Chapter 8
Learning
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
-3 Main Types of learning:
1) Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Unconscious Association or associative learning
2) Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Conscious Consequences (also associative learning)
3) Modeling (Bandura): Conscious and unconscious copying
Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): A response that is naturally triggered by a stimulus.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus that when associated with a US comes to trigger a response
• Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus which does not trigger a response
• Acquisition: The pairing of a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus to begin the triggering of a conditioned response
• Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response; the cs no longer creates the cr
• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause; the cs once again creates the cr
• Generalization: the tendency for a similar stimulus to elicit a similar response
• Discrimination: the ability to distinguish between a cs and a similar stimuli that do not signal a ucs
• Higher Order Conditioning: A procedure in which the cs in one conditioning experience is paired with a new ns creating a second cs.
• Little Albert
• Trace, Delayed & Backward Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• While classical conditioning involves what is called “respondent behavior,” operant conditioning involves what is called operant behavior based on rewards and punishments.
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely and followed by unfavorable consequences becomes less likely
• Operant Chamber: (Skinner Box)-Box contains a bar or key that allows animal to obtain food or water by pressing it
• Shaping: Reinforcing behaviors that guide behavior closer and closer towards the goal; aka “successive approximations
• Reinforcement is increasing a behavior
• Punishment is decreasing or stopping a behavior
• Positive Reinforcement is increasing a behavior by giving something
• Negative Reinforcement is increasing a behavior by taking something away
• Positive Punishment is decreasing a behavior by giving something
• Negative Punishment is decreasing a behavior by taking something away
• Escape Conditioning: The removal of an aversive stimulus in order to increase behavior
• Avoidance Conditioning: The classical conditioning of an individual once escape conditioning has been accomplished
• Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need
• Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer: A stimulus that gains its power through its association with a primary reinforcer such as tokens or coupons
• Fixed (Continuous): Patterned; Variable: Intermittent (random); Ratio: Trials; Interval: Time;
• Fixed Ratio: Set pattern of trials
• Fixed Interval: Set pattern of time frame
• Variable Ratio: Intermittent pattern of trials
• Variable Interval: Intermittent pattern of time frame
• Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten
• Punishment teaches discrimination
• Punishment can teach fear
• Physical punishment may increase aggression
• Cognitive Map: A mental representation of a maze
• Latent Learning: Learning that becomes apparent only when there is an incentive to demonstrate it
• Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
• Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for a reward or avoidance of punishment
• Observational Learning (Bandura) is learning by observing and imitating others.
• Mirror Neurons: Frontal Lobe neurons that fire when observing or imitating another
• Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment: Children who first observed an adult beat up a bobo doll were more likely to do so than those who did not first observe the aggression
• Prosocial Behavior: Positive, helpful, constructive behavior derived from altruism.
• Learned Helplessness: Animals and people who experience no control over repeated bad events and then become helpless.
• -Seligman experimented with mice by feeding them cheese for successes and shocking them for failures.
Memory
• Human Memory System: 3 parts:
• -Encoding: The processing of information into memory
• -Storage: The retention of encoded information
• -Retrieval: The process of getting information out of memory
• 1) Sensory Memory: The immediate, brief recording of subconscious information
• 2) Short-term memory: Memory that holds a few items briefly
• 3) Long-term memory: Permanent and limitless storehouse of information
• 4) Working memory: A newer understanding of short term memory focusing on auditory and visual information
• Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of information
• Effortful Processing: Encoding that requires attention and concentration
• -Rehearsal: The conscious repetition of information
• -Ebbinghaus retention curve: the more we practice nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions were required on day 2 to relearn it
• Spacing Effect: Memorizing by separating and distributing the studying;
• Serial Position Effect: Recalling the first and last items of a list.
• Levels of Processing:
• Visual Encoding, Acoustic Encoding, Semantic Encoding
• Imagery: Mental pictures to aid effortful processing
• Mnemonics: Memory aids that use organizational devices
• Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units
• Iconic Memory: A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
• Echoic Memory: A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
• Long-term potentiation: an increase in synaptic firing believed to be a neural basis for memory
• Flashbulb Memory: A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment-event.
• Implicit Memory (non-declarative): retention of how to do things (cerebellum)
• Explicit Memory (declarative): memory of facts and experiences (hippocampus)
• Recall: Retrieval of basic information such as fill in the blank
• Recognition: The identification of items previously learned
• Relearning: A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
• Priming: The activation of particular associations in memory
• déjà vu: the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.”
• Mood Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
• Decay-The simple forgetting of material
• Repression-The subconscious pushing down of painful material
• Encoding Failure: The inability to remember what we have not encoded
• Proactive Interference: The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information (old blocks new)
• Retroactive Interference: The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (new blocks old)
• Memory Construction: When people had seen the film of a car accident, they recalled a more serious accident when asked leading questions.
• Misinformation Effect: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
• Source Amnesia (source misattribution): Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard, read, or imagined
Thinking & Language
• Cognition: The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
• Concepts: mental groupings of similar objects, events, and people
• Prototype: a mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category (Stereotypical example)
• Algorithms: step by step, methodical procedure guaranteeing a solution
• Heuristic: a simpler thinking strategy that allows us to solve problems efficiently (rules of thumb)
• Insight: a sudden realization of a solution to a problem
• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore information that contradicts our beliefs
• Fixation: The inability to see a problem from a new perspective
• Mental Set: A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
• Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
• Representative Heuristics: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match prototypes
• Availability Heuristics: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
• Overconfidence: The tendency to be more confident than correct
• Belief Perseverance: Clinging to one’s beliefs even in the face of contrary evidence
• Belief Bias: The tendency for one’s past beliefs to influence one’s present views and distort logic
• Intuition: An immediate, automatic feeling or thought that does not include reasoning
• Framing: The way an issue is presented can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Language
• Phonemes: The smallest distinctive sound unit
• Morphemes: The smallest unit that carries meaning
• Grammar: A system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
• Semantics: The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences.
• Syntax: The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
• Babbling: (4 months) – stage of speech of development in which the infant utters various sounds unrelated to language
• One-word: (1-2): the child speaks in single words that carry their meaning
• Two-word (Telegraphic): (18-24 months): Speech development explodes and children express statements in two word phrases
• Skinner’s Operant Learning: Language is primarily reinforced
• Chomsky’s Inborn Grammar: Language naturally occurs because humans are born with a Language Acquisition device
• Aphasia: Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage to Broca’s or Wernicke’s area
• Linguistic Determinism: Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think
• Animal Thinking & Language (P. 395-401)
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