Weebly



• Aim: How did domestic and foreign policy change under the administration of John F. Kennedy?

• Aim: How did domestic and foreign policy change under the administration of John F. Kennedy?

• Objective

• Student will be able to list the major events of the Kennedy administration.

• Introduction

• The 1960s opened with a spirit of hope among the American people.

• Unlike the years following World War 1, the United States was now willing to address the problems both foreign and domestic. The United States Congress along with Presidents Truman and Eisenhower made much progress on both fronts.

• However, by the end of the decade, growing tensions would rip the United States apart due to problems in foreign and domestic issues.

• 1. The New Frontier

• The Eisenhower years were a time of peace and prosperity.

• However, the nation faced certain challenges at the end of the 1950s.

• Some of the major issues facing the United States included (1) widespread poverty, (2) strained relations between whites and blacks and (3) people believed that we were losing the Cold War.

• John F. Kennedy, a Senator from Massachusetts, was elected President. Dwight Eisenhower would serve two terms because of ratification of the 22nd Amendment-the amendment that limits the President to two terms.

• John F. Kennedy’s course of action for the United States would be called the New Frontier.

• 1.1 The Election of 1960

• The Election of 1960 was one of the closest elections in American history.

• The American people loved President Eisenhower, but people were not in love with the Republican Party. The Democrats began to slowly win seats in the House and Senate elections of 1956 and 1958.

• In 1960, the Republican Party nominated Richard Nixon, Eisenhower’s vice president. Nixon had also had experience in both the House and Senate.

• The Democrats selected Senator John F. Kennedy from Massachusetts as their nominee

• One of the most important points of the election of 1960 was the use of television, especially by John F. Kennedy.

• Kennedy’s advisors scheduled four televised debates with Nixon. People were impressed by the charisma and optimism of Kennedy.

• In the election, JFK won the popular vote by some 100,000 votes while winning the electoral college 303 to 219.

• Kennedy would become the first Catholic to become President while being the youngest to have been elected.

• 1.2 Program at Home

• Once he took office in January 1961, JFK began his New Frontier program immediately.

• Unlike Eisenhower, JFK believed that the President should play a more active role in the daily affairs of the nation.

• In his inaugural address, Kennedy told the American people:

o “And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you-ask what you can do for your country”

• Kennedy begins his New Frontier program concentrating on domestic issues such as education and social welfare.

• Within two years, the US Congress raises the minimum wage from $1 to $1.25.

• Kennedy is able to get more people insured and protected under social security.

• May 1961, Kennedy passes the Area Redevelopment Act to provide loans and federal grants to low-income areas.

• June 1961, Kennedy passes the Housing Act of 1961, which provided money for urban renewal programs in urban areas.

• June 1963, Kennedy passes the Higher Education Facilities Act, which gives federal aid to colleges so they could improve their facilities.

• Kennedy was also interested in space exploration.

• In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik, into outer space.

• In 1961, the Soviet Union’s Yuri Gagarin would become the first man to be launched into outer space.

• These two events led many Americans to believe that the Soviet Union had more scientific knowledge during the Cold War.

• Eisenhower, before leaving office, passed the National Defense Education Act.

• The National Defense Education Act gave federal money to colleges for studies in math and science.

• Eisenhower would also create NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).

• JFK followed Eisenhower’s lead and stated that by the end of the decade, the United States would land a man on the moon.

• In July of 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin would be the first two men to land on the moon.

• In terms of the American economy, JFK wanted the economy to grow without causing inflation.

• JFK set up wage-price controls. This policy meant that if wages increased, businesses had the right to increase prices to make up for it. This was a problem for JFK because it caused more inflation.

• JFK increased domestic business investment when he gave tax breaks to businesses.

• In 1963, JFK and Congress cut taxes to stimulate the economy.

• Kennedy also moved carefully regarding civil rights.

• Kennedy wanted to keep his good reputation in the south, so he signed very few measures in regards to civil rights. He did not want to anger the southern Democrats in Congress.

• With the help of Robert Kennedy, who was the Attorney General, JFK brought cases against anyone who violated the Civil Rights Laws of 1957 and 1960.

• In 1962, the United States Supreme Court overturned a decision regarding discrimination at the University of Mississippi.

• Following the example of Eisenhower, JFK used the military to allow James Meredith the right to attend the university in 1962.

• JFK also outlawed discrimination in federal housing projects.

• 1.3 Program Abroad

• As the United States concentrated on the blossoming of the civil rights movement, JFK also had to address the problems facing the United States abroad.

• Kennedy wanted to take a hard stance against communism while improving our image and reputation with other nations in the world.

• In 1961, JFK established the Peace Corps and sent its members to nations in need of improving their standard of living.

• More than 13,000 people join the Peace Corps.

• Kennedy also worked to improve our relationship with Latin America by establishing the Alliance For Progress in 1961.

• The organization would foster better relationships among the nations of the Western Hemisphere, while allowing Americans the right to help industry, education, agriculture and public service in the region.

• Meanwhile, trouble was brewing in Cuba.

• When Castro seized power in 1959, many exiled Cubans wanted to return back to Cuba to get rid of Castro.

• Eisenhower, before leaving office, gave the green light to start the process. Kennedy put this plan into action after taking office.

• On April 17, 1961, more than 1,000 Cuban refugees landed at the Bay of Pigs. They hoped their presence would lead to a revolution.

• That did not happen. The failure of the invasion hurt the reputation of the United States in the world, it brought Castro closer to the Soviet Union and it hurt our reputation in Latin America.

• After the Bay of Pigs, Fidel Castro turned to the Soviet Union for help.

• The Soviets, in return, began to assist Cuba with military aid. This alarmed JFK and his advisors because Cuba was 90 miles away from the US.

• Some of Kennedy’s closest advisors wanted to bomb the missile sites, but Kennedy refused because he feared a nuclear war with the Soviets.

• On October 22, 1962, Kennedy announced that he was ordering a quarantine on any Soviet military goods heading towards Cuba. He alerted the military and asked the Soviets to remove the missiles. He gained the support of America’s allies in Western Europe and in Latin America.

• Under the quarantine, the United States Navy inspected all boats heading towards Cuba.

• The first ship was stopped on October 25, but the United States and the Soviet Union worked together to solve the crisis.

• On October 26th, the two nations reached an agreement. The United States refused to invade Cuba and the Soviets would remove the missile sites.

• In November, the missile sites were removed.

• In addition to the problems over Cuba, the United States and the Soviet Union disagreed over Germany.

• In 1961, Kennedy and Khruschev met in Vienna. At the meeting, Khruschev told Kennedy that they should negotiate a government in Berlin within a year and if not, the Soviets would sign a separate treaty.

• Kennedy believed that the Soviets were going to drive the Western powers out of Berlin.

• Kennedy did not want to be bullied by Khruschev in Germany, so he asked Congress to give money and equipment to counter the Soviet pressure. He sent more men to Germany and increased the number of people in the reserves.

• In August, with the help of the Soviet government, the East Germans constructed the Berlin Wall.

• Kennedy promised the citizens of West Berlin that the United States would protect their freedoms.

• The Berlin Wall would stay until 1989 when the people of East Berlin tore the wall down.

• The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Berlin Wall led many people to believe that the United States would heading towards a nuclear war with the Soviet Union.

• Many Americans felt that the nuclear arms race was also destroying the atmosphere due to the number of weapons being detonated. Many groups were formed to protest the nuclear arms race.

• In 1963, the three major world powers, the United States, the Soviet Union and England signed the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.

• The treaty stated that the three nations would not test weapons in space, in the atmosphere or underwater.

• The French and the Chinese were developing their own nuclear weapons, but refused to sign the treaty.

• Americans were pleased with the treaty but wanted the treaty to include underground testing.

• 1.4 Assassination of the President

• On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas.

• On that day, JFK, his wife Jackie, Governor John Connally, his wife Nellie and Vice President Lyndon Johnson rode in an open motorcade when shots came from the Texas Book Depository Building.

• The President was taken to Parkland Hospital where he was pronounced dead.

• Within hours, Judge Sarah Hughes swore in Vice President Johnson on his way back to Washington, DC.

• Later, Lee Harvey Oswald was caught and accused of killing President Kennedy.

• Before Oswald could be brought to trial, he was shot by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner.

• Many Americans believed that with the events, Oswald could have been part of a conspiracy to kill the President.

• A commission led by Chief Justice Earl Warren believed that Oswald had acted alone but years later, the House of Representatives believed that the report was inconclusive.

Aim: What were the aims of LBJ’s domestic policy?

Objectives

Student will be able to list the major events of the Johnson administration.

Student will be to discuss the programs included in Johnson’s “Great Society”.

2. The Great Society

← Lyndon Johnson became the 36th President of the United States after the assassination of President John Kennedy.

← A year later, Johnson would run for President against Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona.

← Johnson won the election in an overwhelming majority and took the victory to mean that the American people agreed with his ideas.

← A skilled politician who had served in Congress for 25 years, Lyndon Johnson moved beyond the New Frontier-his program would be called the Great Society.

2.1 Carrying on the Program

← Not long after Kennedy’s death, President Johnson began carrying on his programs.

← At the time of JFK’s death, the US Congress passed some of his programs. After his death, Johnson got more of them passed.

← Johnson declared a war on poverty. Like JFK, Johnson made it clear that he would help the poor lead and live a better life.

← In August 1964, Johnson gets the Economic Opportunity Act passed. Act helps people improve job skills and get a better education

There were three parts to the Office of Economic Opportunity:

(1) The Job Corps trained those who had dropped out of high school to develop vocational training.

(2) VISTA (Volunteers In Service To America) provided jobs to teachers and social workers in low-income areas.

(3) Operation Head Start provided education to children in low income areas.

• President Johnson also worked to pass JFK’s civil rights agenda.

• In 1964, the Civil Rights Act made it illegal to discriminate in public places. It also made it illegal to discriminate in any federally sponsored program. Lastly, no person could not be refused a job because of race, color, religion or sex.

• To investigate any complaints, the act set up the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

• 2.2 Changing Black Rights Movement

• While the United States government was working to help Blacks through laws, the Black Rights Movement was changing.

• Many Blacks in the early 1960s felt that the civil rights movement was doing little for them.

• Black leaders differed on the way to improve conditions.

• Some, like Martin Luther King, organized demonstrations.

• In 1963, King led a march on Washington, DC. About 200,000 people gathered to hear King speak at the Lincoln Memorial.

• King also led a march from Selma to Montgomery to protest discrimination in 1965.

• In 1966, King began a drive for open housing in Chicago, Illinois.

• In 1968, he went to Memphis to support a sanitation strike. While he was there, he was assassinated by James Earl Ray.

• Other black leaders called for a more different, more radical approach.

• Stokely Carmichael, head of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee coined the phrase “black power”.

• Black power became a popular slogan, expressing an increased push for full rights-sometimes with violence.

• Black power did not mean the same thing to everyone. To some, it meant electing more Blacks to political office, community activism, promoting Black history and encouraging Blacks to own businesses.

• Stokely Carmichael

• To the newly-established Black Muslim community, led by Malcolm X, Black power meant creating neighborhoods that were all-Black with no Whites at all.

• Northern Blacks, influenced by the idea of Black power, staged riots in the Black neighborhoods of various cities.

• In 1964, there was a riot in Harlem, the major Black community of New York.

• In 1965, the worse riot occurred in Watts, the major Black neighborhood of Los Angeles.

• The Watts riots lasted for six days, killed 35 and injured 800. Businesses were destroyed and stores were looted.

• There were riots in Detroit and Newark, as well.

• Johnson established a commission led by Governor Otto Kerner of Illinois.

• His report stated that instead of moving towards equality, the gap between Whites and Blacks were growing wider and wider.

• 2.3 Mexican-American Rights Movement

• The 1960s were also a time for Mexican Americans to demand their rights as well.

• Hispanics made up the second largest majority in the United States.

• In the 1950s, the Community Service Organization had worked to get Mexican Americans in Los Angeles to register to vote.

• The Mexican-American Political Association worked to get Mexicans elected to political office.

• Cesar Chavez was an early leader of the CSO.

• In 1963, Chavez helped organize the National Farm Workers Organization. In 1966, this union joined the AFL-CIO and became known as the United Farm Workers. The union demanded higher pay and better working conditions. They used the boycott and strike to achieve their goals.

• Other groups were started by Hispanic Americans as well. Reies Tijerina started the Alianza, an organization devoted to gain back deeds to Spanish and Mexican lands lost to the US Government.

• Rodolfo Gonzales formed the Crusade For Justice in Colorado.

• Jose Angel Gutierrez established La Raza Unida, a Mexican-American political party in Texas.

• 2.4 Expanding the Program

• While Blacks and Mexican Americans were making progress to improve conditions for their ethnic groups, Johnson was looking for ways to expand his Great Society Programs.

• Between 1965 and 1968, Johnson was able to get many of his measures passed in Congress. Johnson is only second to FDR in terms of legislations he passed in a three year period.

• He expanded the Great Society to include education, civil rights, medical care, housing and immigration measures.

• Johnson gave $1.3 billion dollars to schools in low-income areas when they passed the Elementary and Secondary School Act of 1965.

• Johnson offered government money in college scholarships when they passed the Higher Education Act of 1965.

• Congress also included measures in regards to civil rights.

• In 1965, the Voting Rights Act did away with literacy tests as a means of deciding who can vote in elections. The act also allowed for the federal government to register people to vote in areas that the local authorities turned away.

• Another big expenditure of the Great Society was the government would finance the costs of medical care for Americans.

• In 1965, Medicare was added to Social Security. This would provide the elderly with money to pay for their medical care.

• The same year, Medicaid was included as well. Medicaid would give money to help low-income families pay for their medical care.

• To improve housing, the Johnson administration established the Department of Housing and Urban Development.

• Run by Robert Weaver, the first African American cabinet member, HUD established the Model Cities Program which gave money to cities for urban planning.

• The Open Housing Law of 1968 prevented discrimination based on race, creed, color, sex or national origin.

• As President, Johnson wanted to change America’s immigration policy.

• Since the end of the war, the quota system of the 1920s was being replaced by laws to allow displaced persons entry into the United States.

• 400,000 displaced persons came to the United States from Europe as a result of the political changes made between 1945-1964.

• A displaced person is a person who seeks refuge for political reasons.

• Other quotas and laws had been passed since 1952.

• The McCarren-Walter Act allowed for the start

• of Asian immigration.

• Puerto Rico became a commonwealth in 1953. Puerto Rico has a local government, Puerto Ricans do not pay federal taxes and most importantly-Puerto Rico is not the 51st state in the United States.

• Hungary, in 1956, tried to overthrow the Soviet government and military. They failed, however, 20,000 refugees entered the United States soon after,

• Johnson favored an open immigration policy.

• In 1965, he passed an immigration law that still favored Western and Northern European (Eastern Hemisphere) immigration (170,000), but established open immigration in the Western Hemisphere-120,000 people.

• Most important, no quotas were established on any one group of immigrants.

Aim: What were the goals of Johnson’s foreign policy?

3. Foreign Policy During the Johnson Years (1963-1969)

← During the Johnson Administration, American foreign policy centered in on containing communism and stop it from spreading.

← Because of the grand scope of the policy, the United States was involved in different areas of the world during the presidency of Lyndon Johnson.

← This put a strain our relations with other nations, while dividing the American people.

3.1 The Caribbean

← Another area in the Western Hemisphere that got interesting for the United States was the Dominican Republic.

← In 1965, a revolt in the Dominican Republic led Johnson to send 20,000 troops to that nation.

← Johnson believed that a communist friendly government was going to be established.

← This, he felt, gave the United States the right to intervene in the affairs of the Dominican Republic.

← This put strain on our relationship with Latin America because those nations would have liked to discuss any alternative besides violence with the United States.

← People in the United States did not like the fact the government acted without any evidence or any argument that was correct.

← We acted anyway, without talking to leaders of Latin America nor listening/examining any evidence.

← In August, a government friendly to the United States was established and a year later, the troops came home.

3.2 Middle East

← In 1967, the United States attention turned to the Middle East.

← In June, war broke out again between Israel and its Arab neighbors.

← When the war began, the United States promised to stay neutral as did the Soviet Union.

← On June 10, the nations agreed to a cease-fire to stop the fighting. By that time, the Israelis had occupied parts of Jordan, Syria, Egypt and parts of Jerusalem.

← This is the war that is preventing the current peace negotiations in the Middle East. Israel occupied the West Bank (taken from Jordan), the Golan Heights (taken from Syria) and Gaza (taken from Egypt).

← The war did not end the conflicts between Israel and the Arabs, it only intensified the Cold War.

← Israel currently receives billions in aid from the United States as a result of the Six Day War.

← The Soviet Union began arming the Arab world in their wars and battles with Israel.

← People feared the Arab-Israel crisis would lead the US into another world war.

← 3.3 Vietnam

← While the Arabs and Israelis were fighting in the Middle East, the South Vietnamese and the Communists were at war in Vietnam.

← In 1955, American advisers had been sent to South Vietnam to train the army.

← Eisenhower and Kennedy sent more advisers, support troops and military supplies between 1956-to-1962.

← By the time of Johnson became President, a group of South Vietnamese Communists called the Viet Cong were already established in South Vietnam, a nation we supported.

← The Viet Cong fought the South Vietnamese Army as guerrillas. They received support from the North Vietnamese.

← In August 1964, after an attack by the North Vietnamese on American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, President Johnson asked Congress to take actions to prevent future attacks.

← Congress responded by passing the Tonkin Gulf Resolutions. It allowed the President, as commander-in-chief, to use any measures to prevent an attack on American forces, stop North Vietnamese aggression and aid any SEATO member to defend their freedom.

← In February 1965, Viet Cong attacks killed several Americans.

← This led to Johnson to order the bombing of North Vietnam. Johnson also sent soldiers into Vietnam in combat.

← By the end of 1968, 500,000 soldiers were in Vietnam and the war was costing nearly $25,000,000,000 a year

← 3.4 Public Opinion

← Public opinion was divided about the Vietnam War.

← Many people felt that the war was necessary in order to stop the spread of communism.

← Other people believed that the war was a civil war and should only be handled by the Vietnamese and not American forces.

← There were divisions in Congress-those who favored the war were called “hawks” and those that did not were called “doves”.

← As the number of Americans wounded and killed in Vietnam grew, so did the number of Americans against the war.

← College students were against the war and college campuses were the sites of protests and demonstrations against the war.

← In NYC, 100,000 people took part in a protest. In SF, 50,000 people and in DC, 50,000 marched against the war.

← 3.5 Election of 1968

← As the Election of 1968 drew closer, Vietnam became the chief issue.

← On March 31, 1968, Johnson decided that he would not seek a second term.

← This left the Democrats to choose from Hubert H. Humphrey (Johnson’s Vice President), Senator Eugene McCarthy (D-Minnesota) and Senator Robert F. Kennedy (D-NY/JFK’s brother).

← Kennedy and McCarthy came out strongly against the war and this gave them the support of young America.

← On June 5, 1968, Robert Kennedy was assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan.

← At the Democratic National Convention, the atmosphere was tense.

← During the convention, anti-war protestors demonstrated inside the arena leading the Mayor of Chicago, Richard Daley, to send in the police to break up the protest. The clashes made the demonstration worse.

← Before the Democratic National Convention, the Republicans nominated former Vice President Richard Nixon as their nominee.

← Both Humphrey and Nixon wanted to end the war but Humphrey would lose the war because he was linked to Johnson and his policies on the war.

← Nixon won the Election of 1968. Nixon received 31,800,000 votes, Humphrey would get 31,300,000 votes.

← Humphrey would have won the Election of 1968 had it not been for the entry of George Wallace of the American Independent Party.

← Wallace was the governor of Alabama, believed in supporting the war and felt that the federal government should stay out of people’s lives.

← AIM: WHAT NEW DIRECTIONS WERE TAKEN IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS UNDER PRESIDENT NIXON?

← 4. Nixon and Foreign Affairs

← Nixon, as President, inherited the problems of his predecessors, Johnson and Kennedy left him….Vietnam.

← Besides Vietnam, troubles brewed again in the Middle East, another foreign policy headache for the Nixon administration.

← Nixon also made attempts at improving relations between the US and China and US and the Soviet Union.

← 4.1 War In Vietnam

← During the campaign, Nixon made promises to get the United States out of the Vietnam War.

← One of Nixon’s promises was “peace with honor”.

← For support, Nixon called on his base, “the silent majority”, for support. The base were Americans who believed in hard work, law and order and love of country.

← In March 1969, Nixon began a policy of Vietnamization, in which the United States would train and equip the South Vietnamese military until they were ready to fight for themselves.

← In June 1969, Nixon announced that 25,000 troops would return from Vietnam.

← Nixon went on television to get support from the American people when he promised all troops would be pulled out slowly from Vietnam.

← The peace talks that were started under Johnson kept going on under the Nixon administration.

← Nixon was asked by the President of Cambodia to invade and remove communists from his country.

← Nixon agreed and invaded Cambodia in 1970. This agitated more Americans in that they started to believe Nixon was following the same course as Johnson.

← Huge demonstrations went on in American cities and on American college campuses.

← Four students were shot and killed at Kent State University in Ohio.

← Two were killed at Jackson State College in Mississippi.

← The killings angered Americans even more.

← Almost three years would pass until our involvement in Vietnam ended.

← In January 1973, the major players in Vietnam made peace-the US, the Viet Cong, the South Vietnamese and the North Vietnamese came to terms.

← The United States agreed to remove all its troops from Vietnam.

← The North and Viet Cong agreed to free American prisoners from North Vietnamese prison camps.

← It was also agreed that there would be elections held in South Vietnam.

← By the end of March 1973, the last troops left Vietnam. The war continued and due to our involvement, 46,000 were killed and 300,000 had been wounded.

← 4.2 Improving Relations With the Soviet Union

← As the United States was fighting in Vietnam, relations between our nation and the Soviet Union were beginning to improve.

← In 1969, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. The treaty stated that nations that had nuclear weapons would not help nations that did not have them.

← That same year, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the SALT Treaty (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) that limited the production of certain nuclear weapons.

← In May 1972, Nixon became the first American President to visit Moscow when he signed the SALT Treaty.

← Nixon felt that the two superpowers should have close business and economic ties. The US backed up this promise by selling American wheat-the largest American export shipment in our history.

← This policy called détente was a relaxing of tensions between the two big superpowers.

← Then, in 1973, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev visited Washington.

← There he met with Nixon, American business leaders and members of Congress.

← The meetings achieved a few objectives: (1) the United States and the Soviet Union would work on another SALT agreement (2) the two nations would use nuclear war as a last resort in conflict (3) the two nations would work together in areas of business, culture and science.

← 4.3 Improving Relations With China

← At the same time of the Vietnam War and discussions with the Soviets, Nixon was also improving relations with the Communist Chinese government of Mao Tse-Tung.

← The Chinese government invited the American table tennis team to China in April 1971.

← In July, Nixon stated that he would visit China in 1972.

← With China, Nixon promised a policy of normalization-a return to normal conditions-of relations between the two nations.

← In September 1971, the United States finally allowed Communist China membership in the United Nations. It took over the seat that was occupied by Taiwan.

← In February 1972, Nixon went to China where he met with Chinese Premier Chou En-Lai and Chairman Mao Tse-Tung.

← At the meetings, the two nations agreed to establish closer trade relations. Nixon also declared that Taiwan was part of Mainland China. Nixon pledged to remove American soldiers from Taiwan and allowed for China to settle this matter.

← In 1979, the United States formally recognized Communist China (People’s Republic of China).

← 4.4 Trouble in the Middle East

← There was also trouble in the Middle East during Nixon’s administration.

← On October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel on Yom Kippur.

← The United States was upset that the Soviet Union was helping the Arab nations, so they began to help Israel.

← This action led many Arab nations to stop selling oil to the United States.

← In late October, the United Nations sent in troops to maintain a cease-fire in the area. This calmed down the US and Soviet Union.

← Nixon’s Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, was instrumental in the peace.

← He called his policy, shuttle diplomacy, in that, Kissinger went from capital-to-capital to handle the terms of the agreement.

← A few weeks later, Nixon visited Arab nations as a way of bettering relations between the US and the Arab world.

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download