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Beliefs in Society Past Paper questionsJune 2015:Item ASociologists disagree about the role and functions of religion in society. Some argue that religion is the glue that holds society together and keeps society stable. Others look at religion at the personal level and argue that religion helps individuals to cope with stress and to deal with crises in life. Not all take such a positive view of religion. For example, some Marxist sociologists claim religion helps to keep society stable, but it does so only by keeping the working class passive. Indeed, Marxists have called religion ‘the opium of the people’.Identify and briefly explain three ways in which science may have more influence than religion on social life today. [9 marks]Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that religion is ‘the opium of the people’. [18 marks]‘Religion is now about consumerism, where spiritual shoppers look in the spiritual marketplace for a product that suits their lifestyle.’ To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view? [33 marks]Critically examine the reasons why people join sects and New Age movements. [33 marks]June 2014:Item ASociologists disagree about the nature and extent of religious belief and practice in societies today. One difficulty in assessing religiosity is the unreliability of statistics. There are no turnstiles in churches to measure attendance, and occasional head counts of worshippers can be misleading. Similarly, surveys on belief lack validity as people do not always tell the truth. Sociologists such as Davie argue that the nature of religious membership and practice has changed and that belief has become a more private affair. Other sociologists argue that some groups – for example, the young – find traditional churches and religions unattractive, and now search elsewhere for meaning and for the fulfilment of their spiritual needs.Identify and briefly explain three arguments against the view that secularisation has occurred worldwide over the past 30 years or so, apart from those referred to in Item A. [9 marks]Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that traditional churches are experiencing declining attendances mainly because they are no longer attracting the young. [18 marks]‘Religion today helps societies to remain stable and to avoid conflict.’ To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view? [33 marks]Evaluate feminist views on the role of religion in society today. [33 marks]June 2013:Item ASome sociologists argue that one response to globalisation has been the growth of religious fundamentalism. Much has been written about the decline of religious belief and the secularisation of modern societies, but fundamentalism seems to go against this trend. Many associate fundamentalism with violence, and religious and political extremism. However, while fundamentalists may have views that differ greatly from the mainstream, this does not automatically make them violent or anti-society. Fundamentalists usually seek a return to what they would see as the ‘true path’. They reject modern interpretations of faith as having lost their way because teachings have been watered down over the decades. Fundamentalists seek a return to a literal interpretation of their holy book and strict obedience to religious teachings.Identify and briefly explain three characteristics of sects. [9 marks]Using material from Item A and elsewhere, assess the view that the growth of religious fundamentalism is a reaction to globalisation. [18 marks]Evaluate the contribution of Marxist theories to our understanding of the role and functions of religion in the world today. [33 marks]‘Different social groups have different social and spiritual needs and use religion and religious organisations in very different ways.’ To what extent do sociological arguments and evidence support this view? [33 marks]Spec 2015:Item ABoth science and religion are belief systems that involve sets of knowledge-claims: that is, statements that claim to offer explanations of why things are as they are. For example, science uses concepts such as germs to explain why people fall ill from infectious diseases, while some religions use ideas such as the will of God to explain human illness and suffering.Item BMany sociologists argue that religious beliefs and organisations act as conservative forces and barriers to social change. For example, religious doctrines such as the Hindu belief in reincarnation or Christian teachings on the family have given religious justification to existing social structures. Similarly, it is argued that religious organisations such as churches are often extremely wealthy and closely linked to elite groups and power structures. Outline and explain two ways in which the growth of sects and New Age movements may be related to secularisation. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A, analyse two differences between science and religion as belief systems. [10 marks]Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the view that religious beliefs and organisations are barriers to social change. [20 marks]TEXTBOOK QUESTIONSTHEORIES OF RELIGIONQuickcheckSubstantive definitions of religion are inclusive. True or False?How does Durkheim distinguish between the sacred and the profane?Explain how religion may perform a cognitive function.Explain what is meant by ‘civil religion’.Identify two criticisms of the functionalist view of religion.According to Marx, what is the main cause of alienation?Identify one way in which Hinduism may legitimate inequality.Identify three examples of ways in which religions may be patriarchal.Give one example of how religion may be empowering for women.Item ASome sociologists argue that religion performs an ideological function and operates in the interests of powerful groups in society. For example, feminists see religion as helping to sustain male domination of society. The point to the patriarchal nature of sacred texts, such as Biblical story of Eve causing humanity’s expulsion from the Garden of Eden, and their role in legitimating the subordination of women. Marxists, too, see religion as an ideology that distorts people’s perception of reality in capitalist society and helps prevent revolution.However, religion may also perform positive functions for society, and subordinate groups may also use religion to serve their interests.Outline and explain two functions of religion [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the claim that religion performs an ideological function in the interests of powerful groups. [20 marks]RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGEQuickcheckWhat was the Calvinist doctrine of predestination?Explain what Weber means by ‘this-worldly asceticism’.Why does Weber argue that the Calvinists experienced ‘salvation panic’?According to Weber, why did Hinduism discourage social change?Explain what is meant by ‘hegemony’.Identify two ways in which the churches were able to support the black civil rights movement.Suggest one similarity between liberation theology and Marxism.Identify three characteristics of millenarian movements.Why do Marxists see religion as having a dual character?Item AReligions typically hold strong beliefs and values about issues such as family life, gender roles and relationships, sexuality, an dhow society should be organised. Through its rituals, religion can make individuals feel part of something greater than themselves and bind them together, curbing their selfishness and enabling them to cooperate to achieve shared goals. However, religion has also often been closely allied to privileged groups in society and has been accused of upholding their interests.Item BMax Weber argues that religious beliefs can lead to important social changes. According to Weber, Calvinist Protestant beliefs in the 16th century were crucial in bringing about the emergence of modern capitalism in Western Europe. By contrast, the beliefs of some other major religions have acted as a barrier to such change.Some sociologists argue that religion has a dual character: its beliefs can have both a negative impact on social change and a positive one, for example by inspiring protest against the status quo.Applying material from Item A, analyse two arguments in support of the idea that religion is a conservative social force. [10 marks]Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the extent to which religious beliefs can be a force for social change. [20 marks]SECULARISATIONQuickcheckWhat percentage of the adult population of Britain attended church on Sundays in 1851?What proportion of weddings now takes place in church?Why did Weber think that the Protestant Reformation led to the ‘disenchantment’ of the world?What term is used to describe a society containing a wide variety of religious groups?What does Berger mean by the ‘sacred canopy’?Explain what is meant by ‘disengagement’.What is meant by the term ‘cultural transition’?Explain what is meant by ‘secularisation from within’.Item AThe United States is home to groups such as the New Christian Right that campaign to promote religious values in wider society, and opinion polls show that about 40% of Americans describe themselves as ‘regular church attenders’. Although these figures may lack validity, church attendance in the USA is certainly higher than in European societies such as the United Kingdom. As such large numbers of people are churchgoers, it is likely that there are a wide variety of motives for church attendance.Outline and explain two causes of the process of secularisation. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A, analyse two reasons why apparently high church attendance figures may not mean that the United States is a religious society. [10 marks]RELIGION, RENEWAL AND CHOICEQuickcheckExplain what is meant by ‘believing without belonging’.Explain what is meant by ‘vicarious religion’.According to Herview-Léger, how do ‘pilgrims’ differ from ‘converts’?Why do Stark and Bainbridge mean by ‘compensators’?Suggest two reasons why patterns of religiosity in America and Europe are different.Why do some sociologists criticise secularisation theory as ‘Eurocentric’?Identify two criticisms of religious market theory.What is meant by ‘existential security’?Item ASome sociologists claim that society has entered a new era, that of postmodernity, in which religion and spirituality take on new forms. In postmodern society, tradition loses its influence over people. Consumption and choice become more important, and people are free to choose their identity and their beliefs. Postmodern society is increasingly globalised, and the media and information technology become much more important, for example moving religious ideas and images out of their traditional physical home in churches and making them available around the globe.However, other sociologists argue that these trends merely promote secularisation.Outline and explain two reasons why figures on attendance at mainstream churches may overstate the degree of secularisation in Britain today. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the impact of postmodernity on religious and spiritual beliefs and practices. [20 marks]RELIGION IN A GLOBAL CONTEXTQuickcheckIdentify two characteristics of religious fundamentalism.According to Castells, what is the difference between a resistance identity and a project identity?Identify two policies to which the New Christian Right are opposed.Give one example of secular fundamentalism.According to Huntington, why is a ‘clash of civilisations’ increasingly likely?Suggest two criticisms of the view that there is a ‘clash of civilisations’.Over what type of values are Western and Muslim societies most likely to disagree?According to Lehmann, what were the two main stages in the globalisation of religion?What is meant by the term ‘Hindu ultra-nationalism’?Item AReligious fundamentalists seek to return to what they regard as the basics of their faith. Fundamentalists believe unquestioningly in the literal truth of their faith’s sacred text. They are intolerant of the views of others, believing that their view of the world is the only true one. The growth of fundamentalism is often seen as a response to the threat posed by modern society, which challenges and undermines the values and certainties offered by traditional religion.Outline and explain two ways in which religion and development may be related int he world today. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the view that fundamentalism is a response to modern society. [20 marks]ORGANISATIONS, MOVEMENTS AND MEMBERSQuickcheckExplain what is meant by a ‘theodicy of disprivilege’.Identify one similarity and one difference between churches and sects.Suggest two examples of established sects.Explain what is meant by an ‘audience cult’.Suggest two ways in which the New Age might be linked to modernity.Suggest two reasons why women might be more religious than men.How may religion be important for ‘cultural transition’?Item AIn today’s secular Western societies such as Britain, traditional religion still remains an important source of identity and belonging for some people. For many, religious socialisation into the faith of their parents has formed an important part of their upbringing. Traditional religion may also appeal to some because it celebrates their role. For others, New Age spirituality may have particular appeal because it allows them to deal with the role conflicts that arise in modern societies and choose and ‘authentic’ identity for themselves.Item BThere is a wide variety of different kinds of religious and spiritual organisations and movements in today’s society. As well as the major churches, there are now also a large number of sects, cults, and new religious movements that lie outside the traditional religious mainstream. These terms cover a diverse range of groups, some of which offer their followers worldly success, while others are resolutely hostile to wider society. Some have particular appeal to the poor and oppressed, but others draw support rom more affluent groups.Applying material from Item A, analyse two reasons for differences in religiosity between social groups. [10 marks]Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations for the existence of sects, cults and new religious movements. [20 marks]IDEOLOGY AND SCIENCEQuickcheckWhat does Popper mean by ‘falsificationism’?What are the four CUDOS norms?In what sense is witchcraft among the Azande a closed belief system?Why does the case of Dr Velikovsky suggest that science may be a closed belief system?Explain Mannheim’s distinction between ‘ideological thought’ and ‘utopian thought’.What is false consciousness?According to Mannheim, why is there a need for a ‘free-floating intelligentsia’?What does Gramsci see as the two sides of workers’ dual consciousness?Item AThe term ‘ideology’ usually refers to a belief system that serves the interests of a particular social group or class. For example, Marxists argue that the ruling class use ideologies that portray inequality as inevitable and/or desirable. By doing so, they seek to persuade subordinate classes to accept the dominance of the ruling class over society. Institutions such as religion, the media and education play an important role in creating ideology.From a functionalist perspective, civil religion and political beliefs such as nationalism may be seen as ideologies that can bind society together.Outline and explain two criticisms of the view that science is an open system. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of the nature and role of ideology. [20 marks]EXAMINING BELIEFS IN SOCIETYItem AAs a result of globalisation, the world today is increasingly interconnected. New information technology has created a global communication network and the media transmit images and ideas around the world, often spreading Western values to the developing world. Globalisation has produced economic growth and brought rising prosperity to some groups in developing countries, creating a new middle class, but it has also widened the gap between rich and poor. It has also led to greater flows of people across frontiers as people seek opportunities in the developed countries.Item BMarxist sociologists tend to take a negative view of the nature of religion and its role in society. For example, Marx regards religion as the product of the alienation that is found in all class societies. In his view, its role is to act as an ideology that keeps the proletariat subordinated. Religion acts like a drug to dull the pain of exploitation and oppression.However, religion may also be a channel through which people protest against these conditions and make demands for change.Outline and explain two reasons why some people join sects. [10 marks]Applying material from Item A, analyse two effects of globalisation on religion. [10 marks]Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate Marxist views of the nature and role of religion. [20 marks]

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