Term
|MNEMONICS |TERM |DEFINITION |SUPPORTING EXAMPLE |
| |Wundt |- father of psychology | |
| | |-student: Edward Titchner (1867 – 1927) brought science of psychology to | |
| | |the US | |
| |Behavioral (Skinner and |-psychology is the study of observable behavior | |
| |Watson) |-John Watson (1878 – 1958) and assistant, Rosalie Rayner, applied classical| |
| | |conditioning to humans in the Little Albert experiment | |
| | |-B.F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) – described operant conditioning | |
| | |-under control of environmental conditions | |
| |Humanist (Rogers) |- studying the roles of the consciousness, free will, and awareness of the | |
| | |human condition | |
| | |-stressed the role of the positive interaction (unconditional love) | |
| | |-internal conflicts arise when we experience incongruence (discrepancies | |
| | |between self concept and actual thoughts/behavior and feedback from | |
| | |surroundings) | |
| | |-conditions of worth distort our self concept | |
| |Psychoanalytic (Freud) |-Freud concerned with individuals and with mental problems of individuals | |
| | |-drew a distinction between consciousness (mental state of awareness to | |
| | |which we have ready access) and unconsciousness (mental processes to which | |
| | |we do not normally have access) | |
| | |-stresses importance of childhood in development of personality | |
| |Neurobiological |-behavior is directed by chemical and biological forces, such as | |
| | |neurotransmitters and the brain | |
| |Socio-Cultural |-cultural values vary from society to society and must be taken into | |
| | |account when trying to understand, predict, or control behavior | |
| |Evolutionary | -explain behavior patterns as adaptations naturally selected for because| |
| | |they increase reproductive success | |
| |Behavior Genetics |-study way genetics direct behavior |-ex: bird migration |
| |Cognitive |-to understand people’s behavior(must understand how they construe their | |
| | |environment: how they THINK | |
| |Psychiatrist vs. |-psychiatrist: a medical doctor and the only mental health profession who | |
| |Psychologist |can prescribe medication or perform surgery | |
| | |-psychologist: highly trained in the methods, factually knowledge, and | |
| | |theories of psychology; teach, research, test, conduct therapy | |
| |Subfields of Psychology |-applied and basic |-neuropsycholingists (brain/nervous system and behavior) |
| | |-clinical (mental, emotional, behavioral) |-psychometrics (analyze data) |
| | |-counseling (people adapt to change/make changes) |-rehabilitation (retardation, disabilities) |
| | |-developmental |-school (assess and counsel students) |
| | |-educational (teaching and learning) |-social (interactions with people) |
| | |-engineering (people function w/ machines) |-sports (refine focus on competitions goals, increase motivation, anxiety) |
| | |-forensic (legal issues) | |
| | |-health (biological, psychological, social factors + illness) | |
| | |-industrial/organizational (improve productivity and quality) | |
| |Applied vs. Basic research |-applied – psychology put directly into practice, ex: therapist meets with | |
| | |client | |
| | |-basic – grounded in research, ex: psychologist studies memory for the sake| |
| | |of knowledge | |
| |Confirmation Bias |-a tendency to search for and use information that supports our | |
| | |preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas | |
| | |-hinders problem solving | |
| |Case Study |-single case that has already occurred and study its elements and | |
| | |implications | |
| | |-real life cases offer opportunity for insights one could never or would | |
| | |never attempt to gain through artificially designing an experiment | |
| | |-in-depth understanding of single cases will allow for general conclusions | |
| | |about other similar cases | |
| | |-Ex: Phineas Gage | |
| |Survey |-research method involving questionnaires or interviews | |
| | |-must consider demand characteristic (supply expected responses) and social| |
| | |desirability bias (supply responses deemed socially acceptable) | |
| |Random Sample |-insure representative sample overall and in each group | |
| | |-all members of the population have an equal chance of being chosen | |
| |Naturalistic Observation |-researcher unobtrusively observes subjects while the subjects do whatever | |
| | |they do in a “natural setting” | |
| | |-see what people REALLY do | |
| |Correlation |-examine the link (co-relation) between variables | |
| | |-assesses the degree of association between two or more attributes or | |
| | |characteristics of interest that occur naturally | |
| | |-DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION | |
| |Positive Correlation |-as attribute X increases, attribute Y does the same proportionally | |
| | |+1.0 “perfect” positive correlation | |
| | |Ex: heavier baseball players tend to hit more home runs | |
| |Negative Correlation |-as the value of attribute X increases, attribute Y decrease proportionally| |
| | | | |
| | |1.0 “perfect” negative correlation | |
| | |Ex: home run totals go down as weight increases | |
| |Correlation Coefficient |-Pearson’s (R) | |
| | |-descriptive statistic that describes the linear relationship between two | |
| | |attributes | |
| | |-measures the strength of correlations | |
| | |-ranges from -1.0 (perfect negative) to +1.0 (perfect positive) | |
| | |-ex: -.90 shows a stronger correlation than +.75 | |
| |Experimental Method |-investigation seeking to understand relations of cause and effect | |
| | |-changes one variable and measure another | |
| | |-tries to hold all other variables constant | |
| |Control Group |-does not receive the independent variable | |
| | |-allows for comparisons to be made and causation to be determined | |
| |Independent Variable |-variable you manipulate |-ex: If students study for a quiz before going to sleep, rather than in the |
| | |-the cause |morning, then they will get higher scores on the quiz |
| | | |Independent variable: studying for a quiz before going to sleep, rather than |
| | | |the morning |
| |Dependent Variable |-variable you measure |-ex: If students study for a quiz before going to sleep, rather than in the |
| | |-factor that may change as a result of manipulation of the independent |morning, then they will get higher scores on the quiz |
| | |variable |Dependent variable: getting a higher score on the quiz |
| | |-the effect | |
| |Confounding Variable |-in a controlled experiment, differences between the experimental group and|-ex: subjects must share the same environmental factors, sleep for the same |
| | |the control group other than the independent variable |amount of time, etc. |
| | |-must be minimized/eliminated | |
| |Random Assignment |-population sample has an equal chance of being put into the control or | |
| | |experimental group | |
| | |-ensures representative sample in groups | |
| |Within Group Design |-use same group of subjects as control and experimental group | |
| | |-1st under control conditions | |
| | |-2nd under experimental conditions | |
| | |-compare two scores | |
| |Single Blind Experiment |-subjects do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group| |
| |Double Blind Experiment |-neither the subjects nor the researcher know who is in the two groups | |
| | |-reduces experimenter bias | |
| |Experimenter Bias |-a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences | |
| | |about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained | |
| |Placebo |-a physical or psychological treatment given to the control group that | |
| | |resembles the treatment given to the experimental group, but contains no | |
| | |active ingredient | |
| | |-placebo effect: a response to the belief that the independent variable | |
| | |will have an effect, rather than to the actual effect of the independent | |
| | |variable (which can be a confounding variable) | |
| |Properties of Normal |-if data about a variable are graphed and fall on a symmetrical | |
| |Distribution (Bell-shaped |“bell-shaped” curve, the distribution is referred to as a “normal | |
| |curve) |distribution” or a “normal curve” | |
| | |-in a typical distribution of numbers: | |
| | |68% of all scores are within 1 standard deviation of mean | |
| | |96% of all scores are within 2 standard deviations of mean | |
| | |99% of all scores within 3 standard deviations of mean | |
| |Positively and Negatively |-scores tend to cluster in one direction or another | |
| |Skewed Distributions |-“skewedness” determined by the rare scores – the outliers | |
| | |-distribution pushed to the right, with the hump of the curve at the high | |
| | |end of scores = negative skew (less typical scores are on the low end of | |
| | |the distribution) | |
| |Variance |-refers to how much the numbers in a set differ from each other | |
| |Standard Deviation |-measures a function of the average dispersion of numbers around the mean | |
| | |and is a commonly used measure of variability | |
| | |-measure of the average difference between each score and the mean of the | |
| | |data set | |
| |Statistical Significance |-a finding is generally deemed significant if there is at least 95% chance| |
| | |that differences between groups in an experiment are not due to chance | |
| | |occurrence | |
| | |-if occurrence is greater than .05, the occurrence was not by chance | |
| |Central Tendency (mean, |-descriptive statistics; characterizes typical value in data set |Ex: 2, 2, 5, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 13 |
| |median, and mode) |-mean – arithmetic average of a set of numbers |mean: about 6.9 |
| | |-mode – most frequently occurring value in the data set |median: 8 |
| | |-median – number that falls directly in the middle of a distribution of |mode: 8 |
| | |numbers (remember to put the values in order first) | |
| |Null Hypothesis |-states that a treatment had no effect in an experiment |-ex: hypothesis: sugar caused hyperactivity |
| | |-the “not” hypothesis |null hypothesis: sugar did not cause hyperactivity |
| | | |(does not mean sugar doesn’t cause hyperactivity) |
| |Guidelines for Animal |-animals endure physiological and psychological stress | |
| |Research |-no ethical researcher wants to cause unnecessary pain or discomfort to any| |
| | |subject (human or animal) | |
| |Deceiving Subjects |-Stanley Milgram conducted obedience experiments in which he convinced | |
| | |participants that they were administering painful electric shocks to other | |
| | |participants when in reality no shocks were given; shocked participants | |
| | |collaborating with Milgram; those giving the shocks were real participants | |
| | |-people felt this was unethical since participants were not aware of the | |
| | |nature of the study and could have believed that they did serious harm to | |
| | |others | |
| | |-since this time, ethical standards have tightened; institutional review | |
| | |boards assess research plans before research is conducted | |
| |Informed Consent |-subjects agree to participate in the study after they’ve been told what | |
| | |their participation entails | |
| | |-participants allowed to leave the experimental situation at any time | |
| | |without penalty | |
| | |-participants receive a debriefing after the study that informs them of the| |
| | |exact nature of the research and reveals any deception that may have been | |
| | |used | |
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