.”[59] Some of these students are on the waiting list because the specific program they desire to take is full. Directly or indirectly, this is due to a lack of funding. For instance, safety regulations limit the number of students who can participate in a welding class. If there were more funds, however, there would be nothing to prevent the state from offering several different classes in the same course, to allow all students to participate.

Making vocational education available to all high school students would be costly. In evaluating the cost, however, we have to remember that unskilled workers and high school dropouts are already costing taxpayers large amounts of money. We must also take into account the benefits to the economy as a whole which result from increased vocational training. States such as Oklahoma, as discussed above, enjoy numerous economic benefits as a result of state-funded vocational training, such as increased tax revenue, lower unemployment, and lower welfare spending.

Federal grants to states for the purpose of increasing the vocational training opportunities in high school would provide much needed funds, which would in turn enable states to establish new programs and improve existing ones.

Expanding the vocational education opportunities to all students would be a major task. Perhaps it is too drastic of a step initially. A more modest alternative would be to allocate a smaller amount of funds to be used for increasing vocational education opportunities in specific areas. These funds could be used for programs which specifically target urban schools in low-income areas, where crime, poverty, and high school dropout rates are the highest.

Repeal Certain Tax Credits for College Tuition Payments

If necessary, funds could also be raised by repealing certain tax credits and financial aid for higher education. The Hope and Lifetime Learning credits provide tax credits for tuition payments made to qualified post-secondary institutions.[60] Because they are not refundable, these tax credits benefit those with higher incomes, but are often of little use to the poor. These credits are non-refundable, and thus, if a family does not earn enough money to pay taxes, they do not benefit from the credit. Arguably, these families are the ones who need the financial assistance the most. A family of four with an income of $150,000 per year will be more capable of sending a child to college, and will likely do so whether they receive a tax credit or not. A family of four with an income of $25,000 per year will not benefit from a tax credit, even though it is in far greater need of financial assistance in furthering its children’s education. Whereas government aid and tax breaks for higher education are usually taken advantage of by students from higher income families, targeted vocational programs could bring more benefits to those from lower income families. Shifting the focus partially away from higher education and towards training for low income citizens would promote economic justice, and increase opportunities for low-income students.

Allow More Vo-Tech Courses to Qualify for High School Credit

High school dropouts are a growing problem in our country, and the negative social consequences to dropping out are numerous. Dropouts are more likely to be unemployed, earn income below the poverty level, receive welfare benefits, and become involved in crime. High school dropouts in the aggregate are costing our country millions.

If we want to reduce the negative consequences of high school dropouts to society, we must look at the reasons why students are dropping out. Whether we view it as kids failing school, or schools failing kids, we have to face the problem and pursue viable solutions.

There are many factors which affect a student’s choice to drop out of high school. In a survey conducted by The News Journal, five-hundred students ages 16-25 gave several reasons for why they dropped out of high school.[61] Of the five hundred students surveyed, 47% said classes were not interesting, 35% said they were failing, and 32% said they left to get a job.[62] Several also dropped out for personal or family reasons. Interestingly, two-thirds of the students said they “would have tried harder if more was expected from them.”[63] Again, while there is no one cause or one specific solution to the dropout problem, the statistics above suggest that at least a fair amount of those who drop out do so because they are not cut out for traditional high school; they would rather work.

I would advocate a modification to the type of training and education which is required for students to graduate high school. For those students who are not “book smart,” four years of traditional high school can be overwhelming. They will drop out due to sheer boredom and the frustration of not being able to pass their classes. The stigma of being a “high school dropout” then follows them for the rest of their lives, and the effects are severe.

Allowing students to do more vocational training in lieu of traditional high school would provide a fulfilling alternative to students who are not “book smart.” Certainly, traditional high school cannot be abandoned altogether. Students need to be able to read and write, and have at least basic mathematics skills. But we need to recognize that under the current system, many youth are already abandoning traditional high school. We can’t be any worse off by allowing them to pursue a high school diploma in a different way, than if they drop out of school altogether. Moreover, hands-on, practical training could keep students engaged in high schools, where they would otherwise drop out. Students participating in Oklahoma high school vo-tech programs are able to become trained in fields such as auto-repair, nursing, carpentry, and computers. Participants in these programs are already able to count some of their vocational coursework for high school credit. I believe we should expand their options. If students are dropping out of high school to pursue jobs, they would be more inclined to stay if they could obtain their diploma while getting training to prepare them for a job they enjoyed, and be prepared to enter the workforce upon graduation.

Education is primarily the responsibility of state and local governments, and thus, changes to graduation requirements would likely vary from state to state. In Oklahoma, for example, graduation requirements are set by the state legislature.[64] A certain number of credits in math, language, sciences, and social studies, are required as part of the high school “core curriculum.” A certain number of electives, are required for graduation from high school as well. Currently, a high school student can take vocational classes as electives, and in some rare cases, the vocational classes can qualify for core curriculum credit. I would recommend modifying state education statutes and/or regulations to allow more vocational education classes to qualify as core curriculum for state high school students.

This approach would provide more options to young people facing the decision of whether or not to complete high school. For instance, a student with an interest in being an auto mechanic could spend the majority of his high school years in a vo-tech program which trains and prepares him to enter the automotive industry.

There are certain problems associated with that proposition, however. First, vocational training classes are more expensive than traditional high school classes. Second, there is an issue of whether the vocational teachers are well-qualified to teach high school level classes. The state, rightfully, does not want to allow inferior courses to substitute for traditionally accepted high school education. Both of these problems could be overcome, however, by providing enough funding to ensure that quality vocational classes could be substituted for traditional high school coursework, without lowering the quality of education the students received.

In summary, states should expand the opportunities for students to receive high school credit for completing vocational education courses. Providing such alternatives would more accurately take into account the needs of different students on an individual basis. More funding would be required to make these programs available and ensure that they were indeed quality programs which are viable substitutes for high school education.

Increase funding for in-school training

The dropout rate amongst youth could be decreased by programs, such as “Career Academies,” which yield positive results, both in the area of levels of completed education and future earnings. These programs are, however, more expensive than traditional high school classes. It costs more to run hands-on vocational programs than it does to hold classes in a traditional educational setting. This greater cost, however, can arguably be justified. Money spent on students while they are still in school yields a higher return than money spent on dropouts. As one scholar points out, “preventive approaches while students remain in school are likely to be more successful than the body of ‘second chance’ programs for out-of-school youth … once they have failed in the educational system.”[65]

Increased funding could also be used to provide a more comprehensive education for students who are bound for the workforce. In addition to learning basic educational skills such as reading and writing, and receiving training for a specific vocation, students could also be taught about character and work ethic. While skills are desirable, employers also place great value on traits like honesty, teamwork, and a good work ethic.Even if youth are graduating from high school with skills that will help them get a job, they won’t keep it if they are not reliable and have a good work ethic. Several studies have been conducted to see what qualities employers most value in their current employees, as well as prospective hires.[66] Qualities such as initiative, self-management, teamwork, willingness to learn, integrity, a good work ethic, dependability, and enthusiasm all ranked very high.[67] Youth need to understand that if they show up for work on time, are reliable, are trustworthy, and work hard, they will be able to get employed and stay employed. Perhaps a comprehensive program could include sessions where local businessmen, such as landscapers or contractors, could come in and tell the students what they value in employees, and how the students can become the type of employee that businesses will want to hire.

More Funds for Vocational Training for Out-of-school Adults

Although training is the most effective while people are still in school, we don’t want to give up on Americans who have dropped out of school and/or are unskilled. We could make it easier for low-income workers to improve their skills through increased grants, tax breaks, and earning subsidies for those who are pursuing vocational education.

More funding for programs like the CareerTech Dropout Recovery program would increase the opportunities available to out-of-school youth and adults. Right now, there are over 400 high school dropouts who are on a waiting list to participate in Dropout Recovery programs.[68] There is no place for them because of a lack of funding. In consideration of the other difficulties which might prevent young adults, child care funding and subsidies for parents in vocational training could also be increased, which would enhance their ability to leave their children cared for and still pursue vocational training and a job.

Increase Awareness of Vocational Programs Among High School Students

Federal and state governments could launch ad campaigns directed at high school youth which create awareness of the vocational programs available to them. Youth are constantly being bombarded with messages about “saying no” to drugs, taking precautions against sexually transmitted diseases, staying out of gangs, staying in school, and even joining the Army. How about an ad campaign targeting low-income youth who are considering dropping out of high school, which shows them the possibilities they could have if they pursued vocational training? This campaign could show them how practical the training can be, how it can further their careers, and how accessible it can be for them. Teenagers and young adults are facing many conflicting, and sometimes dangerous, messages in society today. We could shine a light on the truth by increasing their awareness of career possibilities outside of crime.

Conclusion

Many low-income workers may not be able to pursue higher education, but could still complete a vocational training program and develop valuable skills. Increased funding for existing vocational training programs as well as the introduction of new programs could provide much needed assistance to unskilled (or soon-to-be unskilled) adults. Such assistance would be justified, based on the overwhelming amount that we are already spending on unskilled citizens through crime-related expenditures and welfare programs. Moreover, increased earnings among low-income workers would boost the economy by expanding the tax base and reducing the need for welfare and unemployment services.

There are many low-income, low-skilled workers and students who could benefit from, but are unable to receive, vocational training. Often there are no programs available to them because of a lack of funds. Increased funding to expand vocational education opportunities to all students would promote economic justice.

America is the land of opportunity for all. A commitment to rewarding education is important. We certainly do not want to penalize those who are gifted with above average intelligence. But at the same time, we can work to provide greater opportunities to those who are not so gifted, but are still capable of holding well-paying, respectable jobs.

It has been said that if you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day; but if you teach a man how to fish, you feed him for a lifetime. Higher education is great, but it is not the answer for everyone. For those who are not cut out for higher education, we can equip them with skills as an alternative path to a successful career. If the answer for them is not higher education, then let’s give them education for life.

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[1] U.S. Census Bureau Historical Income Tables- Households, Table H-1, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[2] Robert Rector, Two Americas: One Rich, One Poor? Understanding Income Inequality in the United States, (2004).

[3] Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, 1940 to date, (last visited November 29, 2007); Educations Pays…, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[4] See generally Kim Roach, What’s Your Intelligence Type?, (last visited November 29, 2007)(Suggesting there are as many as eight types of intelligence).

[5] International Comparisons of Hourly Compensation Costs for Production Workers in Manufacturing, 2005, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[6] Id.

[7] Id.

[8] 2007 Federal Poverty Guidelines, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[9] U.S. Census Bureau Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic Supplement, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[10] See Table 1, supra.

[11] Id.

[12] Id.

[13] Id.

[14] Id.

[15] Id.

[16] See Fransisco L. Rivera-Batiz, The Impact of Vocational Education on Racial and Ethnic Minorities, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[17] See Mark C. Snead, Completers of Technology Center Full-Time Programs: Lifetime Income Gains and the Impact on the Oklahoma Economy, (2006).

[18] See generally Kerwin Charles, Marital Sorting by Parental Wealth, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[19] National Center for Education Statistics, Dropout Rates in the United States: 2005, (2007).

[20] Id.

[21] See generally Paul E. Barton, One Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities, (2005).

[22] Id at 6.

[23] Id. at 5.

[24] Youth Who Drop Out: One Third of Those Who Enter High Schools Don’t Graduate, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[25] National Center for Education Statistics, Dropout Rates in the United States: 2005, .

[26] See Washington Gang-related Legislation, (last visited November 29, 2007)(Washington state legislative finding that the dropout rate is significantly higher among gang members than non-gang members).

[27] Id.

[28] Id.

[29] Caroline Wolf Harlow, Educational and Correctional Populations, (2003).

[30] See Robert E. Rector, Means-Tested Welfare Spending: Past and Future Growth, February 2001, (2001).

[31] Youth Who Drop Out: One Third of Those Who Enter High Schools Don’t Graduate, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[32] FBI Estimated Arrests of All Persons in the United States, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[33] Lena Edlund, A Theory of Prostitution, 110 Journal of Political Economy 181 (2002).

[34] Drug Use and Crime, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[35] Direct Expenditure by Criminal Justice Function, 1982-2005. (last visited November 29, 2007).

[36] Id.

[37] Federal Bureau of Prisons Quick Facts, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[38] Id.

[39] 2004 Costs of Incarceration and Supervision, (May 2005).

[40] Oklahoma Department of Corrections Facts at a Glance, (2007).

[41] Id.

[42] See generally Georgia Hall, The Impact of a School-to-Work Program; ProTech: A Study of Post-High School Outcomes, (1998).

[43] Id.

[44] Id.

[45] James J. Kemple, Career Academies: Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes and Educational Attainment, (2004).

[46] Id.

[47] Ludger Woessmann, Efficiency and Equity of European Education and Training Policies, (2006).

[48] Id.

[49] For information about CareerTech, see generally .

[50] Mark C. Snead, Completers of Technology Center Full-Time Programs: Lifetime Income Gains and the Impact on the Oklahoma Economy, (2006).

[51] Mark C. Snead, Completers of Technology Center Full-Time Programs: Lifetime Income Gains and the Impact on the Oklahoma Economy, Executive Summary, (2006).

[52] Id.

[53] Id.

[54] Id.

[55] Id.

[56] Phil Berkenbile, CareerTech Helps State Grow, The Oklahoman, November 9, 2007, at 13A.

[57] J. Smith, Occupations with the Largest Job Growth, 2004-14 (Table 3), .

[58] Phil Berkenbile, CareerTech Helps State Grow, The Oklahoman, November 9, 2007, at 13A.

[59] Id.

[60] See generally I.R.C. §25A (2001).

[61] Barbara Pytel, Dropouts Give Reasons, November 2006, (2006); See also School Dropouts: Education Could Play a Stronger Role in Identifying and Disseminating Promising Prevention Strategies, (2002); Paul E. Barton, One Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities, supra; Youth Who Drop Out: One Third of Those Who Enter High Schools Don’t Graduate, supra.

[62] Id.

[63] Id.

[64] See Okla. Stat. tit. 70 § 11-103.6 (1963). See also Graduation: Oklahoma Requirements for High School, Oklahoma State Dept. of Education, !.

[65] Harry Holzer, Career Advancement Prospects and Strategies for Low-Wage Minority Workers, (2000).

[66] See generally Randall S. Hansen, What Do Employers Really Want? Top Skills and Values Employers Seek from Job-Seekers, (last visited November 29, 2007); Skills Employers Seek, (last visited November 29, 2007).

[67] Phil Berkenbile, CareerTech Benefits Graduates, State as a Whole, The Tulsa World, November 8, 2007, at 11A.

[68] Phil Berkenbile, CareerTech Helps State Grow, The Oklahoman, November 9, 2007, at 13A.

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