Abstract



The Dimensionality and Measurement of Destructive Instructor-LeadershipPaul T Balwant, PhD, MSc, BSc ManagementDepartment of Management Studies, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad+1 (868)792 1600paul.balwant@sta.uwi.eduKamal Birdi, PhD and BSc Psychology, MSc Occupational PsychologyInstitute of Work Psychology, Management School, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK+44 (0)114 222 3288k.birdi@sheffield.ac.ukUte Stephan, PhD PsychologyAston Business School, Aston University, Birmingham, UK+44(0)121 204 3183u.stephan@aston.ac.ukCorresponding author:Paul T BalwantEmail: paul.balwant@sta.uwi.eduMailing address: Department of Management Studies, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad.The Dimensionality and Measurement of Destructive Instructor-LeadershipAbstractThe conceptualization of destructive leadership has received increasing attention in recent times. Accordingly, researchers have developed a theoretical model of destructive leadership that highlights two manifestations as follows: (1) leading followers towards goals that contradict the organization’s interests and (2) the use of harmful methods in leading followers. The two manifestations of destructive leadership point to the concept being multidimensional. However, researchers rarely investigate the dimensionality of destructive leadership when measuring the concept in general and in instructor-student relationships. Moreover, the most prominent measure of destructive leadership fails to capture its two manifestations adequately. To address the apparent mismatch between the theory and measurement of destructive instructor-leadership, we enhance an existing measure of destructive leadership. Using a sample of 174 students from the UK, the findings indicated that the two manifestations of destructive instructor-leadership can be measured by 13 items, and was composed of three dimensions including, irresponsibility, victimization, and callous communication. These findings, along with limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.KeywordsDestructive instructor-leadership; destructive leadership; dimensionality; measurement; theory.IntroductionThe most central theme of leadership is that of ‘influence’. Yukl ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a1v6h8mgef9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2006)","plainCitation":"(2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":687,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":687,"type":"book","title":"Leadership in Organizations","publisher":"Prentice Hall","publisher-place":"New Jersey","number-of-pages":"542","edition":"6","event-place":"New Jersey","ISBN":"0-13-815714-6","shortTitle":"Leadership in Organizations","author":[{"family":"Yukl","given":"Gary"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2006) examined numerous leadership definitions in the literature and explained that leadership is a process of intentional influence over others to direct them towards a goal. This influence process has been investigated primarily from a positive perspective ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a6h4r6jl60","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bligh, Kohles, Pearce, Justin, & Stovall, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Bligh, Kohles, Pearce, Justin, & Stovall, 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":25,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":25,"type":"article-journal","title":"When the Romance is Over: Follower Perspectives of Aversive Leadership","container-title":"Applied Psychology: An International Review","page":"528-557","volume":"56","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","abstract":"While leadership is indisputably one of the most pervasive topics in our society, the vast majority of existing research has focused on leadership as a positive force. Taking a follower-centric approach to the study of leadership, we integrate research on the Romance of Leadership and the dark side of leadership by examining followers’ perceptions of aversive leadership in the context of public high schools. Although Meindl, Ehrlich, and Dukerich (1985 ) demonstrated that the Romance of Leadership also includes the overattribution of negative outcomes to leaders, subsequent research has failed to explore the implications of this potentially darker side of romanticising leaders...","DOI":"10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00303.x","ISSN":"0269994X","shortTitle":"When the Romance is Over","journalAbbreviation":"Applied Psychology: An International Review","author":[{"family":"Bligh","given":"Michelle C."},{"family":"Kohles","given":"Jeffrey C."},{"family":"Pearce","given":"Craig L."},{"family":"Justin","given":"Joseph E. (Gene)"},{"family":"Stovall","given":"John F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",10]]}}}],"schema":""} (Bligh, Kohles, Pearce, Justin, & Stovall, 2007). Specifically, researchers have focused on leaders using supportive behaviours towards their followers, e.g., socialized charisma, inspiration, support, authenticity, etc. However, researchers are becoming increasingly interested in the dark side of leadership, particularly destructive leadership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a26f5r2oj57","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schyns & Hansbrough, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Schyns & Hansbrough, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":463,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":463,"type":"book","title":"When leadership goes wrong: Destructive leadership, mistakes, and ethical failures","publisher":"Information Age Publishing","number-of-pages":"558","source":"","ISBN":"1-61735-067-2","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Hansbrough","given":"Tiffany"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schyns & Hansbrough, 2010). Destructive leadership has been investigated primarily in a corporate context ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a250oc1tq4u","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schyns & Schilling, 2013), but such behaviours may also exist in instructor-student relationships, i.e., destructive instructor-leadership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a29lrnojgs3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Balwant, 2017)","plainCitation":"(Balwant, 2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Balwant, 2017). In the present paper, our research question is, ‘What are the dimensions of destructive instructor-leadership and how can the multidimensional concept of destructive instructor-leadership be measured?’Literature reviewTo date, research on destructive forms of leadership has focused primarily on its antecedents and outcomes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PftQ3W3o","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mackey, Frieder, Brees, & Martinko, 2017; Schyns & Schilling, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Mackey, Frieder, Brees, & Martinko, 2017; Schyns & Schilling, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2072,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":2072,"type":"article-journal","title":"Abusive supervision: A meta-analysis and empirical review","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1940-1965","volume":"43","issue":"6","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1177/0149206315573997","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","shortTitle":"Abusive Supervision","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Mackey","given":"Jeremy D."},{"family":"Frieder","given":"Rachel E."},{"family":"Brees","given":"Jeremy R."},{"family":"Martinko","given":"Mark J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017",7]]}}},{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}}],"schema":""} (Mackey, Frieder, Brees, & Martinko, 2017; Schyns & Schilling, 2013). In contrast, few researchers have examined the dimensionality of destructive forms of leadership. For instance, Mitchell and Ambrose ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"189dumsljg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2007)","plainCitation":"(2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":42,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":42,"type":"article-journal","title":"Abusive supervision and workplace deviance and the moderating effects of negative reciprocity beliefs.","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"1159-1168","volume":"92","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1159","ISSN":"1939-1854, 0021-9010","author":[{"family":"Mitchell","given":"Marie S."},{"family":"Ambrose","given":"Maureen L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2007) showed that abusive supervision may consist of two dimensions – active personal abuse (e.g., ‘tells me my thoughts and feelings are stupid’) and passive acts of abuse (e.g., ‘doesn’t give me credit for work requiring a lot of effort’). Mitchell and Ambrose ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OQj99P5e","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2007)","plainCitation":"(2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":42,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":42,"type":"article-journal","title":"Abusive supervision and workplace deviance and the moderating effects of negative reciprocity beliefs.","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"1159-1168","volume":"92","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1159","ISSN":"1939-1854, 0021-9010","author":[{"family":"Mitchell","given":"Marie S."},{"family":"Ambrose","given":"Maureen L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2007) then used only the active dimension for the purpose of their study. Moreover, the passive dimension includes certain behaviours that are arguably active, e.g., blaming the follower or invading the follower’s privacy.Goodyear, Crego, and Johnston ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4amd5qfi9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1992)","plainCitation":"(1992)"},"citationItems":[{"id":218,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":218,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ethical issues in the supervision of student research: A study of critical incidents","container-title":"Professional Psychology: Research & Practice","page":"203-210","volume":"23","issue":"3","source":"Ovid (Journals@Ovid)","abstract":"Professional psychologists (N = 57), most of whom were experienced researchers, described incidents (N = 144) in the supervision of student research that they believed presented ethical problems. Raters identified those incidents that did seem to present ethical problems and sorted them into categories. Although many of the incidents pertained to some aspect of fairness in authorship assignment, 8 additional categories of ethical problems were identified: incompetent supervision, inadequate supervision, supervision abandonment, intrusion of supervisor values, abusive supervision, exploitive supervision, dual relationships, and encouragement to fraud. Each of these ethical problems is discussed, along with several possible remedies., (C) 1992 by the American Psychological Association","ISSN":"0735-7028","shortTitle":"Ethical Issues in the Supervision of Student Research","author":[{"family":"Goodyear","given":"Rodney K."},{"family":"Crego","given":"Clyde A."},{"family":"Johnston","given":"Michael W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1992) also offered a dimensionality for unethical leader behaviours by investigating psychologists leading students during their research. The authors found that unethical leader behaviours consist of incompetence, inadequate supervision, supervision abandonment, intrusion of values, abusive supervision, exploitive supervision, dual relationships, encouragement to fraud, and authorship issues. Some of these dimensions infer a multidimensional structure for destructive forms of leadership, e.g., intrusion of values, abusive supervision, exploitive supervision, and encouragement to fraud. However, other dimensions seem to indicate the absence of leadership, e.g., incompetence, inadequate supervision, and supervision abandonment. Additionally, the purpose of Goodyear et al.’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"K1ulR1hQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1992)","plainCitation":"(1992)"},"citationItems":[{"id":218,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":218,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ethical issues in the supervision of student research: A study of critical incidents","container-title":"Professional Psychology: Research & Practice","page":"203-210","volume":"23","issue":"3","source":"Ovid (Journals@Ovid)","abstract":"Professional psychologists (N = 57), most of whom were experienced researchers, described incidents (N = 144) in the supervision of student research that they believed presented ethical problems. Raters identified those incidents that did seem to present ethical problems and sorted them into categories. Although many of the incidents pertained to some aspect of fairness in authorship assignment, 8 additional categories of ethical problems were identified: incompetent supervision, inadequate supervision, supervision abandonment, intrusion of supervisor values, abusive supervision, exploitive supervision, dual relationships, and encouragement to fraud. Each of these ethical problems is discussed, along with several possible remedies., (C) 1992 by the American Psychological Association","ISSN":"0735-7028","shortTitle":"Ethical Issues in the Supervision of Student Research","author":[{"family":"Goodyear","given":"Rodney K."},{"family":"Crego","given":"Clyde A."},{"family":"Johnston","given":"Michael W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1992) study was to investigate ethical issues in the instructor-student relationship rather than destructive leadership. The findings from Mitchell and Ambrose ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wtcDPGwX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2007)","plainCitation":"(2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":42,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":42,"type":"article-journal","title":"Abusive supervision and workplace deviance and the moderating effects of negative reciprocity beliefs.","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"1159-1168","volume":"92","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1159","ISSN":"1939-1854, 0021-9010","author":[{"family":"Mitchell","given":"Marie S."},{"family":"Ambrose","given":"Maureen L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2007) and Goodyear et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eXtkiRKR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1992)","plainCitation":"(1992)"},"citationItems":[{"id":218,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":218,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ethical issues in the supervision of student research: A study of critical incidents","container-title":"Professional Psychology: Research & Practice","page":"203-210","volume":"23","issue":"3","source":"Ovid (Journals@Ovid)","abstract":"Professional psychologists (N = 57), most of whom were experienced researchers, described incidents (N = 144) in the supervision of student research that they believed presented ethical problems. Raters identified those incidents that did seem to present ethical problems and sorted them into categories. Although many of the incidents pertained to some aspect of fairness in authorship assignment, 8 additional categories of ethical problems were identified: incompetent supervision, inadequate supervision, supervision abandonment, intrusion of supervisor values, abusive supervision, exploitive supervision, dual relationships, and encouragement to fraud. Each of these ethical problems is discussed, along with several possible remedies., (C) 1992 by the American Psychological Association","ISSN":"0735-7028","shortTitle":"Ethical Issues in the Supervision of Student Research","author":[{"family":"Goodyear","given":"Rodney K."},{"family":"Crego","given":"Clyde A."},{"family":"Johnston","given":"Michael W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1992) suggest that destructive leadership may be a multidimensional construct. Yet, extant research ignores the dimensionality issue, and instead assumes that destructive leadership is a single construct (typically using labels such as abusive supervision, petty tyranny, undermining, etc.) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Md2FPNQj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ashforth, 1994; Duffy, Ganster, & Pagon, 2002; Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Tepper, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Ashforth, 1994; Duffy, Ganster, & Pagon, 2002; Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Tepper, 2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":315,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":315,"type":"article-journal","title":"Petty tyranny in organizations","container-title":"Human Relations","page":"755-778","volume":"47","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1177/001872679404700701","ISSN":"0018-7267","author":[{"family":"Ashforth","given":"B.E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1994",7,1]]}}},{"id":693,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":693,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social Undermining in the Workplace","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"331-351","volume":"45","issue":"2","abstract":"An interactive model of social undermining and social support in the workplace was developed and tested among police officers in the Republic of Slovenia. As predicted, social undermining was significantly associated with employee outcomes, in most cases more strongly than was social support. High levels of undermining and support from the same source were associated with negative outcomes. However, support from one source appeared to only modestly attenuate the negative effects of social undermining from another source.","ISSN":"00014273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2002 / Copyright ? 2002 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Duffy","given":"Michelle K."},{"family":"Ganster","given":"Daniel C."},{"family":"Pagon","given":"Milan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",4,1]]}}},{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}},{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Ashforth, 1994; Duffy, Ganster, & Pagon, 2002; Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Tepper, 2000). Therefore, a research gap exists between the way in which destructive leadership is represented in extant research and its potential multidimensional nature. In order to address this research gap on destructive leadership dimensionality, the purpose of the present study is twofold: (1) to investigate the dimensionality of destructive leadership; and (2) to develop and validate a measure that is aligned with the potential dimensionality of destructive leadership. To do so, we investigate destructive leadership in a unique context – instructor-student relationships.The dynamics in instructor-student relationships are sometimes examined via a leadership lens. Leadership in this instructor-student context is often referred to as instructor-leadership. Instructor-leadership can be defined as ‘a process whereby instructors exert intentional influence over students to guide, structure, and facilitate classroom activities and relationships in a class’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"k8EjvPyW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Balwant, 2017, p. 2)","plainCitation":"(Balwant, 2017, p. 2)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"locator":"2"}],"schema":""} (Balwant, 2017, p. 2). A key point from this definition is that intent is necessary to characterise instructors’ behaviours as leadership. For instance, an instructor who comes to a class and reads lecture slides ad verbatim, without any intentions to guide and influence students, is showing a lack of leadership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"afg1iupbr5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(for a more extensive discussion of instructors as leaders, see Balwant, 2016)","plainCitation":"(for a more extensive discussion of instructors as leaders, see Balwant, 2016)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1619,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1619,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transformational instructor-leadership in higher education teaching: A meta-analytic review and research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Leadership Studies","page":"20-42","volume":"9","issue":"4","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1002/jls.21423","ISSN":"19352611","shortTitle":"Transformational Instructor-Leadership in Higher Education Teaching","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",2]]}},"prefix":"for a more extensive discussion of instructors as leaders, see"}],"schema":""} (for a more extensive discussion of instructors as leaders, see Balwant, 2016). In the instructor-leadership literature, most research has emphasized supportive teaching behaviours in higher education ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6DF7jbkW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Baba & Ace, 1989; Balwant, 2016; Dawson, Messe, & Phillips, 1972)","plainCitation":"(Baba & Ace, 1989; Balwant, 2016; Dawson, Messe, & Phillips, 1972)"},"citationItems":[{"id":195,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":195,"type":"article-journal","title":"Serendipity in leadership: Initiating structure and consideration in the classroom","container-title":"Human Relations","page":"509 -525","volume":"42","issue":"6","source":"Highwire 2.0","abstract":"Because feedback information from students has been found to improve teachers' classroom performance, factor analysis was used to report students' perceptions in a concise, meaningful manner to instructors. The emerging four factor structure over 2 years of data from 2084 students was found to be very stable, and relatively uninfluenced by class size or course level. The first two factors appeared similar to the two traditional dimensions of leader behavior, initiating structure and consideration, and it is conjectured that existing leadership theory might be applicable in the university classroom to enhance teaching effectiveness.","DOI":"10.1177/001872678904200603","shortTitle":"Serendipity in Leadership","author":[{"family":"Baba","given":"Vishwanath V."},{"family":"Ace","given":"Merle E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1989",6,1]]}}},{"id":1619,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1619,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transformational instructor-leadership in higher education teaching: A meta-analytic review and research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Leadership Studies","page":"20-42","volume":"9","issue":"4","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1002/jls.21423","ISSN":"19352611","shortTitle":"Transformational Instructor-Leadership in Higher Education Teaching","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",2]]}}},{"id":857,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":857,"type":"article-journal","title":"Effect of instructor-leader behavior on student performance.","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"369-376","volume":"56","issue":"5","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1037/h0033436","ISSN":"0021-9010","author":[{"family":"Dawson","given":"Jack E."},{"family":"Messe","given":"Lawrence A."},{"family":"Phillips","given":"James L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Baba & Ace, 1989; Balwant, 2016; Dawson, Messe, & Phillips, 1972). However, the classroom context is also conducive to destructive forms of leadership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"n1Kdji6v","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(for a review of the educational approach to destructive leadership, see Balwant, 2017)","plainCitation":"(for a review of the educational approach to destructive leadership, see Balwant, 2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"prefix":"for a review of the educational approach to destructive leadership, see"}],"schema":""} (for a review of the educational approach to destructive leadership, see Balwant, 2017).To understand the potential dimensionality of destructive instructor-leadership, we must start with a theoretical model that explains the meaning of destructive leadership. Krasikova, Green, and LeBreton ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hvmte37c1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013) reviewed and integrated the extant state of destructive leadership research, and propose that destructive leadership is‘volitional behaviour by a leader that can harm or intends to harm a leader’s organization and/or followers by (a) encouraging followers to pursue goals that contravene the legitimate interests of the organization and/or (b) employing a leadership style that involves the use of harmful methods of influence with followers, regardless of justifications for such behaviour’ (p. 1310). This definition highlights two manifestations of destructive leadership, which may offer insight into the potential dimensionality of destructive instructor-leadership. The first manifestation describes leading followers towards goals that contradict the organization’s interests, e.g., encouragement to fraud. The second manifestation describes the use of harmful behaviours in leading followers towards goals, e.g., verbal abuse.Following the two manifestations proposed by Krasikova et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6uHQmb8Q","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013), Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cRrPsbMR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) offered a multidimensional concept of destructive instructor-leadership. Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TBHBnUGq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) highlighted the differences and similarities between destructive instructor-leadership and other concepts examined by educational researchers, e.g., teacher misbehaviours ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a70bbuhdga","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kearney, Plax, Hays, & Ivey, 1991)","plainCitation":"(Kearney, Plax, Hays, & Ivey, 1991)"},"citationItems":[{"id":262,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":262,"type":"article-journal","title":"College teacher misbehaviors: What students don't like about what teachers say and do","container-title":"Communication Quarterly","page":"309-324","volume":"39","issue":"4","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"This investigation represents a substantial change in the way we examine classroom discipline and student resistance. Rather than focusing on student non‐compliance and other types of student misbehaviors, we examined teachers themselves as potential sources of instructional and/or motivational problems in the college classroom. Study 1 was designed to elicit inductively, college student reports of teacher misbehaviors. Results indicated 28 different categories of teacher misbehaviors. Study 2 was structured to (1) validate the obtained categories of teacher misbehavior types and (2) to determine whether or not a conceptually meaningful factor structure underlies the categories. Even though most students reported that the teachers referenced in study 2 infrequently engaged in each misbehavior type, a representative number of other teachers did. Importantly, the full range of frequencies was obtained across all 28 categories. Results were further corroborated with qualitative data. Factor analyses and factor matching procedures revealed that the teacher misbehavior categories could be both meaningfully and reliably reduced to 3 factors: Teacher Incompetence, Offensiveness and Indolence. Implications for managing student resistance in the classroom are discussed.","DOI":"10.1080/01463379109369808","ISSN":"0146-3373","shortTitle":"College teacher misbehaviors","author":[{"family":"Kearney","given":"Patricia"},{"family":"Plax","given":"Timothy G."},{"family":"Hays","given":"Ellis R."},{"family":"Ivey","given":"Marilyn J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1991",9,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Kearney, Plax, Hays, & Ivey, 1991) and disconfirmation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"adm23hene6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ellis, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Ellis, 2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":9,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":9,"type":"article-journal","title":"Perceived teacher confirmation: The development and validation of an instrument and two studies of the relationship to cognitive and affective learning","container-title":"Human Communication Research","page":"264-291","volume":"26","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Ellis","given":"K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Ellis, 2000). In so doing, Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tTjDcCtf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) conducted an inductive study of destructive instructor-leadership which shows that the concept may consist of callous communication, chaotic carelessness, and irresponsibility. Callous communication is the use of harmful verbal and nonverbal behaviours, and is directly related to the second manifestation of destructive leadership. Chaotic carelessness refers to leader behaviours that create disorder while purposely neglecting followers, and seems to capture both manifestations of destructive leadership. Irresponsibility means that a leader neglects duties and responsibilities in leading followers towards goals, and appears to be closely linked to the first manifestation of destructive leadership.In light of the aforesaid recent developments in the destructive instructor-leadership literature, we remain critical of using the most prominent measure of destructive leadership – Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2jnlid4pqv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) Abusive Supervision Scale – to fully capture destructive instructor-leadership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2n0hbbb67k","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schyns & Schilling, 2013). Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rS76pbAl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) scale appears to focus entirely on the second manifestation of destructive leadership as proposed by Krasikova et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Nggrwlj9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013). Even for this second manifestation of destructive leadership, Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nO2Wad65","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) scale seems to ignore harmful methods that are nonverbal as proposed by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DRExhvdp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017). Given these shortcomings of Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"g3DrGbxh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) scale, our aim is to build upon the findings of Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"k7qagFBg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) to augment Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WDYeT94n","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) scale so that the latter is better aligned with the conceptualization of destructive leadership as proposed by Krasikova et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4knji2317","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013). Our aim here directly attends to a call by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LDxhrqpH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) to ‘adapt and refine Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Uw7zX2JV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) instrument for the instructor-student relationship’ (p. 23).To develop the measure of destructive instructor-leadership, we follow Hinkin’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"tk8sv0jC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) conceptual framework and guide for the development of scales that is based upon established psychometric principles in survey research. Hinkin’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0mg0FHZr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) scale development process comprises of six steps. In the present paper, we follow the first five of Hinkin’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XBlbySTZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) six-step process. First, item generation entails the construction of items to measure the construct. Here, we use the Abusive Supervision Scale ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"16fl35272d","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tepper, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Tepper, 2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Tepper, 2000) items as a starting point, and then add items based on interview findings from Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DUNlGLjA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017). In other words, we combine the well-established items from Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"E9uKlwpS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) Abusive Supervision Scale with newly created items derived from an inductive approach used by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eBACIBbH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017). In writing the newly created items, we kept the statements simple and short, and phrased items in a manner that is similar to Tepper’s items in order to maintain a consistent perspective ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VWv1NbUp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)","plainCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hinkin, 1998) (see Table 1). Again, for consistency, we used the same five-point scale used in Tepper’s Abusive Supervision Scale. Each point describes the frequency with which an instructor uses the behaviour stated by the item. With respect to content adequacy of the newly created items ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gTDTjhkX","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)","plainCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hinkin, 1998), Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LSFiX6k5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) provided each student with the definition of destructive leadership, and asked students to describe incidents that were consistent with the provided definition. Therefore, the newly created items should reasonably measure destructive instructor-leadership.[Insert Table 1 near here]The second step is questionnaire administration ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"y9vek92b","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)","plainCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hinkin, 1998). In distributing the questionnaires to samples of students, the new measure, i.e., Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9qAM4cZL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) already established items along with our newly created items, is administered along with other established measures. For instance, we include a measure of supportive leadership in order to show that destructive leadership is not simply the opposite of supportive leadership. Here, we include the most popular supportive leadership theory – transformational leadership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2b9een4sh3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Judge & Piccolo, 2004)","plainCitation":"(Judge & Piccolo, 2004)"},"citationItems":[{"id":856,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":856,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"755-768","volume":"89","issue":"5","source":"APA PsycNET","abstract":"This study provided a comprehensive examination of the full range of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Results (based on 626 correlations from 87 sources) revealed an overall validity of .44 for transformational leadership, and this validity generalized over longitudinal and multisource designs. Contingent reward (.39) and laissez-faire (-.37) leadership had the next highest overall relations; management by exception (active and passive) was inconsistently related to the criteria. Surprisingly, there were several criteria for which contingent reward leadership had stronger relations than did transformational leadership. Furthermore, transformational leadership was strongly correlated with contingent reward (.80) and laissez-faire (-.65) leadership. Transformational and contingent reward leadership generally predicted criteria controlling for the other leadership dimensions, although transformational leadership failed to predict leader job performance.","DOI":"10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755","ISSN":"1939-1854(Electronic);0021-9010(Print)","shortTitle":"Transformational and Transactional Leadership","author":[{"family":"Judge","given":"Timothy A."},{"family":"Piccolo","given":"Ronald F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Transformational leadership means that a leader shifts followers ‘beyond immediate self-interests through idealized influence (charisma), inspiration, intellectual stimulation, or individualized consideration’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"18pa5r02n4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bass, 1999, p. 11)","plainCitation":"(Bass, 1999, p. 11)"},"citationItems":[{"id":716,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":716,"type":"article-journal","title":"Two decades of research and development in transformational leadership","container-title":"European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology","page":"9-32","volume":"8","issue":"1","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"The interests of the organization and its members need to be aligned. Such is a task for the transformational leader. In contrast to the transactional leader who practises contingent reinforcement of followers, the transformational leader inspires, intellectually stimulates, and is individually considerate of them. Transformational leadership may be directive or participative. Requiring higher moral development, transformational leadership is recognized universally as a concept. Furthermore, contrary to earlier expectations, women leaders tend to be more transformational than their male counterparts. Although a six-factor model of transformational/ transactional leadership best fits a diversity of samples according to confirmatory factor analyses, whether fewer factors are necessary remains an open question. Another important research question that has only been partially answered is why transformational leadership is more effective than transactional leadership in a wide variety of business, military, industrial, hospital, and educational circumstances.","DOI":"10.1080/135943299398410","ISSN":"1359-432X","author":[{"family":"Bass","given":"B.M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1999",3,1]]}},"locator":"11"}],"schema":""} (Bass, 1999, p. 11). We choose transformational leadership because meta-analytic findings show that transformational and destructive leadership are related to similar outcomes, but in opposite directions, e.g., satisfaction, attitude towards leader, and performance ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ExEdL8Qb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Derue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Wang, Oh, Courtright, & Colbert, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Derue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Wang, Oh, Courtright, & Colbert, 2011)"},"citationItems":[{"id":334,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":334,"type":"article-journal","title":"Trait and behavioral theories of leadership: An integration and meta-analytic test of their relative validity","container-title":"Personnel Psychology","page":"7–52","volume":"64","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"The leadership literature suffers from a lack of theoretical integration (Avolio, 2007, American Psychologist, 62, 25–33). This article addresses that lack of integration by developing an integrative trait-behavioral model of leadership effectiveness and then examining the relative validity of leader traits (gender, intelligence, personality) and behaviors (transformational-transactional, initiating structure-consideration) across 4 leadership effectiveness criteria (leader effectiveness, group performance, follower job satisfaction, satisfaction with leader). Combined, leader traits and behaviors explain a minimum of 31% of the variance in leadership effectiveness criteria. Leader behaviors tend to explain more variance in leadership effectiveness than leader traits, but results indicate that an integrative model where leader behaviors mediate the relationship between leader traits and effectiveness is warranted.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01201.x","ISSN":"1744-6570","shortTitle":"Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Derue","given":"D. Scott"},{"family":"Nahrgang","given":"Jennifer D."},{"family":"Wellman","given":"Ned"},{"family":"Humphrey","given":"Stephen E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}},{"id":856,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":856,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"755-768","volume":"89","issue":"5","source":"APA PsycNET","abstract":"This study provided a comprehensive examination of the full range of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Results (based on 626 correlations from 87 sources) revealed an overall validity of .44 for transformational leadership, and this validity generalized over longitudinal and multisource designs. Contingent reward (.39) and laissez-faire (-.37) leadership had the next highest overall relations; management by exception (active and passive) was inconsistently related to the criteria. Surprisingly, there were several criteria for which contingent reward leadership had stronger relations than did transformational leadership. Furthermore, transformational leadership was strongly correlated with contingent reward (.80) and laissez-faire (-.65) leadership. Transformational and contingent reward leadership generally predicted criteria controlling for the other leadership dimensions, although transformational leadership failed to predict leader job performance.","DOI":"10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755","ISSN":"1939-1854(Electronic);0021-9010(Print)","shortTitle":"Transformational and Transactional Leadership","author":[{"family":"Judge","given":"Timothy A."},{"family":"Piccolo","given":"Ronald F."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}},{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}},{"id":240,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":240,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of research","container-title":"Group & Organization Management","page":"223-270","volume":"36","issue":"2","source":"gom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"Although transformational leadership has been studied extensively, the magnitude of the relationship between transformational leadership and follower performance across criterion types and levels of analysis remains unclear. Based on 117 independent samples over 113 primary studies, the current meta-analytic study showed that transformational leadership was positively related to individual-level follower performance across criterion types, with a stronger relationship for contextual performance than for task performance across most study settings. In addition, transformational leadership was positively related to performance at the team and organization levels. Moreover, both meta-analytic regression and relative importance analyses consistently showed that transformational leadership had an augmentation effect over transactional leadership (contingent reward) in predicting individual-level contextual performance and team-level performance. Contrary to our expectation, however, no augmentation effect of transformational leadership over contingent reward was found in predicting individual-level task performance. Instead, contingent reward explained incremental variance in individual-level task performance beyond that explained by transformational leadership.","DOI":"10.1177/1059601111401017","ISSN":"1059-6011, 1552-3993","shortTitle":"Transformational Leadership and Performance Across Criteria and Levels","journalAbbreviation":"Group & Organization Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Wang","given":"Gang"},{"family":"Oh","given":"In-Sue"},{"family":"Courtright","given":"Stephen H."},{"family":"Colbert","given":"Amy E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",4,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Derue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011; Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Schyns & Schilling, 2013; Wang, Oh, Courtright, & Colbert, 2011). Therefore, both constructs should be negatively related, but the relationship should not be high enough to suggest redundancy between the two concepts.In addition to transformational leadership, we measure follower outcomes in order to examine criterion-related validity. Specifically, we measure students’ satisfaction, extra effort, and individual performance because these are all established outcomes in the destructive leadership literature ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1h68fbmttr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schyns & Schilling, 2013). Satisfaction refers to an overall level of satiation or contentment. Destructive leaders are deceptive and victimize their followers, and thus followers are likely to be dissatisfied with such leadership. Followers may also respond to destructive leadership by reducing their efforts and performance when they try to distance themselves from the source of distress, e.g., withdrawing mentally and/or physically from the instructor’s classes.Third, Hinkin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7XhHYDRz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) suggested that for initial item reduction, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) should be used to refine the scale. EFA is useful for determining the underlying structure of an item set. Here, we expect that three factors would emerge from the data as proposed by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WvIizvjN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017), i.e., callous communication, chaotic carelessness, and irresponsibility. The EFA is described in more detail later on. After assessing the dimensionality of the measure, internal reliability can then be assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. Hinkin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fQ8g2Hnr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) suggested a coefficient alpha of at least 0.70 for exploratory measures.For the fourth and fifth steps, Hinkin described the statistical techniques to be used. The fourth step is confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). This technique is used to confirm the prior analyses and provide further evidence of construct validity. The fifth step is convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity. For these two steps, Hinkin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DavuywPi","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) explained conventions in using relevant statistical techniques, e.g., chi-square, goodness of fit indices, correlations between constructs, and regressions. In the present paper, we investigate all three forms of validity. We elaborate on the fourth and fifth steps in more detail in our upcoming presentation of the findings.MethodsResearch approachWe used a quantitative approach in this study because our aim was to develop a measure of destructive instructor-leadership. Specifically, we conducted a psychometric study of destructive instructor-leadership, and thus used various statistical techniques as described in our literature review and in accordance with Hinkin’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1KcXzNum","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) scale development guide. Sampling design and sizeIn quantitative research, nonprobability sampling is often used, but is not ideal for generalization purposes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a6kgbdmf9f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Morling, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Morling, 2014)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1970,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1970,"type":"book","title":"Research methods in psychology: Evaluating a world of information","publisher":"W. W. Norton & Company","publisher-place":"New York","number-of-pages":"640","edition":"2 edition","source":"Amazon","event-place":"New York","abstract":"A text that will make your students care about research methods as much as you do. This market-leading text emphasizes future consumers of psychological research, uses real-world examples drawn from popular media, and develops students’ critical-thinking skills as they become systematic interrogators of information in their everyday lives.","ISBN":"978-0-393-93693-3","shortTitle":"Research Methods in Psychology","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Morling","given":"Beth"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",6,10]]}}}],"schema":""} (Morling, 2014). Nonetheless we used a non-probability approach, i.e., we used a convenient sample of undergraduate students from the UK. We used this non-probabilistic approach because (1) the population of all undergraduate students in the UK was extremely large, thus making randomization cumbersome; (2) we had limited resources with respect to time and researchers to assist with data collection; and (3) students may be unwilling to participate in survey research, likely because of survey fatigue ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a8dqs40bfn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Adams & Umbach, 2012)","plainCitation":"(Adams & Umbach, 2012)"},"citationItems":[{"id":2074,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":2074,"type":"article-journal","title":"Nonresponse and online student evaluations of teaching: Understanding the influence of salience, fatigue, and academic environments","container-title":"Research in Higher Education","page":"576-591","volume":"53","issue":"5","source":"link.","abstract":"Technological advances have enabled institutions of higher education to administer course evaluations online, forgoing the traditional paper-and-pencil methods. Consequently, many of these institutions suffer from low response rates, but little research is available on this topic. To increase understanding about course evaluation participation in the online environment, this study examined over 22,000 undergraduates to whom the university administered about 135,000 evaluations. Multilevel models were constructed to analyze the data, and several variables emerged as significant predictors of participation. The results were mostly consistent with previous research and aligned with theories of survey nonresponse. However, the integration of uncommon variables provided new perspectives about course evaluations in particular. Implications for research and practical applications for institutions are also addressed, including ways to combat survey fatigue, increase the salience of the survey, and increase participation in online course evaluations.","DOI":"10.1007/s11162-011-9240-5","ISSN":"0361-0365, 1573-188X","shortTitle":"Nonresponse and Online Student Evaluations of Teaching","journalAbbreviation":"Res High Educ","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Adams","given":"Meredith J. D."},{"family":"Umbach","given":"Paul D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",8,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Adams & Umbach, 2012). Taken together, these challenges made randomization unfeasible and would have likely resulted in a small sample size within our study’s timeframe. To determine an appropriate sample size for a psychometric study, including its various statistical tests, we followed the recommendations by Hair et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"as9kut40ur","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2009)","plainCitation":"(2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2009) and Hinkin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uwu7NJul","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998), and set a goal of collecting at least 150 completed questionnaires.ParticipantsWe used the same sample examined in Balwant, Birdi, Stephan, and Topakas ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YwH2QT5U","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2018)","plainCitation":"(2018)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":1957,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1957,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transformational instructor-leadership and academic performance: a moderated mediation model of student engagement and structural distance","container-title":"Journal of Further and Higher Education","page":"1-17","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1080/0309877X.2017.1420149","ISSN":"0309-877X, 1469-9486","shortTitle":"Transformational instructor-leadership and academic performance","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."},{"family":"Birdi","given":"Kamal"},{"family":"Stephan","given":"Ute"},{"family":"Topakas","given":"Anna"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2018",1,16]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2018) , but different measures and analyses were used in this study. After accounting for missing data, outliers, and invalid responses, the sample size consisted of 174 undergraduate students studying at universities located in England (n = 161, 92.5%), Scotland (n = 7, 4.0%), Wales (n = 5, 2.9%), and Northern Ireland (n = 1, 0.6%). The students were from various faculties including Social Sciences (n = 43, 24.7%), Natural Sciences (n = 32, 18.4%), Arts and Humanities (n = 30, 17.2%), Medicine, Dentistry, and Health (n = 17, 9.8%), Engineering (n = 15, 8.6 %), Law (n = 9, 5.2%), Film (n = 7, 4.0%), and other faculties (n = 19, 10.9%). The sample included 49 males ranged from 18 to 40 years (M = 21.63, SD = 4.72) and 122 females ranged from 17 to 29 years (M = 20.45, SD = 3.01). Participants had to be undergraduate students in order to be included in the study. There were no other inclusion/exclusion criteria. MaterialsPreceding the questionnaire, brief instructions were given to participants asking them to rate one specific lecturer who taught them in the previous semester. In so doing, participants were required to (1) choose a lecturer who taught at least half of the classes for the module and (2) recall the grade received for said module. Participants were also provided with a definition of a module, which may have been useful for international students. A module was defined as a series of lectures on a subject that typically lasts a semester. Participants were then asked to provide the lecturer’s name, and this name was subsequently used to frame the upcoming questions (which was labelled ‘<Name>’ in the present paper).Destructive instructor-leadership. We measured destructive instructor-leadership using Tepper’s Abusive Supervision Scale along with the supplementary items provided by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9y2hYSND","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017). Both measures were moderately correlated (r = .50) indicating that while they may both tap into the same concept, the supplementary items from Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"p4KGBfNF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) still measured unique behaviours that may capture the first manifestation of destructive instructor-leadership. For the destructive instructor-leadership items, students were given instructions to indicate how often an instructor intentionally used the leader behaviours.The Abusive Supervision Scale consisted of 15 items that were represented on a 5-point continuum (1 = I cannot remember <Name> ever using this behaviour with me; 2 = <Name> very seldom used this behaviour with me; 3 = <Name> occasionally used this behaviour with me; 4 = <Name> used this behaviour moderately often with me; 5 = <Name> used this behaviour very often with me) with higher scores indicating more abusive supervision. All items are shown in Table 1 (α = 0.83).The 15 supplementary items based on the findings from Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uBIvwTLR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) were represented on the same 5-point continuum used in Tepper’s Abusive Supervision Scale, and therefore higher scores were indicative of higher destructive instructor-leadership. All items are listed in Table 1 (α = 0.83). Cronbach’s α for the 30 items, including both Tepper’s scale and the supplementary items from Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"IR8Ckjmd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017), was .96.Transformational instructor-leadership. We measured transformational instructor-leadership using 17 items from the Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). The MLQ items were represented on a 5-point continuum (0 = not at all; 1 = once in a while; 2 = sometimes; 3 = fairly often; 4 = frequently, if not always) with higher scores indicating higher transformational instructor-leadership. These items were adapted to the higher education module context using Pounder’s word modifications ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9YAeeBzR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Pounder, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Pounder, 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":375,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":375,"type":"article-journal","title":"Full-range classroom leadership: Implications for the cross-organizational and cross-cultural applicability of the transformational-transactional paradigm","container-title":"Leadership","page":"115 -135","volume":"4","issue":"2","source":"Highwire 2.0","abstract":"This study examined the applicability of the full-range leadership model to an unusual organizational setting, namely a university classroom. As the study took place in Hong Kong, it also considered the relevance of full-range leadership to an Asian rather than a western context. A classroom leadership instrument was developed and tested in the business school of one of the Hong Kong universities. The Hong Kong findings lent support to the argument that the full-range leadership paradigm is applicable across organizations and cultures. Limitations and scope for further study are discussed.","DOI":"10.1177/1742715008089634","shortTitle":"Full-range Classroom Leadership","author":[{"family":"Pounder","given":"James S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",5,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Pounder, 2008). In a separate analysis, we tested different factor structures of the MLQ as outlined by Antonakis et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"13hetebl5a","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2003)","plainCitation":"(2003)"},"citationItems":[{"id":720,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":720,"type":"article-journal","title":"Context and leadership: an examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"261-295","volume":"14","issue":"3","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"In this study, we examined the validity of the measurement model and factor structure of Bass and Avolio's Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Form 5X). We hypothesized that evaluations of leadership—and hence the psychometric properties of leadership instruments—may be affected by the context in which leadership is observed and evaluated. Using largely homogenous business samples consisting of 2279 pooled male and 1089 pooled female raters who evaluated same-gender leaders, we found support for the nine-factor leadership model proposed by Bass and Avolio. The model was configurally and partially metrically invariant—suggesting that the same constructs were validly measured in the male and female groups. Mean differences were found between the male and female samples on four leadership factors (Study 1). Next, using factor-level data of 18 independently gathered samples (N=6525 raters) clustered into prototypically homogenous contexts, we tested the nine-factor model and found it was stable (i.e., fully invariant) within homogenous contexts (Study 2). The contextual factors comprised environmental risk, leader–follower gender, and leader hierarchical level. Implications for use of the MLQ and nine-factor model are discussed.","DOI":"10.1016/S1048-9843(03)00030-4","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"Context and leadership","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Antonakis","given":"John"},{"family":"Avolio","given":"B.J."},{"family":"Sivasubramaniam","given":"Nagaraj"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",6]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2003) and found the best support for three transformational instructor-leadership dimensions including (1) charisma (11 items, e.g., ‘<Name> enthusiastically talked about what to do to make the module a success’) (α = 0.92); (2) intellectual stimulation (3 items, e.g., ‘<Name> made me see a problem from different angles’) (α = 0.75); and (3) individualized consideration (3 items, e.g., ‘<Name> treated me as a person – an individual entity, not just one among many students’) (α = 0.86). Cronbach’s α for the composite scale was .94.Effectiveness, extra effort, and satisfaction. We used nine items from the MLQ to measure (1) perceived effectiveness of the instructor (4 items) (α = 0.90); (2) extent to which the instructor is able to motivate students to give extra effort (3 items) (α = 0.90); and (3) satisfaction with the instructor (2 items) (α = 0.78). All nine items were represented on a 5-point continuum (0 = not at all; 1 = once in a while; 2 = sometimes; 3 = fairly often; 4 = frequently, if not always) with higher scores indicating more positive outcomes.Academic performance. We measured academic performance using students’ self-reported final grade for a completed module. Students provided either their actual grade percentage or the range in which their grade percentage lie. We converted the commonly used UK grade percentages to a 7-point scale (1 = no grade, 2 = 1-39, 3 = 40-44, 4 = 45-49, 5 = 50-59, 6 = 60-69, 7 = 70-100). Demographic. We measured age in years and coded biological gender as ‘0’ for male and ‘1’ for female. ProceduresWe distributed the questionnaire during the second semester of the 2014/2015 academic year. Participants were asked to rate instructors from the first semester of said academic year. This approach of examining a completed module ensured that (1) students were sufficiently familiar with their instructor and (2) a grade could be provided for the module. We then distributed the questionnaire to five students in a small pilot study. The intention of the pilot study was to check understanding of item wordings, and the pilot study participants did not identify any issues. After the pilot study, we distributed the questionnaire in two ways.First, we sent an email to all undergraduate students at a university located in England. In the email message, participants were given a brief description of the study, a link to an information sheet, and a link to the online questionnaire. Each participant could have opted to receive a free personality evaluation along with entry into a ?40 prize voucher draw. The sample from this survey consisted of 102 students.Second, the questionnaire was distributed to students at other UK universities via Qualtrics panel service. Qualtrics was used to source 100 undergraduate students from the UK. Because each of the participants from the Qualtrics panel was likely rewarded with an external incentive, we used two attention filters in the questionnaire to improve the quality of the data, i.e., verify that respondents were reading the questions carefully and following instructions. An example of an attention filter was, ‘Please select “Strongly agree” for this statement’. From the Qualtrics panel, 205 students completed the questionnaire, with 100 students being filtered out via the attention filters. Therefore, the Qualtrics panel was used to source a total of 105 students. Note that for the Qualtrics panel, participants were not (1) offered the option to receive a free personality evaluation and (2) entered into the prize draw.Ethical considerationsWe provided potential participants with an information sheet. The information sheet contained brief details regarding why the study was being done and what completing the questionnaire involved. Furthermore, the information sheet covered ethical issues such as (1) participation being voluntary, with the option of withdrawing at any time; (2) protocol to follow if anything goes wrong, e.g., contacting the university registrar or consulting a counselling service or personal doctor; (3) confidentiality of responses; (4) how the findings of the study would be used; and (5) details of the committee granting ethical approval of the study. The University Research Ethics Committee (UREC) at The University of Name Withheld for Anonymity granted ethical approval for this study.ResultsWe used two computer programs to conduct statistical analyses in the present paper. First, we used SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 22 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Sk1WeIgt","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(IBM Corp., 2013)","plainCitation":"(IBM Corp., 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1949,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1949,"type":"book","title":"SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0","publisher":"IBM Corp.","publisher-place":"Armonk, NY","event-place":"Armonk, NY","author":[{"family":"IBM Corp.","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":""} (IBM Corp., 2013) to test normality, component structures, convergent validity, and criterion validity. Second, we used the Lavaan package ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5WuGzDQT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rosseel, 2012)","plainCitation":"(Rosseel, 2012)"},"citationItems":[{"id":335,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":335,"type":"article-journal","title":"Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling","container-title":"Journal of Statistical Software","page":"1-36","volume":"48","issue":"2","author":[{"family":"Rosseel","given":"Yves"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Rosseel, 2012) for R ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HSYEZVCW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(R Core Team, 2013)","plainCitation":"(R Core Team, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":628,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":628,"type":"book","title":"R: A language and environment for statistical computing","publisher":"R Foundation for Statistical Computing","publisher-place":"Vienna, Austria","event-place":"Vienna, Austria","URL":"","author":[{"family":"R Core Team","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]}}}],"schema":""} (R Core Team, 2013) to conduct confirmatory factor analyses and test both convergent and discriminant validity.NormalityFor the 30 destructive instructor-leadership variables, all were severely non-normal, i.e., all of the kurtosis z-scores greatly exceeded the critical value of ±2.58 (ranging from 12.69 to 275.77), and 16 of the skewness z-scores greatly exceeded the critical value of ±2.58 (ranging from 12.31 to 53.63). With such large deviations from normality, χ2 derived from maximum likelihood estimation gets excessively large ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2snvm9d7g","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Blunch, 2008; Byrne, 2001)","plainCitation":"(Blunch, 2008; Byrne, 2001)"},"citationItems":[{"id":902,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":902,"type":"book","title":"Introduction to Structural Equation Modelling Using SPSS and Amos","publisher":"SAGE Publications Ltd","publisher-place":"Los Angeles","number-of-pages":"280","source":"Amazon","event-place":"Los Angeles","abstract":"New software (Lisrel and AMOS) has made the techniques of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) increasingly available to students and researchers, while the recent adoption of AMOS as part of the SPSS suite has improved access still further.As an alternative to existing books on the subject, which are customarily very long, very high-level and very mathematical, not to mention expensive, Niels Blunch's introduction has been designed for advanced undergraduates and Masters students who are new to SEM and still relatively new to statistics. Illustrated with screenshots, cases and exercises and accompanied by a companion website containing datasets that can be easily uploaded onto SPSS and AMOS, this handy introduction keeps maths to a minimum and contains an appendix covering basic forms of statistical analysis.","ISBN":"978-1-4129-4557-8","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Blunch","given":"Niels"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",3,13]]}}},{"id":760,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":760,"type":"book","title":"Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming","publisher":"Lawrence Erlbaum Associates","publisher-place":"Mahwah, New Jersey","event-place":"Mahwah, New Jersey","ISBN":"0-8058-3322-6","shortTitle":"Structural equation modeling with AMOS","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Byrne","given":"Barbara M"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Blunch, 2008; Byrne, 2001). Also, such non-normality could lead to analyses failing to converge, improper solutions, and underestimated fit indices ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PeAM3wQR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Blunch, 2008; Byrne, 2001)","plainCitation":"(Blunch, 2008; Byrne, 2001)"},"citationItems":[{"id":902,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":902,"type":"book","title":"Introduction to Structural Equation Modelling Using SPSS and Amos","publisher":"SAGE Publications Ltd","publisher-place":"Los Angeles","number-of-pages":"280","source":"Amazon","event-place":"Los Angeles","abstract":"New software (Lisrel and AMOS) has made the techniques of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) increasingly available to students and researchers, while the recent adoption of AMOS as part of the SPSS suite has improved access still further.As an alternative to existing books on the subject, which are customarily very long, very high-level and very mathematical, not to mention expensive, Niels Blunch's introduction has been designed for advanced undergraduates and Masters students who are new to SEM and still relatively new to statistics. Illustrated with screenshots, cases and exercises and accompanied by a companion website containing datasets that can be easily uploaded onto SPSS and AMOS, this handy introduction keeps maths to a minimum and contains an appendix covering basic forms of statistical analysis.","ISBN":"978-1-4129-4557-8","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Blunch","given":"Niels"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",3,13]]}}},{"id":760,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":760,"type":"book","title":"Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming","publisher":"Lawrence Erlbaum Associates","publisher-place":"Mahwah, New Jersey","event-place":"Mahwah, New Jersey","ISBN":"0-8058-3322-6","shortTitle":"Structural equation modeling with AMOS","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Byrne","given":"Barbara M"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Blunch, 2008; Byrne, 2001). Because the deviations from normality were so severe, data transformations recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"H40wZwrQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2007)","plainCitation":"(2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1939,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1939,"type":"book","title":"Using multivariate statistics","publisher":"Pearson/Allyn & Bacon","publisher-place":"Boston","number-of-pages":"980","edition":"5th ed","source":"Library of Congress ISBN","event-place":"Boston","ISBN":"978-0-205-45938-4","call-number":"QA278 .T3 2007","note":"OCLC: ocm62766132","author":[{"family":"Tabachnick","given":"Barbara G."},{"family":"Fidell","given":"Linda S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2007) and Hair et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"01qefFK7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2009)","plainCitation":"(2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2009) did not lead to any notable improvements in normality. When deviations from normality are so severe that no transformation improves the distributions, Tabachnick and Fidell ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5BPCAoDz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2007)","plainCitation":"(2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1939,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1939,"type":"book","title":"Using multivariate statistics","publisher":"Pearson/Allyn & Bacon","publisher-place":"Boston","number-of-pages":"980","edition":"5th ed","source":"Library of Congress ISBN","event-place":"Boston","ISBN":"978-0-205-45938-4","call-number":"QA278 .T3 2007","note":"OCLC: ocm62766132","author":[{"family":"Tabachnick","given":"Barbara G."},{"family":"Fidell","given":"Linda S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2007) suggested dichotomizing the variable. Therefore, we dichotomized all of the destructive instructor-leadership variables as 0 for ‘leader did not use the behaviour’ and 1 for ‘leader used the behaviour’. This change in coding means that the destructive instructor-leadership variables now measured use of destructive instructor-leadership rather than frequency of leadership ponent structureFollowing Hinkin’s guidelines, we conducted a principal component analysis (PCA) on the 30 destructive instructor-leadership items for initial item reduction. For the PCA, we used oblique rotation (Promax) in order to allow the components to correlate as expected. Various tests were used to determine the number of components to extract (i.e., Kaiser’s criterion = 9, Velicer’s Revised Minimum Average Partial (MAP) test = 2, and Horn’s parallel analysis = 3). Given that Kaiser’s criterion led to 5 components with weak loadings, we tested two-, three-, and four-component solutions. Both the three-component and four-component structures produced the clearest structures with stronger components than the two-component solution. However, the final four-component solution contained one component that comprised of only two feedback items (inaccurate and poor feedback). In a four-component structure, the feedback component would need to be enhanced, perhaps by adding more feedback oriented questions to the survey. Moreover, in the four-component structure, the remaining three components contained fewer stronger loadings than the three-component solution. For these reasons, along with the parallel analysis results, we specified a three-component structure.For the three-component structure, we conducted several re-specifications and deleted 17 items in an iterative process due to poor representation by the component structure. Component loadings were expected to be greater than .425 based on a sample size of 174 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1uk2eib7kj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hair et al., 2009). Additionally, communalities should be greater than .5 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SIS4rhik","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hair et al., 2009). In the first iteration, items 9, 13, 19, and 22 had communalities that were less than .3, and thus these items were deleted first because of their very poor representation by the component structure. After deleting the four stated items, the findings of a second iteration indicated that items 2, 6, 17, 20, 21, and 28 had communalities that were less than .4, and thus were deleted. With all communalities now greater than .4, we addressed items with low communalities along with cross-loading issues. A cross-loading meant that a given item loaded at .32 or higher on two or more components ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1jd2E8DY","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1939,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1939,"type":"book","title":"Using multivariate statistics","publisher":"Pearson/Allyn & Bacon","publisher-place":"Boston","number-of-pages":"980","edition":"5th ed","source":"Library of Congress ISBN","event-place":"Boston","ISBN":"978-0-205-45938-4","call-number":"QA278 .T3 2007","note":"OCLC: ocm62766132","author":[{"family":"Tabachnick","given":"Barbara G."},{"family":"Fidell","given":"Linda S."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). For the third iteration, very problematic cross-loadings for items 14, 24, 27, and 30 were identified and deleted. For the fourth iteration, the communality for item 18 dropped below .4, and therefore this item was deleted. For the fifth iteration, the communality for item 7 was less than .5, and the item was dissimilar to other items on its component, i.e., item 7 described not giving credit for work whereas the other items on that component described communication behaviours. For these reasons, we deleted item 7. For the sixth iteration, the communality for item 25 dropped below .5, and this item was the weakest loading item on its five-item component. For these reasons, we deleted item 25. For the seventh iteration, all communalities were acceptable, and there was a clear component solution with no cross-loadings. Therefore, after six iterations of item reduction, the final component solution was represented by 13 items and explained 70.10% of the variance (see Table 2).The components were named as follows:Irresponsibility: The items that loaded on this component related to unscrupulous and dishonourable leadership actions for which followers are deceived.Victimization: The items on this component related to a leader harassing and picking on a follower.Callous communication: The items that loaded on this component described harmful communication actions by the leader.The subscale for each of the three components was reliable given that each Cronbach’s alpha value exceeded .7 as shown in Table 2 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"WP05rJP9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)","plainCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hinkin, 1998).[Insert Table 2 near here]These findings partially supported the three dimensions proposed by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"zoW6TS7b","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017). Specifically, both callous communication and irresponsibility were fairly well represented. However, chaotic carelessness was not an emergent dimension. Still, two items that were initially expected to load on a chaotic carelessness factor, loaded on two other factors. For instance, misleading behaviour loaded on the factor that seemed to represent irresponsible behaviour. Also, giving the silent treatment loaded on a factor that appeared to represent callous communication. These loadings indicated that chaotic carelessness may overlap with other dimensions instead of being a distinct dimension as proposed by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aQA4E8zF","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017). Also, the victimization dimension is not proposed by Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VXv1sjCS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017), but is an emergent factor from Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3ZMOJVEG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) scale. Finally, in a separate analysis, Tepper’s scale by itself did not contain an irresponsibility dimension – the dimension that is related to the first manifestation of destructive leadership.Confirmatory factor analysisFollowing Hinkin’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oX7x3iqW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) guide, for the next step we conducted a CFA to reproduce the derived 13-item three-factor solution. Given that all of the observed variables were categorical, we used diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) estimation. DWLS provides more accurate estimates and fit indices for models when variables have a small number of categories ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2iqhjrk2vn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (M\\uc0\\u238{}ndril\\uc0\\u259{}, 2010)}","plainCitation":"(M?ndril?, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":304,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":304,"type":"article-journal","title":"Maximum likelihood (ML) and diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) estimation procedures: A comparison of estimation bias with ordinal and multivariate non-normal data.","container-title":"International Journal of Digital Society (IJDS)","volume":"1","issue":"1","author":[{"family":"M?ndril?","given":"Diana"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":""} (M?ndril?, 2010). Details of the final CFA are given in Table 2. We followed the guidelines by Hair et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2oii4recmd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2009)","plainCitation":"(2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2009) to assess model fit, and thus report one incremental fit index, i.e., Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and one absolute fit index, i.e., Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). All of the robust fit indices indicated good model fit (χ2df = 1.02, CFI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.01). χ2 was 63.03 (df = 62) and p > .05. We tested a series of competing models in order to determine whether the data could be represented by a better fitting model than the proposed measurement model. The baseline model used for all comparisons was the three-factor model from our initial CFA. First, a higher-order factor was tested, and the fit results were the same as the three-factor model, thus indicating that a single higher-order factor of destructive instructor-leadership could represent the data. This result was expected because the number of parameters to be estimated in both the baseline and higher-order models was the same, i.e., these two models were empirically equivalent ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"eJGykvr7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Lee & Hershberger, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Lee & Hershberger, 1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":517,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":517,"type":"article-journal","title":"A simple rule for generating equivalent models in covariance structure modeling","container-title":"Multivariate Behavioral Research","page":"313-334","volume":"25","issue":"3","source":"Taylor and Francis+NEJM","abstract":"This study introduces the replacing rule as a simplification of Stelzl's (1986) four rules for the generation of recursive equivalent models. The replacing rule is applicable to nonrecursive as well as recursive models, and generates equivalent models through the replacement of direct paths with residual correlations, through the replacement of residual correlations with direct paths, or through the inversion of path directions. Examples of the use of the replacing rule are provided, and its advantages over Stelzl's four rules are discussed.","DOI":"10.1207/s15327906mbr2503_4","ISSN":"0027-3171","author":[{"family":"Lee","given":"Soonmook"},{"family":"Hershberger","given":"Scott"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990",7,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Lee & Hershberger, 1990). Second, we tested a one-factor model, and this model fitted significantly worse than the baseline three-factor model (?χ2 [3] = 24.37, p < .001). Third, we tested a two-factor model combining the irresponsibility and victimization factors. For this model, the fit results were significantly worse than the baseline three-factor model (?χ2 [2] = 9.96, p < .05). Fourth, we tested a two-factor model combining the victimization and callous communication factors. Again, the fit results were significantly worse than the baseline model (?χ2 [2] = 18.07, p < .001). Fifth, we tested a two-factor model combining the irresponsibility and callous communication factors into a single factor, and this model fitted significantly worse than the baseline model (?χ2 [2] = 15.03, p < .001). Overall, the model comparisons indicated that destructive instructor-leadership can be represented by either three first-order constructs or a single second-order construct.Convergent validityTo assess convergent validity, we examined the correlation matrix for the expected correlations between the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions and other instructor-leadership dimensions (see Table 3), factor loadings, average variance extracted (AVE), and construct reliability ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xFK74wNv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hair et al., 2009). First, each of the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions shared at least one significant and negative association with a transformational instructor-leadership dimension. More importantly, the combined destructive instructor-leadership construct was significantly and negatively associated with the combined transformational instructor-leadership construct as expected (r = -.27, p < .01). In addition, the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions and overall construct also (1) shared expected negative associations with active forms of instructor-leadership (i.e., contingent reward and active management by exception), and (2) expected positive associations with other forms of negative instructor-leadership (i.e., passive management by exception and laissez-faire). These correlations all indicate good convergent validity. Second, all factor loadings exceeded the minimum threshold of .5, and most loadings met or exceeded the ideal threshold of .7 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kcDHLiQB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hair et al., 2009). Third, AVE was greater than 50% for each dimension ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hzdOQhJy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hair et al., 2009). Fourth, all construct reliability values exceeded 0.70 (see Table 2 for reported factor loadings, AVE, and construct reliabilities). Overall, convergent validity for the three-factor solution was good.[Insert Table 3 near here]Discriminant validityThe discriminant validity for the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions were all fairly good. For instance, the highest interconstruct correlation was 0.62, and thus did not exceed the cut-off value of 0.85 proposed by Kline ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SiUh2LZN","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2011)","plainCitation":"(2011)"},"citationItems":[{"id":540,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":540,"type":"book","title":"Principles and practice of structural equation modeling","publisher":"Guilford Press","publisher-place":"New York","source":"Open WorldCat","event-place":"New York","abstract":"\"This bestselling text provides a balance between the technical and practical aspects of structural equation modeling (SEM). Using clear and accessible language, Rex B. Kline covers core techniques, potential pitfalls, and applications across the behavioral and social sciences. Some more advanced topics are also covered, including estimation of interactive effects of latent variables and multilevel SEM. The companion Web page offers downloadable syntax, data, and output files for each detailed example for EQS, LISREL, and Mplus, allowing readers to view the results of the same analysis generated by three different computer tools.\"--pub. desc.","ISBN":"978-1-60623-877-6","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Kline","given":"Rex B"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2011). Furthermore, all three interconstruct correlations were positive, which was an indication of good nomological validity, i.e., this finding suggested that the three dimensions tapped into destructive instructor-leadership.To further investigate discriminant validity, we compared the average variance extracted (AVE) for each of the three destructive instructor-leadership constructs with that of its squared interconstruct correlation (SIC) with the three transformational instructor-leadership constructs ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hgMMYlSR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)","plainCitation":"(Hair et al., 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":598,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":598,"type":"book","title":"Multivariate data analysis","publisher":"Prentice Hall","number-of-pages":"816","edition":"7","source":"","ISBN":"0-13-813263-1","author":[{"family":"Hair","given":"Joseph F. Jr."},{"family":"Black","given":"William C."},{"family":"Babin","given":"Barry J."},{"family":"Anderson","given":"Rolph"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",2,13]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hair et al., 2009). This comparison reveals whether the destructive instructor-leadership constructs are truly distinct from the transformational instructor-leadership constructs (i.e., not simply opposite leadership behaviours). The findings suggested excellent discriminant validity because the AVE values for irresponsibility (.74), victimization (.52), and callous communication (.53) all greatly exceeded the SIC values for each of the transformational instructor-leadership dimensions (ranging from .00 to .15). Therefore, there was good evidence that the destructive instructor-leadership constructs capture phenomena that the transformational instructor-leadership constructs do not.Criterion validityTo establish criterion-related validity, multiple regression models were estimated for effectiveness, satisfaction, extra effort, and academic performance. For each model, the independent variables entered included the three destructive instructor-leadership dimensions as well as the control variables of age and gender (see Table 4). For all of the outcomes, including effectiveness, satisfaction, extra effort, and academic performance, neither age nor gender was a significant predictor. Callous communication was a significant and strong predictor of effectiveness (β = -0.32, p < .001), satisfaction (β = -0.36, p < .001), and extra effort (β = -0.36, p < .001) in the expected direction. Irresponsibility was also a significant predictor of extra effort (β = -0.17, p < .05) in the expected direction. Victimization was not significant in any of these models. Moreover, none of the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions were significant predictors in the academic performance model. Overall, these findings partially correspond with previous research which showed that destructive leadership was negatively related to individual performance (i.e., effort and performance) and satisfaction ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9rgp9th71","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schyns & Schilling, 2013).[Insert Table 4 near here]Incremental validityWe used hierarchical regression to further test for incremental validity of the destructive instructor-leadership constructs beyond other negative forms of instructor-leadership, i.e., laissez-faire and passive management by exception (see Table 5). As explained by Krasikova et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"f37e828kr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013), destructive leadership and ineffective leadership are conceptually different because the former describes volitional behaviour, whereas the latter deals with a leader’s inability to mobilize followers towards goals. Therefore, empirically, destructive instructor-leadership should contribute additional variance above laissez-faire and passive management by exception.[Insert Table 5 near here] For the hierarchical regression model, the variate’s assumptions were met and multicollinearity was not problematic. Age and gender were entered in the first step, followed by laissez-faire and passive management by exception in step 2, and then the three destructive instructor-leadership dimensions in step 3. The incremental validity findings showed that (1) one of the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions explained additional variance above laissez-faire and passive management by exception in predicting effectiveness (50% more variance), and satisfaction (60% more variance), and (2) two of the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions explained additional variance above extra effort (68.42% more variance). Specifically, callous communication and irresponsibility remained significant in their respective models from Table 5, even when laissez-faire was a significant predictor. These findings support the notion that destructive instructor-leadership goes beyond these other forms of negative instructor-leadership, i.e., unsupportive instructor-leadership or non-leadership. See Table 6 for a summary of the findings from each of Hinkin’s steps.[Insert Table 6 near here] DiscussionThe aim of this paper is to develop a measure of destructive instructor-leadership that is aligned with the conceptualization proposed by Krasikova et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2g4tq54rht","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013). In following Hinkin’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"16mtglhfqk","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) framework, we (1) adapt items from Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2ons3mh4hh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) scale and generate items from Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3GEA4eY1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017), (2) administer the questionnaire, (3) reduce the number of items via exploratory factor analysis, (4) conduct a confirmatory factor analysis, and (5) conduct validity tests. The findings suggest that destructive instructor-leadership can be measured by thirteen items that capture three dimensions including, irresponsibility, victimization, and callous communication. On the one hand, irresponsibility is related to the first manifestation of destructive leadership that describes leading followers towards contradictory goals. On the other hand, victimization and callous communication are directly linked to the second manifestation of destructive leadership that describes the use of harmful behaviours in leading followers.The findings also indicate that certain items from Tepper’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"diqKfXYs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2000)","plainCitation":"(2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":144,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":144,"type":"article-journal","title":"Consequences of abusive supervision","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"178-190","volume":"43","issue":"2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Drawing on justice theory, I examined the consequences of abusive supervisor behavior. As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) scale are poorly represented in a factor structure. Specifically, six of the fifteen items from Tepper’s scale were not well represented by the three-factor structure in this paper. Mitchell and Ambrose ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2qerrq06as","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2007)","plainCitation":"(2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":42,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":42,"type":"article-journal","title":"Abusive supervision and workplace deviance and the moderating effects of negative reciprocity beliefs.","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"1159-1168","volume":"92","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1159","ISSN":"1939-1854, 0021-9010","author":[{"family":"Mitchell","given":"Marie S."},{"family":"Ambrose","given":"Maureen L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2007) illustrated similar issues with Tepper’s scale because five items were poorly represented by their two-factor structure. Perhaps some of these deleted items may indicate that certain destructive leadership behaviours from the corporate context are not applicable to the higher education module context. For e.g., given the short-term distant nature of higher education modules, it is unlikely that instructors would be able to recall past instances of students’ mistakes and failures (item 6 in Table 1). Alternatively, some of Tepper’s items may need to be reworded or supplemented by similar behavioural items in developing other destructive instructor-leadership dimensions. For e.g., not giving credit for work requiring a lot of effort (item 7 in Table 1) is likely to be applicable to higher education teaching, and may need to be further refined. In addition to this shortcoming, arguably the biggest flaw with Tepper’s scale is that it largely ignores the first manifestation of destructive leadership as proposed by Krasikova et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nnQPne4f","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013), i.e., leading followers towards contradictory goals.For the new measure, there was fairly good support for criterion and incremental validity of the destructive instructor-leadership dimensions. The callous communication dimension appears to be the strongest predictor of the examined outcomes, i.e., perceived effectiveness, satisfaction, and extra effort. Also, the new measure contributes additional variance beyond measures of transformational instructor-leadership and ineffective instructor-leadership. Overall, this paper contributes a measure of destructive instructor-leadership that is aligned with the conceptualization of destructive leadership as proposed by Krasikova et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QBk2z4xj","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2013)","plainCitation":"(2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":516,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":516,"type":"article-journal","title":"Destructive leadership: A theoretical review, integration, and future research agenda","container-title":"Journal of Management","page":"1308-1338","volume":"39","issue":"5","source":"jom..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"In this article, we propose a framework for understanding destructive leadership that summarizes the extant destructive leadership research and extends it in new directions. By reviewing the current literature on destructive leadership and drawing on organizational leadership theory and the more general research on deviant behaviors in organizations, we identify the underlying features and mechanisms that define destructive leadership. Recognizing that each form of destructive leadership currently studied (e.g., abusive supervision, petty tyranny, and pseudo-transformational leadership) addresses aspects of destructive leadership but fails to capture the complete picture of the phenomenon, we clarify the boundaries among the constructs studied within the domain of destructive leadership, address some ambiguities about the nature of destructive leadership, make explicit some characteristics of destructive leadership that set it apart from other forms of leading, and integrate this thinking into a theoretical model that helps us understand the manifestations of destructive leadership, and their antecedents and consequences.","DOI":"10.1177/0149206312471388","ISSN":"0149-2063, 1557-1211","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Management","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Krasikova","given":"Dina V."},{"family":"Green","given":"Stephen G."},{"family":"LeBreton","given":"James M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",7,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2013), and that is built using nine items from Tepper’s 15-item measure and four items from Balwant’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a228h9jd82t","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) interview study.In developing the destructive instructor-leadership measure, this paper also contributes to the dimensionality of destructive leadership. The dimensionality of destructive leadership has largely been ignored in leadership research. As explained earlier, previous studies often used a single construct representing destructive leadership, which was found to be negatively related to follower outcomes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1hfe6f0vqq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Schyns & Schilling, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":753,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":753,"type":"article-journal","title":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders? A meta-analysis of destructive leadership and its outcomes","container-title":"The Leadership Quarterly","page":"138-158","volume":"24","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"While the focus on constructive leadership still dominates leadership research, an increasing number of studies investigate different forms of destructive leadership. This meta-analysis integrates different conceptualizations of destructive leadership and analyzes the relationship between destructive leadership and outcome variables. The search for articles yielded more than 200 studies of which 57 could be included in the meta-analysis. Results indicate the expected negative correlations with positive followers' outcomes and behaviors (e.g., attitudes towards the leader, well-being, and individual performance) and positive correlations with negative outcomes (e.g., turnover intention, resistance towards the leader, counterproductive work behavior). As expected, the highest correlation arises between destructive leadership and attitudes towards the leader. Surprisingly, the next highest correlation was found between destructive leadership and counterproductive work behavior. After discussing the results, an agenda for future research is proposed. Given the negative impact of destructive leadership, more knowledge is especially necessary regarding what triggers destructive leadership.","DOI":"10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.09.001","ISSN":"1048-9843","shortTitle":"How bad are the effects of bad leaders?","journalAbbreviation":"The Leadership Quarterly","author":[{"family":"Schyns","given":"Birgit"},{"family":"Schilling","given":"Jan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",2]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schyns & Schilling, 2013). In this paper, we show the importance of examining the individual dimensions of destructive leadership. Specifically, when destructive leadership is examined at the multidimensional level, each dimension shares varying associations with follower outcomes (recall the criterion validity tests as summarized in Table 6). In light of our findings, certain destructive leadership dimensions may be more harmful than others depending on the follower outcome. To address our opening research question, we show that (1) destructive instructor-leadership is composed of three dimensions including irresponsibility, victimization, and callous communication and (2) these three dimensions can be captured by a 13-item measure.Limitations and directions for future researchA potential limitation in the present paper is the item wording of the destructive instructor-leadership measure. Here, the items are worded so that each student is asked to rate his/her instructor’s actions towards him/her. This phrasing is used in the original version of Tepper’s scale, and ensures consistency between other leadership measures, e.g., MLQ. However, Balwant ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1JTBosTm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2017)","plainCitation":"(2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2017) explains that students sometimes perceive their instructor as being a destructive leader based on the instructor’s actions towards the class in general, i.e., a bystander effect. Therefore, the personal leadership measure used in this paper does not capture students’ perceptions of destructive instructor-leadership that are based upon their observations of the instructor’s actions towards other students. This limitation may partially explain why the destructive instructor-leadership variables are severely positively skewed. To incorporate the bystander effect, and thus potentially increase variation in responses, future research can include an opening statement such as, ‘Report how frequently you observe your instructor/supervisor using the following actions towards you and/or other students/employees’. Each item would then state the leader’s actions towards the follower and/or other followers, e.g., ridiculed me and/or other students/employees. Alternatively, future research can even compare findings between (1) followers who experience destructive instructor-leadership on a personal one-on-one level and (2) followers who experience their instructor using destructive instructor-leadership behaviour towards others (i.e., a bystander’s perspective). Such a comparison can reveal whether destructive instructor-leadership effects vary according to the type of interaction between instructor and student.A second limitation in the present paper is that we rely on cross-sectional data. Cross-sectional data cannot be used to determine direction of causality. It is possible that the reverse relationships are true. For instance, it is plausible to expect that a leader may react to poor performing followers by using callous communication. To test causality, future research can adopt randomized experimental designs. An ethical issue in using randomized trials is the exposure of individuals to destructive leadership behaviours. One way to minimize this potential harm is to screen participants and exclude those that suffer from depression or social anxiety. However, this selection bias can affect the validity of the results. An alternative approach is to use a computer-simulation. Participants can be immersed into a computer-simulated environment that simulates the experience of being exposed to a destructive leader. The use of a simulated leader minimizes the ethical issue of having ‘real-life’ leaders use harmful behaviours towards participants. Simulated environments can be further enhanced via the use of virtual reality technology – a technology that is becoming increasingly popular and feasible for research purposes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oppmnt0n4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kiss, 2014)","plainCitation":"(Kiss, 2014)"},"citationItems":[{"id":415,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":415,"type":"article-newspaper","title":"Oculus: Facebook buys virtual reality gaming firm for $2bn","container-title":"The Guardian","section":"Technology","source":"The Guardian","abstract":"Snapping up the Oculus Rift makers, Mark Zuckerberg says Facebook is getting ready for the platforms of tomorrow - and that virtual reality will be the next social communications platform","URL":"","ISSN":"0261-3077","shortTitle":"Oculus","language":"en-GB","author":[{"family":"Kiss","given":"Jemima"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",3,25]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2014",5,18]]}}}],"schema":""} (Kiss, 2014).A third limitation of the present study is that we did not conduct a replication study. As stated earlier, a replication study is needed to enhance the generalizability of the newly developed measure in this study ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"fk8c1alcn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)","plainCitation":"(Hinkin, 1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. Price and Mueller suggest that measurement problems may be due to the lack of a well-established framework to guide researchers through the various stages of scale development. This article provides a conceptual framework and a straightforward guide for the development of scales in accordance with established psychometric principles for use infield studies","DOI":"10.1177/109442819800100106","ISSN":"1094-4281, 1552-7425","journalAbbreviation":"Organizational Research Methods","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hinkin","given":"Timothy R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hinkin, 1998). In a replication study, we suggest that convergent validity be further examined to determine how well the newly developed measure correlates with other measures that tap into the same concept, e.g., Duffy et al.’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"12ndbhoe4e","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2002)","plainCitation":"(2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":693,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":693,"type":"article-journal","title":"Social Undermining in the Workplace","container-title":"The Academy of Management Journal","page":"331-351","volume":"45","issue":"2","abstract":"An interactive model of social undermining and social support in the workplace was developed and tested among police officers in the Republic of Slovenia. As predicted, social undermining was significantly associated with employee outcomes, in most cases more strongly than was social support. High levels of undermining and support from the same source were associated with negative outcomes. However, support from one source appeared to only modestly attenuate the negative effects of social undermining from another source.","ISSN":"00014273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2002 / Copyright ? 2002 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Duffy","given":"Michelle K."},{"family":"Ganster","given":"Daniel C."},{"family":"Pagon","given":"Milan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2002) Social Undermining Scale.A final note is that we investigate leadership from an instructor-student perspective. This perspective is not a limitation given the purpose of our study. However, we caution against using these findings in a corporate context. Even though an instructor-student relationship is similar to a supervisor-employee relationship, the former is characterized by unique nuances that are absent in the corporate context. For instance, students pay for their tuition, and are generally not accountable to their instructors in the same way that employees are accountable to their supervisors or a CEO. Also, the length of instructor-student relationships are typically shorter than supervisor-employee relationships ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"k8JrF2Lc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(for a more detailed discussion on context differences, see Balwant, 2017)","plainCitation":"(for a more detailed discussion on context differences, see Balwant, 2017)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1746,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1746,"type":"article-journal","title":"The dark side of teaching: destructive instructor leadership and its association with students’ affect, behaviour, and cognition","container-title":"International Journal of Leadership in Education","page":"577-604","volume":"20","issue":"5","source":"DataCite","DOI":"10.1080/13603124.2015.1112432","shortTitle":"The dark side of teaching","author":[{"family":"Balwant","given":"Paul T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]}},"prefix":"for a more detailed discussion on context differences, see"}],"schema":""} (for a more detailed discussion on context differences, see Balwant, 2017). For these reasons, we suggest that our study be replicated not only in a module/course context but also in a corporate context.Practical implications and conclusionThe present study offers an important practical implication for identifying destructive instructor-leadership in higher education. While our study shows that destructive instructor-leadership may be rare, it still exists. Unfortunately, destructive instructor-leader behaviours can go unnoticed by instructors themselves and is hardly mentioned in higher education ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2n90u41r81","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boice, 1996)","plainCitation":"(Boice, 1996)"},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"article-journal","title":"Classroom incivilities","container-title":"Research in Higher Education","page":"453-486","volume":"37","issue":"4","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1007/BF01730110","ISSN":"0361-0365, 1573-188X","author":[{"family":"Boice","given":"Bob"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1996",8]]}}}],"schema":""} (Boice, 1996). Moreover, quantitative questions in module/course evaluations are generally targeted towards measuring supportive teaching practices rather than destructive instructor-leadership. With this in mind, we have a few suggestions for identifying destructive instructor-leadership. First, open-ended questions in module evaluations can be content analysed and cross-referenced to our newly developed measure in order to determine if an instructor is using destructive leader behaviours. Second, if an instructor receives poor module evaluations, our measure can be included in future module evaluations to determine if the instructor is simply teaching poorly or engaging in behaviours that are more aversive, i.e., destructive instructor-leadership. Third, if an instructor receives poor module evaluations, trained observers can use our measure to observe and note destructive instructor-leader behaviours in an unbiased manner ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aq5d03u72l","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Boice, 1996)","plainCitation":"(Boice, 1996)"},"citationItems":[{"id":223,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":223,"type":"article-journal","title":"Classroom incivilities","container-title":"Research in Higher Education","page":"453-486","volume":"37","issue":"4","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1007/BF01730110","ISSN":"0361-0365, 1573-188X","author":[{"family":"Boice","given":"Bob"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1996",8]]}}}],"schema":""} (Boice, 1996). Once one or more of these three methods detect destructive instructor-leadership, then a training programme geared towards the changing of these leader behaviours may be necessary.A detailed explanation of a training programme for changing destructive instructor-leadership is beyond the scope of the present paper. However, we have a few recommendations for how our measure can be used to design and implement a training programme. First, our measure can be used to prepare instructional objectives ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a2qgolutq0v","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mager, 1997)","plainCitation":"(Mager, 1997)"},"citationItems":[{"id":182,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":182,"type":"book","title":"Preparing instructional objectives: A critical tool in the development of effective instruction","publisher":"Center for Effective Performance","publisher-place":"Atlanta, GA","source":"Open WorldCat","event-place":"Atlanta, GA","abstract":"Instructional objectives are the cornerstone of successful instruction. When written well, they enable you to identify appropriate content for your instruction, organize your instruction in the best way possible, and create tools to accurately determine if instruction is achieving your goals. This book is your systematic guide to identifying, selecting, and writing objectives that create the foundation for instructional success. Newly revised and completely updated, this third edition shows you how to write objectives that give you the power to: Select the best content and methods for achieving your objectives; Provide learners with a road map to guide them through the learning process; Give learners a better chance of succeeding; and Demonstrate the value of what you're teaching. -- from Back Cover","ISBN":"1-879618-03-6","shortTitle":"Preparing instructional objectives","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Mager","given":"Robert Frank"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Mager, 1997). For instance, a training session on callous communication may have an objective such as ‘refrain from using words or actions that ridicule, put down, and show disinterest towards students in all settings, e.g., in the presence of other students, when students do not know the answer to a question, private meetings, etc.’. Second, our measure can be useful for the training methods chosen ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a1upqrjgr0o","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Werner & DeSimone, 2011)","plainCitation":"(Werner & DeSimone, 2011)"},"citationItems":[{"id":866,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":866,"type":"book","title":"Human resource development","publisher":"Cengage Learning","publisher-place":"Mason, OH : Andover","number-of-pages":"688","edition":"6 edition","source":"Amazon","event-place":"Mason, OH : Andover","abstract":"Master the basics of human resource development with HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT! Providing you with a clear understanding of the concepts, processes, and practices that form the basis of success, this management text shows you how concepts and theory can be put into practice in a variety of organizations. Coverage includes strategic issues in HRD, employee behavior, implementing HRD programs, training, research and statistics, and team-based coverage.","ISBN":"978-0-538-48099-4","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Werner","given":"Jon M."},{"family":"DeSimone","given":"Randy L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",9,22]]}}}],"schema":""} (Werner & DeSimone, 2011). For instance, if behavioural modelling is used, trainees can be shown visual examples (e.g., videos and/or skits) of destructive instructor-leader behaviours that are based on items from our measure. Finally, when evaluating the training programme, our measure can be useful for ongoing evaluation of the training programme as well as to determine whether trainees transferred their learning to the classroom. Here, our measure can be used along with module evaluations to conduct pre-training and post-training comparisons.In summary, we followed Hinkin’s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"dm4jftbl1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":541,"type":"article-journal","title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","container-title":"Organizational Research Methods","page":"104-121","volume":"1","issue":"1","source":"orm..eresources.shef.ac.uk","abstract":"The adequate measurement of abstract constructs is perhaps the greatest challenge to understanding the behavior of people in organizations. Problems with the reliability and validity of measures used on survey questionnaires continue to lead to difficulties in interpreting the results of field research. 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As expected, subordinates who perceived their supervisors were more abusive were more likely to quit their jobs. For subordinates who remained with their jobs, abusive supervision was associated with lower job and life satisfaction, lower normative and affective commitment, and higher continuance commitment, conflict between work and family, and psychological distress. Organizational justice mediated most of these effects, and job mobility moderated some of the deleterious effects of abusive supervision.","DOI":"10.2307/1556375","ISSN":"0001-4273","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Apr., 2000 / Copyright ? 2000 Academy of Management","author":[{"family":"Tepper","given":"B.J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000",4,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2000) measure of abusive supervision so that it is better aligned with the conceptualization of destructive instructor-leadership. The new 13-item measure captures three dimensions of destructive instructor-leadership including irresponsibility, victimization, and callous communication. We found fairly good support for the new measure of destructive instructor-leadership and its dimensions. Nonetheless, we recommend that the new measure be administered to (1) an independent student sample and (2) employee samples in corporate contexts because doing so would improve the generalizability of said measure.References ADDIN ZOTERO_BIBL {"custom":[]} CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, M. J. D., & Umbach, P. D. (2012). Nonresponse and online student evaluations of teaching: Understanding the influence of salience, fatigue, and academic environments. Research in Higher Education, 53(5), 576–591. , J., Avolio, B. J., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (2003). Context and leadership: an examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(3), 261–295. 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