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BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR BASIC CLASSAbbott Rick, Complications with selective posterior rhizotomy. Pediatr Neurosurg 1992;18:43-47,Alhusaini AA, Crosbie J, Shepherd RB, Dean CM, Scheinberg A. No change in calf muscle passive stiffness after botulinum toxin injection in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2011 Jun;53(6):553-8.*Almeida GL, Campbell, SK, Girolami GL, Penn RD, Corcos DM. Multidimensional assessment of motor function in a child with cerebral palsy following intrathecal administration of baclofen. Phys Ther. 1997;77:751-764. [After `2 years, ROM was worse and concern regarding hip subluxation arose.) Anttila H1, Autti-R?m? I, Suoranta J, M?kel? M, Malmivaara A. Effectiveness of physical therapy interventions for children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. BMC Pediatr. 2008 Apr 24;8:14. [Conflicting evidence was found for strength training on gross motor function.]. Arnold AS, Delp SL. Rotational moment arms of the medial hamstrings and adductors vary with femoral geometry and limb position: implications for the treatment of internally rotated gait. Journal of Biomechanics. 2001:34:437-47.Barber L, Hastings-Ison T, Baker R, Graham HK, Barrett R & Lichtwark G. The effects of Botulinum toxin injection frequency on calf muscle growth in young children with spastic cerebral palsy: A 12 month prospective study. Journal of Children’s Orthopaedics. 2013 June. Abstract only. However, MG muscle growth in the spastic CP groups was significantly lower than the age-matched TD peers.Baker LL, Wederick CL, McNeal DR, Newsam CJ, Waters RL. Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation: A Practical Clinical Guide, 4th Edition. Downy, CA: Rancho Los Amigos Medical Center, 1993. [Excellent guide with photos for electrode placement and more.]Barbosa AP, Vaz DV, Gontijo AP, Fonseca ST, Mancini MC. Therapeutic effects of electrical stimulation on manual function of children with cerebral palsy: evaluation of two cases. . Disabil Rehabil. 2008;30(9):723-8. Abstract only: NMES was given to the wrist extensors and flexors and found to help function. **Bogie KM, Triolo RJ. Effects of regular use of neuromuscular electrical stimulation on tissue health. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2003 Nov-Dec;40(6):469-75. Positive results for improved health continued with NMES and stopped when NMES was discontinued.Bowen JR, MacEwen GD, Mathews PA. Treatment of extension contracture of the hip in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1981;23:23-29. [Extension deformities were thought to be caused by the adductor surgery. [Do think that they were right?]Beckung E, Carlsson G, Carlsdotter S, Uvebrandt P. The natural history of gross motor development in children with cerebral palsy aged 1 to 15 years. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;49:751-756. Discusses the stability of the GMFCS’ Majoity of Level III reached 80 of GMFM by age 7. Level ii reached 90 % at age 5. **Bober T. Dziuba A. Kobel-Buys K. Kulig K. Gait characteristics following Achilles tendon elongation: the foot rocker perspective. [Journal Article. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't] Acta of Bioengineering & Biomechanics. 10(1):37-42, 2008: [After surgery 3rd rocker velocity was lowered 50-80%, initial contact was with toe or flat foot and gait characteristics remained abnormal. Bowen JR, MacEwen GD, Mathews PA. Treatment of extension contracture of the hip in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1981;23:23-29. [Extension deformities were thought to be caused by the adductor surgery. [Do think that they were right?]Boxum AG. Et al. Postural adjustments in infants at very high risk for cerebral palsy before and after developing the ability to sit independently. Early Hum Dev. 2014;9:435-441.Boyd R., Management of the Motor Disorders of Children with Cerebral Palsy in Scrutton D, Damiano D, Mayston M. Management of the Motor Disorders of Children with Cerebral Palsy 2nd Edition. Mac Keith Press 2004.Brown JK, Rodda J, Walsh EG, Wright GW. Neurophysiology of lower-limb function in hemiplegic children. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33:1037-1047.** Buckon CE, Thomas S, Jakobson-Huston, S, Moor M, Sussman M, Aiona M. Comparison of three ankle-foot orthoses configurations for children with spastic hemiplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2001 **43:37:1-8. SAFO caused genu recurvatum in some children, and HAFO is better to control gneu recurvatum in stance, and the PLS was most effective in promoting knee extension in some children.**Burne JA. Carleton VL. O'Dwyer NJ. The spasticity paradox: movement disorder or disorder of resting limbs?. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 76(1):47-54, 2005 Jan. [Finding does not support routine use of anti-spasticity treatments. Butler P, Saavedra S, Sofranac M, Jarvis S, Woollacott M. Refinement, Reliability and Validity of the Segmental Assessment of Trunk Control (SATCo). Pediatr Phys Ther. 2010;22(3):246-257. Chiu H-I, Ada L. Effect of functional electrical stimulation on activity in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review Phys Ther. 2014;26:283-288. Cailliet R. Hand Pain and Impairment, 4th ed, 1994. F.A. Davis, Philadelphia.Carmick J, for articles,Carmick J. Letters to the editor on giving a different opinion about current thinking of electrical stimulation in pediatric physical therapy. Pediatr Phys Ther. 2014 Winter;26(4):487-8.Carmick J. Managing equinus in children with cerebral palsy: merits of hinged ankle-foot orthoses. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995b;37:1006-1010 Carmick J. Managing equinus in children with cerebral palsy: electrical stimulation to strengthen the triceps surae muscle. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995a;37:965-975.Carmick J. Clinical use of neuromuscular electrical stimulation for children with cerebral palsy, part 2: upper extremity. Phys Ther. 1993;73:514-527. 1993;73:514-527.Carr J, Shepherd R. Movement Science Foundations for Physical Therapy in Rehabilitation, 2nd Edition. Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 2000. [Latest edition.]Carr J, Shepherd RB, Ada L. Spasticity: research findings and implications for intervention. Physiotherapy 1995;81:421-429. [Authors discuss spasticity and old and new approaches, and take the view that spasticity may be regarded as a manifestation of both disorder of motor control and length-associated changes in muscle.] Cauraugh JH, Naik SK, Hsu WH, Coombes SA, Holt KG. Children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis on gait and electrical stimulation. Clin Rehabil. 2010;24:963-978. He gives a Positive outlook on my approach,Chang WN, Tsirikos AI, Miller F, Lennon N, Schuyler J, Kerstetter L, Glutting J. Distal hamstring lengthening in ambulatory children with cerebral palsy: primary versus revision procedures. Gait & Posture. 20p4;19:298-304, 2004. Results were not as they expected. Chiu H-I, Ada L. Effect of functional electrical stimulation on activity in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review Phys Ther. 2014;26:283-288.Churchill AJ, Halligan PW, Wade DT. Relative contribution of footwear to the efficacy of ankle-foot orthosis. Clin Rehabil. 2003 ;17:553-7. Found shoes can be as effective as AFOs, so one should compare AFOs and shoes and not AFOs and barefoot.Claxton LJ, Strasser JM, Leung EJ, Ryu JH, O'Brien KM. Sitting infants alter the magnitude and structure of postural sway when performing a manual goal-directed task. Dev Psychobiol. 2014;56(6):1416-22. [Thus, the ability to adjust postural movements while performing a concurrent goal-directed task emerges long before the acquisition of independent eaux P, Patterson N, Rubin M, Meiner R. Effect of neuromuscular electrical stimulation during gait in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther. 1997;9:103-109. [Studied 14 children using Carmick’s (1993) task-specific approach with NMES to calf muscles. Found immediate changes with NMES and significant carryover. Found that NMES to the anterior tibialis muscle was of no benefit.]Crawford K. Karol LA. Herring JA. Severe lumbar lordosis after dorsal rhizotomy. [Case Reports. Journal Article] Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics. 16(3):336-9, 1996 May-Jun. Two children following SDR developed excessive lordosis without change in ambulatory agilities. Curtis D; Butler P; Saavedra S; Bencke J; Kallemose T; Sonne‐Holm S; Woollacott M. The central role of trunk control in the gross motor function of children with cerebral palsy: a retrospective cross‐sectional study Devl Med & Child Neur 2015 , DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12641, PMID: 25412902. **Danino B, Erel S, Kfir M, Khamis S, Batt R, Hemo Y, Wientroub S, Hayek S. Influence of orthosis on the foot progression angle in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Gait Posture. 2015 Oct;42(4):518-22 [Solid AFOs did was not better than walking barefoot in those with hemiplegia. Those with diplegia increased internal rotation with AFOs. Could be explained by Carmick J 1995.] De Mattos C, Do KP, Pierce R, Feng R, Aiona M, Sussman M. Comparison of hamstring transfer with hamstring lengthening in ambulatory children with cerebral palsy: further follow-up. Journal of Children's Orthopaedics. 2014. {NOTE: Potential for hip extension weakening and recurrence over time, lead to crouch gait etc.].Elder GCB, and colleagues. Contributing factors to muscle weakness in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2003;45:542-550 with cerebral palsy: a systematic review Phys Ther.Damiano DL, Prosser LA, Curatalo LA, Alter KE Muscle plasticity and ankle control after repetitive use of a functional electrical stimulation device for foot drop in cerebral palsy. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2013 Mar-Apr;27(3):200-7. Found Walkaide to TA was not helpful after a year. Authors think more time is needed.Damron TA, Breed AL, Cook T. Diminished knee flexion after hamstring surgery in cerebral palsy patients: prevalence and severity. J Pediatric Orthopaedics, 1993:13:188-191. [71% had diminished knee flexion, 32% had increased flexion, 6% unchanged when measured in prone knee flexion, 13% required rectus femoris transfer to correct "stiff-legged gait".] Deleplanque B, Lagueny A, Flurin V, Arnaud C, Pedespan JM, Fontan D, Pontallier JR. [Botulinum toxin in the management of spastic hip adductors in non-ambulatory cerebral palsy children] (in French). Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 2002 May;88(3):279-85. Abstract only: “The botulinum toxin did not improve the orthopedic prognosis of the children: 5 of the 7 with a risk of luxation worsened.” ***Delp SL, Arnold AS, Speers RA, More CA. Hamstrings and psoas lengths during normal and crouch gait: implications for muscle-tendon surgery. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, J Orthop Res. 1996;(1):144-51. [Results suggest that lengthening of the hamstrings may be inappropriate in some patients with crouch gait.] Delp SL, Statler K, Carroll NC. Preserving plantar flexion strength after surgical treatment for contracture of the triceps surae: a computer simulation study. J of Orthopedic Research 1995;196-104. [This study suggests that lengthening of the isolated gastrocnemius contracture should not be used, because doing so may decrease the strength of the plantar flexors greatly.] Dietz V, Berger W. Cerebral palsy and muscle transformation. (Annotation.) Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37:180-184. [“The physical spastic signs have little relationship to the patient’s disability, which is due to a movement disorder.”]Dietz V, Berger W. Normal and impaired regulation of muscle stiffness in gait: a new hypothesis about muscle hypertonia. Experimental Neurology 1983;79:680-687. [“The mechanical properties of the muscle itself are responsible, at least partly, for the increased muscle tone in spasticity, rather than increased motoneuron activity or coactivation as supposed earlier.”] **Dobson F, Boyd RN, Parrott J, Nattrass GR, Graham HK. Hip surveillance in children with cerebral palsy. Impact on the surgical management of spastic hip disease. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2002;84:720-6. NMES improved tissue health which was lost after NMES was stopped.Dreher T, Buccoliero T J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94:627-37.Dietz V, Berger W. Cerebral palsy and muscle transformation. (Annotation.) Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37:180-184. [“The physical spastic signs have little relationship to the patient’s disability, which is due to a movement disorder.”] Dietz FR, Albright JC, Dolan L. Medium-term follow-up of Achilles tendon lengthening in the treatment of ankle equinus in cerebral palsy. Iowa Orthop J. 2006;26:27-32. Dodson F, Graham H, Baker R, Morris ME. Multilevel orthopaedic surgery in group IV spastic hemiplegia. JBJS 2005;87:548-555. Pelvic rotation may be from biomechanical problems due to weakness and not directly from brain damage. de Graaf-Peters VB1, Bakker H, van Eykern LA, Otten B, Hadders-Algra M. Postural adjustments and reaching in 4- and 6-month-old infants: an EMG and kinematical study. Exp Brain Res. 2007 Aug;181(4):647-56. Elder GCB, and colleagues. Contributing factors to muscle weakness in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2003;45:542-550Eek MN, Beckung E. Walking ability is related to muscle strength in children with cerebral palsy. Gait Posture. 2008;28:366-71. [High correlation with musle strength, GMFM and walking ability. Eek MN, Tranberg R, Zügner R, Alkema K, Beckung E. Muscle strength training to improve gait function in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008t;50:759-64. [8 weeks of exercise increased muscle strength and gait function, GMFM scores. Gait velocity was not changed. Elvrum AK, Br?ndvik SM, S?ther R, Lamvik T, Vereijken B, Roeleveld K. Effectiveness of resistance training in combination with botulinum toxin-A on hand and arm use in children with cerebral palsy: a pre-post intervention study. BMC Pediatr. 2012 Jul 2;12:91. Fattal-Valevski A, Domenievitz D, Giladi N, Wientroub S, Hayek S. Long-term effect of repeated injections of botulinum toxin in children with cerebral palsy: a prospective study. J Child Orthop. 2008;2:29-35. CONCLUSIONS: Botulinum toxin A injections have a long-term effect on gross motor function in children with CP even though the effect on muscle tone is short-term. The effect apparently declines with repeated injections, with most children benefitting from 2 to 3 injections. ???Field-Fote EC. Exciting recovery: augmenting practice with stimulation to optimize outcomes after spinal cord injury. Progress in brain research. 2015 , DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.12.006, PMID: 25890134Fleuren JF et al. Stop using the Ashworth Scale for the assessment of spasticity. J NeurolNeurosurg Psychiatry 2010:81:46-5, Field-Fote EC, Dietz V. Single joint perturbation during gait: Preserved compensatory response pattern in spinal cord injured subjects. Clin Neurophysiol. 2007; 18(7): 1607–1616. Field-Fote, EC. Electrical Stimulation Modifies Spinal and Cortical Neural Circuitry. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev., Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 155–160, 2004.Fortuna R, Horisberger M, Vaz MA, Van der Marel R, Herzog W. The effects of electrical stimulation exercise on muscles injected with botulinum toxin type-A (Botox). J Biomech. 2013:46:36-42. NOTE: They found that after 6 months of BTX-A the muscles never fully recovered in the target or non-target muscles. They recommend more research. They need to recover so tht muscle strength and skill are not effected in the long term. The lon- term results seems to be not available and so we do not really know. Many articles now saying no benefits of more than 1 injection. So why do more let alone the first one?Foran JR, Steinman S, Barash I, Chambers HG, Lieber RL. Structural and mechanical alterations in spastic skeletal muscle Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005 Oct;47(10):713-7. Skeletal muscle itself is altered in spasticity. Frick CG1, Fink H, Blobner M, Martyn J. A single injection of botulinum toxin decreases the margin of safety of neurotransmission at local and distant sites. Anesth Analg. 2012;114(1):102-9.Gage J. Treatment of Gait problems in cerebral palsy Mac Keith Press 2004. Charles J, Gordon AM. Development of hand–arm bimanual intensive training (HABIT) for improving bimanual coordination in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Del Med & Child Neuro 2006), 48: 931-936. Found that extensive targeted practice can improve hand function of children with not severe hand or wrist limitations without using restraint power generation peak decreased, and the anterior pelvic tilt increased.]. Godges JJ, MacRae PG, Engelke KA. Effects of exercise on hip range of motion, trunk muscle performance and gait economy. Phys Ther. 1993;73:468-477. Training of isolated tasks did not improve desired tasks of gait or running. **Goldberg SR, Ounpuu S, Delp SL. The importance of swing-phase initial conditions in stiff-knee gait. J Biomech. 2003 Aug;36(8):1111-6. Gough M, Fairhurst C, Shortland AP. Botulinum toxin and cerebral palsy: time for reflection? Dev Med Child Neurol 47(10):709-12, 2005.Gough M, Shortland AP. Could muscle deformity in children with spastic cerebral palsy be related to an impairment of muscle growth and altered adaptation? Dev Med Child Neurol. 2012;54:495-469.Graham HK, Boyd R, Carlin JB, Dobson F, Lowe K, Nattrass G, Thomason P, Wolf R, Reddihough D. Does botulinum toxin A combined with bracing prevent hip displacement in children with cerebral palsy and “hips at risk”? J Bone Joint Surg, Am 2008;90:23-33. [Data did not support this approach as progressive hip displacement continued to occur and. They no longer use this at their institution].*Hadders-Algra M. Development of postural adjustments during reaching in typically developing infants from 4 to 18 months. Exp Brain Res. 2012;220):109-19. 2006;26(1):125-8. [Warned about the high risk of scoliosis.] Hadders-Algra M1, Brogren E, Forssberg H. Nature and nurture in the development of postural control in human infants. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 1997;422:48-53.H?gglund G, Wagner P. Development of spasticity with age in a total population of children with cerebral palsy. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2008;6;9:150-159. Bilateral spasticity in the gastro-soleus muscles naturally decreases beginning at age 6. At 4 years of age 47% had spasticity of this muscle and at age 12 only 23% did. Those with unilateral CP had decreased spasticity until age 11. After that increased muscle tone was found in those who had TALs. Those who did not have TALs did not increase muscle tone after age 7. Harbourne RT1, Lobo MA, Karst GM, Galloway JC. Sit happens: Does sitting development perturb reaching development, or vice versa? Infant Behav Dev. 2013 Jun;36(3):438-50. [Found reaching drives the development of sitting.]Harbourne RT1, Giuliani C, Neela JM. A kinematic and electromyographic analysis of the development of sitting posture in infants. Dev Psychobiol. 1993 Jan;26(1):51-64.Hanna SE, Rosenbaum PL et al. Stability and decline in gross motor function among children and youth with cerebral palsy aged 2 to 21. Dev. Med. Child Neuro. 2009;51:295-302.Hastings T, Graham HK, Atrophy and hypertrophy following injections of botulinum toxin in children with cerebral palsy (Comentary on Williams et al. on pages 813–820 of this issue.) Dev Med Child Neuro 2013;55:777-785.Hazlewood ME, Brown JK, Rowe PJ, Salter PM. The use of therapeutic electrical stimulation in the treatment of hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1994, 36:661-673. Hedberg A, Schmitz C, Forssberg H, Hadders-Algra M. Early development of postural adjustments in standing with and without support. Exp Brain Res. 2007;178(4):439-49. Herrero P1, Asensio A, García E, Marco A, Oliván B, Ibarz A, Gómez-Trullén EM, Casas R. Study of the therapeutic effects of an advanced hippotherapy simulator in children with cerebral palsy: a randomised controlled trial. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2010 Apr 16;11:71. *Hicks JL, Schwartz MH, Arnold AS, Delp SL. Crouched postures reduce the capacity of muscles to extend the hip and knee during the single-limb stance phase of gait. J Biomech. 2008;41(5):960-7. H?glund A1, Norrlin S. Influence of dual tasks on sitting postural sway in children and adolescents with myelomeningocele. Gait Posture. 2009 Nov;30(4):424-30. Houtz SJ, Walsh FP. Electromyographic analysis of the function of the muscles acting on the ankle during weight bearing with special reference to the triceps surae. J Bone Joint Surg. 1959;41A:1469-1481. [Effect of the gastrocnemius muscle on the knee. Found that to make the knee hyperextend the subjects relaxed the gastroc.]. Iona Novak; Sarah Mcintyre; Catherine Morgan; Lanie Campbell; Leigha Dark; Natalie Morton; Elise Stumbles; Salli‐Ann Wilson; Shona Goldsmith, A systematic review of interventions for children with cerebral palsy: state of the evidence. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2013 , DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12246, PMID: 23962350.** Jahnsen? R,?Aamodt? G, Rosenbaum P. Gross Motor Function Classification System used in adults with cerebral palsy: agreement of self-reported versus professional rating. Dev Med & Child Neuro 2006:48: 734-738. Children in GMFCS Levels II and III had significant regressing in gross motor function over time. **Johnson DL, Damiano DI, Abel M. The evolution of gait in childhood and adolescent cerebral palsy. J Ped Orthopedics 1997;17:392-396. Found that gait deteriorates over time from ages 4 to 14.Johnston TE, Finson RL, McCarthy JJ, Smith BT, Randal R, Mulcahey, MJ. Use of functional electrical stimulation to augment traditional orthopaedic surgery in children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Pediatric Orthpaedics 2004;24: 283-291. Found that NMES is equal to surgery and there are trends that it may be better.Johnston TE et al. Use of functional electrical stimulation to augment traditional orthopaedic surgery in children with cerebral palsy. Journal of Pediatric Orthpaedics 2004;24: 283-291. Jozwiak M, Pietrzak S, Tobjasz F. The epidemiology and clinical manifestations of hamstring muscle and plantar foot reflex shortening. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997;39:481-483. [Authors: results showed a natural increase in hamstring tightness, shortly before pubertal growth spurt. Therapists need to be aware of this and not just attribute it to CP alone.] Karabay I, Dogan A, Arslan MD, Dost G, Ozgirgin N. Effects of functional electrical stimulation on trunk control in children with diplegic cerebral palsy. Disabil Rehabil. 2012;34:965-70. Kondo I, Hosokawa K, Iwata M, Oda A, Nomura T, Ikeda K, Asagai Y, Kohzaki T, Nishimura H. Effectiveness of selective muscle-release surgery for children with cerebral palsy: longitudinal and stratified analysis. Dev Med Child Neuro. 2004:46:540-547. [Found surgery was helpful for Level III and IV only, for 12 months after. And then what?] Kukke SN1, Triolo RJ. The effects of trunk stimulation on bimanual seated workspace. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2004;12(2):177-85.Klotz MC, Wolf SI, Heitzmann D, Gantz S, Braatz F, Dreher T. The influence of botulinum toxin A injections into the calf muscles on genu recurvatum in children with cerebral palsy. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2013 Jul;471(7):2327-32. CONCLUSIONS: Despite improvement of ankle dorsiflexion after injection with BtA, genu recurvatum did not show relevant improvement at 6 or 18 weeks after injection with the numbers available. Because knee hyperextension remained in most patients, other factors leading to genu recurvatum should be taken into consideration. In addition, a botulinum toxin-induced weakness of the gastrocnemius may explain why recurvatum gait was not significantly reducedLam WK. Leong JC, Li YH, Hu Y. Lu, WW. Biomechanical and electromyographic evaluation of ankle foot orthosis and dynamic ankle foot orthosis in spastic cerebral palsy. Gait & Posture. 2005;22(3):189-97. HAFOs do not cause atrophy, and SAFOs shown to have reduced calf muscle EMG signal. *Landau WM, Hunt CC. Dorsal rhizotomy, a treatment of unproven efficacy. J Child Neurol. 1990;5:174-178. [Highly informative and strongly recommended reading.] Landau W. ‘Causal relation between spasticity, strength, gross motor function, and functional outcome,Leighton DR. A functional model to describe the action of the adductor muscles at the hip in the transverse plane. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 2006;22:251-262. in children with cerebral palsy: a path analysis’. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2011;8 :768 Lieber RL, Skeletal Muscle Structure, Function & Plasticity, 2nd Ed. Lippincott Williams and Wilkings Baltimore MD. 2002. New Edition due now.Lieber RL, Kelly MJ. Factors influencing quadriceps femoris muscle torque using transcutaneous neuromuscular electrical stimulation. Phys Ther. 1991; 71:715-721. [The fact that stimulation voltage was not significantly correlated with MVC reinforces the concept that stimulation current causes muscle activation, not stimulation potential.] Leonard T and. Sandhold et al. Journal of Child Neurology. 2006;21:240-6. Lin J-P. The contribution of spasticity to the movement disorder of cerebral palsy using pathway analysis: does spasticity matter? Dev Med Child Neuro 2011;53:1-11. Lin J-P, Brown JK, Walsh EG. Physiological maturation of muscle in childhood. Lancet 1994:343:1386-89. [Preliminary results indicate that physical loading of the soleus muscles such as stretches and exercises induce slow-twitch characteristics whereas disuse, prolonged immobilization or unloading such as tendon releases produce fast-twitch characteristics which contribute to spasticity.] Lin J-P, Brown, JK. Peripheral and central mechanisms of hindfoot equinus in childhood hemiplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1992;34:949-965*Lonstein JE, Beck K. Hip dislocation and subluxation in cerebral palsy. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics. 1986;6(5):521-6. [464 patients with cerebral palsy were reviewed for surgery for hip problems. “The subluxated or dislocated hip did not correlate with the high side or the amount of pelvic obliquity. Muscle imbalance around the hip and not the pelvic obliquity is the cause of the hip subluxation or dislocation.”]Lieke C van Balen; Linze Dijkstra; Mijna Hadders-Algra. Development of postural adjustments during reaching in typically developing infants from 4 to 18 months. Experimental Brain Research. 2012;220:109-19. M?enp?? H, et al. Electrostimulation at sensory level improves function of the upper extremities in children with cerebral palsy: a pilot study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46(2):84-90.M?enp?? H, et al Effect of sensory-level electrical stimulation of the tibialis anterior muscle during physical therapy on active dorsiflexion of the ankle of children with cerebral palsy. Pediatric Phys Ther 2004;16:39-44.M?enp?? H, Jaakkola R, Sandstrom M, Airi T, von Wendt L. Electrostimulation at sensory level improves function of the upper extremities in children with cerebral palsy: a pilot study. Dev Med Child Neurol 2004;46(2):84-90. Mazure J et al, Nonsurgical Treatment of Tight Achilles Tendon, in Ed. Sussman M. The Diplegic Child Evaluation and Management.1991. McGinley J: Single-event. Caution re; SEMLS as studies may have over estimated the treatment efficiency.***Neptune RR. Kautz SA. Zajac FE. Contributions of the individual ankle plantar flexors to support, forward progression and swing initiation during walking. Journal of Biomechanics. 34(11):1387-98, 2001 Noble JJ, Fry NR, Lewis AP, Keevil SF, Gough M, Shortland AP. Lower limb muscle volumes in bilateral spastic cerebral palsy. Brain Dev. 2013 Jun 18. Muscles of the lower leg were all smaller in tshoe with CP than typically developing EXCEPT FOR vastii (lateralis+intermedius;O’Dwyer N, Neilson P, Nash J. 1994;36:770-786. Oeffinger D. Outcome tools used for ambulatory children with cerebral palsy: respnsiveness and minimum clinically important differences. Dev Med Child Neuro 2008:50(12):918.Olney SJ, MacPhail HA, Hedden DM, Boyce WF. Work and power in hemiplegic cerebral palsy gait. Phys Ther. 1990;70:431-438. [Studied 10 children with spastic hemiplegia secondary to CP during walking. Results showed that ankle plantarflexion produced just over a third of positive work for the affected limb instead of the normal two-thirds. The greatest proportion of positive work was performed by hip muscles.] O’Sullivan R, Walsh M, Hewart P, Jenkinson PH, ross L-A, O’Brien T. Factors associated with internal hip rotation gait in patients with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop 2006:26:537-541. Internal hip rotation is multifactorial Early RX of hip flexion may help, caution re RX of hamstring and adductor muscles groups. Palisano R, Rosenbaum P, Walter S, Russell D, Wood E, Galuppi B. Gross Motor Functional Classification System for Cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997:39:214-223.Palisano RJ, Cameron D, Rosenbaum PL, Walter SD, Russell D. Stability of the gross motor function classification system. Program in Policy Decision-making, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada., Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:424-8. Evidence for stability and that equal number of children improve as regress when 6 years and older. Palisano R, Hanna SE, Rosenbaum P, Russell D, Walter S, Wood E, Raina PS, Galulppi B. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48 Validation of a model of gross motor function for children with cerebral palsy. Phys Ther. 2000;80:974-985. Park ES , Park CI, Lee HJ, Cho YS. The effect of electrical stimulation on the trunk control in young children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. J Korean Med Sci Jun 2001;16(3):347-50.Pape K. Therapeutic electrical stimulation (TES) for the treatment of disuse muscle atrophy in cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther. 1997;9:110-112. - see Pediatr Phys Ther. 1998;10:138-139 and Errata 1998;10:168.]Pape K. Letter: Caution on NMES. Phys Ther. 1994;74:265-266. [Raises spurious safety issues – see response: Carmick J. 1994.] Perry, J, Determinants of muscle function in the spastic lower extremity, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 1993:288, March,11-26. Perry J. Gait Analysis Normal and Pathological Function. Thorofare, New Jersey, SLACK, Inc., 1992. Pontén?E, Fridén?J, Thornell LE,?Lieber?RL. Spastic wrist flexors are more severely affected than wrist extensors in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med & Child Neuro 2005;47:384-389. Postans NJ, Granat MH. Effect of functional electrical stimulation, applied during walking, on . Soft-tissue releases to treat spastic hip gait in spastic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005:(47);46-52. [Used NMES with traditional thinking about muscles with attempt at task-specific. Results were disappointing and feels the choice of muscles was a problem.]Prosser LA, Curatalo LA, Alter KE, Damiano DL. Acceptability and potential effectiveness of a foot drop stimulator in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy.Dev Med Child Neurol. 2012 Nov;54(11):1044-9. Rachwani J,?Santamaria V,?Saavedra?SL, Woollacott MH. Rachwani J, Santamaria V, Saavedra SL, Woollacott MH. Corrigendum: The development of trunk control and its relation to reaching in infancy: a longitudinal study.. Front Hum Neurosci. 2015 Jul 21;9:406. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00406.** HYPERLINK "" \o "Click to search for citations by this author." Rethlefsen SA, Kay R, Dennis S, Forstein M, Tolo V. The effects of fixed and articulated ankle-foot orthoses on gait patterns in subjects with cerebral palsy. J. of Pediatr Orthop 1999;19:470-474. Compared with shoes and found AAFOs were good for those who do not crouch. No differences were found in knee position during stance. However, later articles said crouch was not a concern to use hinge; they do not increase spasticity.Rose J, McGill KC. Neuromuscular activation and motor-unit firing characteristics in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005;47:329-336. [Those with CP appear to be unable to recruit higher threshold motor units or to drive lower threshold motor units.] Rosenbaum PL. Palisano RJ. Bartlett DJ. Galuppi BE. Russell DJ. Development of the Gross Motor Function Classification System for cerebral palsy. [Journal Article] Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 50(4):249-53, 2008.Ross SA, Engsberg JR. Relationships between spasticity, strength, gait, and the GMFM-66 in persons with spastic diplegia cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;88:1114-20. Found that strength was related to function in this group of 97 children, with spastic diplegia. Spasticity did not account for more than 8% of the variations in gait or GMFM.Ross SA, Engsberg JF. Relation between spasticity and strength in individuals with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002;44:148-157. Found no relation between spasticity and strength, and weakness was greater distally. Reeuwijk A. van Schie PE. Becher JG. Kwakkel G. Effects of botulinum toxin type A on upper limb function in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. [Review] [37 refs] Clinical Rehabilitation. 20(5):375-87, 2006 May. Review of 37 articles found that still there is no proof that Botox is effective in the upper extremity.Rennie D, Meade MO, Cook DJ. Users’ Guides to the medial Literature, Essential of Evidence-Based Practice, 2nd Ed. Mc Graw Hill Medical, 2008. **Rethlefsen SA, Blumstein G, Kay RM, Dorey F, Wren TS,. Prevalence of specific gait abnormalities in children with cerebral palsy revisited: influence of age, and Gross Motor Function Classification System level. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2016 Jul 15. doi: 10.1111/dmcn.13205. Rethlefsen SA, Healy BS, Wren TA, Skaggs DL, Kay RM. Causes of intoeing gait in children with cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006 Oct;88(10):2175-80. Does not mention AFOs with 3rd rocker can cause intoeing.Richards CL, Malouin F,and Dumas F. Effects of a single session of prolonged plantar flexor stretch on muscle activation during gait in spastic cerebral palsy. Scand J Rehab Med 23:103-111,1991. Only significant finding was a lower TA activation of 0-16% following stretch. Rosenbaum PL, et al: Prognosis for Gross Motor Function in Cerebral Palsy: Creation of Motor Development Curves, JAMA 2002;288: 1357–1363. Romano C. Bennet S, Klein P. The effects of partial-task isotonic strength training in altering genu recurvatum in a patient during the gait cycle. Neurology Report 1994;18:6-10. partial task training; Groups worked on weight shifting though the involved extremity. Partial task did not carry over into gait. Ross SA, Engsberg JF. Relation between spasticity and strength in individuals with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002;44:148-157.Russell DJ, Rosenblaum PL, Gowland C, 2002. Rutz E, Tirosh O, Thomason P, Barg A, Graham HK. Stability of the Gross Motor Function Classification System after single-event multilevel surgery in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2012 Dec;54(12):1109-13. Rutz E, Passmore ; Baker R; GrahamHK. Multilevel Surgery Improves Gait in Spastic Hemiplegia But Does Not Resolve Hip Dysplasia. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research?. 2011.Sale D, Quinlan E, March AJ, Mccomas J, Belanger AY. Influence of joint postion on ankle plantaraflexion in humans. Interesting thoughts at end on knee position decreases torque of Gastroc Samilson R (editor). Orthopaedic Aspects of Cerebral Palsy. Spastics International Publication, Philadelphia,1976.Scott AC, Chambers C, Cain TE. Adductor transfers in cerebral palsy: long term results, studied by gait analysis. J of Pediatric Orthopedics 1996;16:741-746.Seifart A, Unger M, Burger M. The effect of lower limb functional electrical stimulation on gait of children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Phys Ther. 2009. Many errors in text on actual parameters and timing of ES. More errors in table 2. One wonders if the articles reviewed were actually read. (See Carmick 2009 letter re Seifart.)Silver RL, De La Carza J, Rang M. The myth of muscle balance. A study of relative strength and excursions of normal muscles about the foot and ankle. J Bone Joint Surg. 1985;67:432-437.Sheean GL. Botulinum treatment of spasticity; why is it so difficult to show a functional benefit? Curr Opin Neurol 2001;14:771-776. Shore BJ, Yu X, Desai S, Selber P, Wolfe R, Graham HK. Adductor surgery to prevent hip displacement in children with cerebral palsy: the predictive role of the gross motor function classification system. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94:326-334. Shortland, AP, Harris CA, Gough M, O’Robinson. Architecture of the medial gastrocnemius in children with spastic diplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002;44:158-163.Steinbok 2005 . Simon SR, Mann RA, Hagy JL, Larsen LJ. Role of posterior calf muscles in normal gait. J Bone Joint Surg. 1978;60A:465-471. [Very important study showing what happens in an adult without disability when the calf muscle group is blocked by drugs. Authors state that the calf is the major postural muscle of the body.].Sinacore DR, Delitto A, King DS, Rose, SJ. Type II fiber activation with electrical stimulation: a preliminary report. Phys Ther. 1990;70:416-422.Smits-Engelsman BC, Rameckers EA, Duysens J. Muscle force generation and force control of finger movements in children with spastic hemiplegia during isometric tasks. Dev Med Child Neurol. 47(5):337-42, 2005 May. [Spastic muscles are not strong and over-active. Strength training should be considered for agonist spastic muscles.] Sommerfeld DK. Eek EU. Svensson AK. Holmqvist LW. von Arbin MH. Spasticity after stroke: its occurrence and association with motor impairments and activity limitations. Stroke.2004;35:134-9, 2004. See comment in Stroke. 2004;35:139-40. Spasticity founding only 19% of those who had stroke, and it was felt that focus on spasticity in stroke rehabilitation is out of step with its clinical importance.***Sung KH, Chung CY, Lee KM, Lee YK, Lee SY, Lee J, Choi IH, Cho TJ, Yoo WJ, Park MS. J Pediatr Orthop. 2013 Jul-Aug;33(5):494-500. Still remains controversial. 53% sponsored studies by industry had favorable conclusions but only 20% of those not sponsored by the drug company. Steinwender G, Saraph V, Zwick EB, Uitz C, Linhart W. Fixed and dynamic equinus in cerebral palsy: evaluation of ankle function after multilevel surgery. J Pediatr Orthop 2001 Jan-Feb;21(1):102-7. [“On the basis of our results, we do not believe surgery is justified for dynamic equinus deformities.”] Stewart C, Postans N, Schwartz MH, Rozumalski A, Roberts AP. An investigation of the action of the hamstring muscles during standing in crouch using functional electrical stimulation (FES Gait Posture. 2008 Oct;28(3):372-7. Found hamstrongs helped retrovert pelvis and extend the hip. Knee changes as crouch increased. **Stott NS, Piedrahita L. (Annotation) Effects of surgical adductor releases for hip subluxation in cerebral palsy: an AACPDM evidence report. Dev Med Child Neurol 2004;46:628-645. Needs long term follow up, 8 years to see that child returns to original level and may be worse. Sutherland DH, Olshen RA, Biden EN, Wyatt MP. The Development of Mature Walking. London: Mac Keith Press 1988. [Many interesting insights that show that normal development is not just as we may have thought.]Sutherland D, Cooper L, Daniel D. The role of ankle planar flexors in normal walking. J Bone Joint Surg. 1980;62:354-363. [After the calf muscle is blocked with drugs: prolonged use of quadriceps femorus, lack of weight shift to blocked side, increased dorsiflexion, decreased step length on normal side, decreased limb stance on short side, average of 23% reduction in walking velocity.] **Samarji RA, Jeffery RS, Bamford D, Hollis S, Powell E, Whittaker R, Marsh DR, Glasko CSB. Electrical stimulation for the treatment of spasticity in cerebral palsy. J. Proceedings of the BES Symposium on Electrical Stimulation - Clinical systems. [Use of NMES at a contractual level, night use, to spastic hip adductor muscles resulted in improved passive hip adduction, unable to show significant changes in gait efficiency. The study was not task specific.] Sansone JM, Mann D, Noonan K, Mcleish D, Ward M, Iskandar BJ. Rapid progression of scoliosis following insertion of intrathecal baclofen pump. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics 2006;26(1):125-8. [Discusses problems with pump and medication and withdrawals from drug and that parents should be warned about the high risk of scoliosis.] *Saraph V, Zwick EB, Auner C, Schneider F, Steinwender G, Linhart W. Gait improvement surgery in diplegic children - How long do the improvements last?. Pediatric Orthopedics 2005;25:263-267. [It appears that they may last three years but more study is needed to learn if multilevel surgeries are justified.] Shepherd RB, Adaptive motor behavior in response to perturbations of balance. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice 1992:8:137-143. [Research into balance suggests that postural adjustments are an integral part of motor performance, balance should be trained as part of task.] Shevell MI. Majnemer A. Poulin C. Law M. Stability of motor impairment in children with cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology. 2008;50:211-5, 2008. NOTE: 65% of 93 children in Levels I-III remained consistent when first measured at age 2 years 6 months and again at 9 years 4 months.Shortland AP, Fry NR, Eve LC, Gough M. Changes to medial gastrocnemius architecture after surgical intervention in spastic diplegia. Devel Med & Child Neuol. 2004;46:667-73. [Fascicle lengths of patients were similar to those in the group of normally developing children before surgery. After surgery, fascicles in the group of children with spastic diplegia were shorter than in their normally developing peers (p=0.001).] Shortland AP. Muscle volume and motor development in spastic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2011 Jun;53(6):486. Guy's & St Thomas' Foundation Trust, King's Health Partners, London, UK. Comment on Medial gastrocnemius muscle volume and fascicle length in children aged 2 to 5 years with cerebral palsy. [Dev Med Child Neurol. 2011]**Shortland A. Editorial: Strength, gait and function in cerebral palsy. Gait Posture. 2011 Mar;33(3):319-20. doi: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2010.10.086. Epub 2010 Dec 4. No abstract available. Excellent discussion on how studies outcomes vary, perhaps by Diffent methods of measurement, and discussion of how PF can be strengthened at heel rise etc. Should be required reading. Muscle deficits in cerebral palsy and early loss of mobility: can we learn something from our elders? Shortland A. Muscle deficits in cerebral palsy and early loss of mobility: can we learn something from our elders? Dev Med Child Neurol. 2009 Oct;51 Suppl 4:59-63 “In the typically developing elderly, progressive strengthening is thought to extend mobility. Perhaps, the real value of strengthening programmes in CP is to improve muscular reserve in the short-term and to maintain muscle mass above critical thresholds in the long-term.”Shortland AP. In vivo gastrocnemius muscle fascicle length in children with and without diplegic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008 May;50(5):399-40. Comment on In vivo gastrocnemius muscle fascicle length in children with and without diplegic cerebral palsy. [Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008] In vivo gastrocnemius muscle fascicle length in children with and without diplegic cerebral palsy.Mohagheghi AA, Khan T, Meadows TH, Giannikas K, Baltzopoulos V, Maganaris CN. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008 Jan; 50(1):44-50. Shortland AP, Fry NR, Eve LC, Gough M. Changes to medial gastrocnemius architecture after surgical intervention in spastic diplegia. Devel Med & Child Neuol. 2004;46:667-73. [Fascicle lengths of patients were similar to those in the group of normally developing children before surgery. After surgery, fascicles in the group of children with spastic diplegia were shorter than in their normally developing peers (p=0.001).]Shortland, AP, Harris CA, Gough M, O’Robinson. Architecture of the medial gastrocnemius in children with spastic diplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002;44:158-163. [Recommends strengthening calf muscles via exercise and electrical stimulation over serial casting.]Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott MH. The growth of stability: postural control from a developmental perspective. J of Motor behavior 1985:17:131-147.Siebes RC, Wijnroks L, Vermeer A. Qualitative analysis of therapeutic motor intervention programmes for children with cerebral palsy: and update. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44:593-603. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002 Sep;44(9):593-603. Qualitative analysis of therapeutic motor intervention programmes for children with cerebral palsy: an update. Silver RL, De La Carza J, Rang M. The myth of muscle balance. A study of relative strength and excursions of normal muscles about the foot and ankle. J Bone Joint Surg. 1985;67:432-437.Soo B, Howard JJ, Boyd RN, Reid SM, Lanigan A, Wolfe R, Reddihough D, Graham HK. Hip displacement in cerebral palsy. Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery (Am) 2006;88(1):121-9.Steele KM1,? HYPERLINK "" Damiano DL,?Eek MN,?Unger M,? HYPERLINK "" Delp SL. Characteristics associated with improved knee extension after strength training for individuals with?cerebral palsy?and crouch gait. J Pediatr Rehabil Med.?2012;5(2):99-106.Stockhouse SK, Binder-Macleod SA, Stackhouse CA, McCarthy JJ, Prosser LA, Lee SCK. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation versus volitional isometric strength training in children with spastic diplegia cerebral palsy: A preliminary study. Neurorehabilitation ann Neural Repair 2007;21:475-485. Sveistrup H1, Schneiberg S, McKinley PA, McFadyen BJ, Levin MF. Head, arm and trunk coordination during reaching in children. Exp Brain Res. 2008;188(2):237-47. line with the midline of the body at three different distances from the trunk according to the participant's arm length (two within and one beyond arm's length). Rotational movements of the hip…Tamis P, Dyke P, Chan M. The effectiveness of passive stretching in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med & Child Neurol (2006), 48: 855-862. “There was limited and weak evidence that manual stretching can increase range of movements, reduce spasticity, or improve walking efficiency in children with spasticity.”Tedroff K, L?wing K, Jacobson DN, Astr?m E. Does loss of spasticity matter? A 10-year follow-up after selective dorsal rhizotomy in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2011;53: 724-729. Tedroff K, et al, Long –term effects of botulinum toxin A in children with CP, Dev Med Child Neuro Feb 2009.Thom JM, Thompson MW, Ruell PA, Bryant GJ, Fonda JS, Harmer AR, De Jonge XA, Hunter SK. Effect of 10-day cast immobilization on sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium regulation in humans. Acta Physiol Scand. 2001 Jun;172(2):141-7. This study found that only 10-days lower limb cast immobilization cross-sectional area and strength decreased (11.8% and 41.6%!)Thompson NS, Taylor TC, McCarthy KR, Cosgrove AP, Baker RJ. Effect of a rigid ankle-foot orthosis on hamstring length in children with hemiplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002 Jan;44(1):51-7. Their results suggest that hamstring pathology in hemiplegic gait is usually secondary pathology in the lower limb. Thomason P, Hastings-Ison T, Baker R, Graham K, Selber P. The use of neuromuscular electrical stimulation protocol in children with cerebral palsy : a pilot project. Dev Med and Child Neurol Supplement No 102 9/2005 Vol 47, p30. NMES to tibialis anterior on 11 children for ROM, function and decrease spasticity. Gait improved in only one. (pulse duration was 150 microsec) They did 40 minutes of maximal amplitude once daily and combined with inhibition all day at threshold level.] Thompson NS, Baker RJ, Cosgrove RJ, Saunders JL, Taylor TC. Relevance of the popliteal angle to hamstring length in cerebral palsy crouch gait. J Ped Orthopaedics 2001;21:383-387.Tracy JE, Currier DP, Trelkeld JA. Comparison of selected pulse frequencies from two different electrical stimulators on blood flow in healthy subjects. Phys Ther. 1986;68:1526-1540. [Subjects needed NMES sufficient to produce contractions equivalent to 15% of MVC in order to increase blood flow.]Trahan J, Marcoux S. Factors associated with the inability of children with cerebral palsy to walk at six years: a retrospective study. Dev Med Child Neurol 1994,36:787-795. [With regard to orthopedic surgery of hips and ankles, operations such as tendon lengthening or reduction of subluxation improve posture and comfort but there is no evidence that they can affect the walking prognosis of a child who, without surgery, would have been unable to walk at age 6.] .Triolo RJ1, Bailey SN, Miller ME, Lombardo LM, Audu ML. Effects of stimulating hip and trunk muscles on seated stability, posture, and reach after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2013;94:1766-75. [ Found surgically implanted ES to hip and trunk muscles will help best and wheelchair sitting and ADL. They used gluteus max and lumbar muscles. Consider these outcomes with TASES and sitting with trunk support slowing lowering as child improves in those with CP.]Turker RJ, Lee R. Adductor tenotomies in children with quadriplegic cerebral palsy: longer term follow-up. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics 2000;20:370-374. [By using 8 years as a minimum in studying outcomes, showed a higher loss of hip stability than previous studies. Age at surgery did not effect outcomes.] van Balen LC1, Dijkstra LJ, Hadders-Algra M. Development of postural adjustments during reaching in typically developing infants from 4 to 18 months. Exp Brain Res. 2012;220(2):109-19.Van der Fits IB1, Otten E, Klip AW, Van Eykern LA, Hadders-Algra M. The development of postural adjustments during reaching in 6- to 18-month-old infants. Evidence for two transitions. Exp Brain Res. 1999;126(4):517-28. ***van der Krogt MM1, Doorenbosch CA, Harlaar J. The effect of walking speed on hamstrings length and lengthening velocity in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Gait Posture. 2009;1994):640-4. doi: 10.1016/j.Gait & Posture.2009.01.007.van der Linden ML, Hazlewood ME, Aitchison AM, Hillman SJ, Robb JE. Electrical stimulation of gluteus maximus in children with cerebral palsy: effects on gait characteristics and muscle strength. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45:385-90.Van der Heide JC, Hadders-Algra M. Postural muscle dyscoordination in children with cerebral palsy. Neural Plast. 2005;12:197-203.van der Heide JC. Fock JM. Otten B. Stremmelaar E. Hadders-Algra M. Kinematic characteristics of postural control during reaching in preterm children with cerebral palsy. Pediatric Research. 2005;58:586-93. Van Gestel L, Molenaers G, Huenaerts C, Seyler J, Desloovere K. Effect of dynamic orthoses on gait: a retrospective control study in children with hemiplegia. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008:50:63-7. Vaz DV , Mancini MC, Fonseca ST, Soares D, Vieira SR, de Melo Pertence AE, Muscle stiffness and strength and their relation to hand function in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006), 48: 728-733. Function worsened in those with hemiplegia with age. Willoughby K, Ang SG, Thomason P, Graham HK. The impact of botulinum toxin A and abduction bracing on long-term hip development in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2012;54:743-7.Wellmon R, Newton RA. An examination of changes in gait and standing symmetry associated with practice of a weight-shifting task. Poster presentation abstract, Neurology Report, APTA 1997;21:52-53. [Clients should practice gait within the context of the whole-task performance.]Weir DE. Tingley J. Elder GC. Acute passive stretching alters the mechanical properties of human plantar flexors and the optimal angle for maximal voluntary contraction. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005 Mar;93(5-6):614-23. Epub 2004 Dec 1 NOTE: WHAT IS ACUTE? European Journal of Applied Physiology. 93(5-6):614-23, 2005 Mar. Decreased voluntary contraction strength in plantar flexors after passive stretching was thought to be due attributed to changes in the mechanical properties and not to reduced muscle activation.Willerslev-Olsen M, Lorentzen J, Sinkjaer T, Nielsen JB. Passive muscle properties are altered in children with cerebral palsy bfore the age of 3 years and are difficult to distinguish clinically from spasticity. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2013 Jul;55(7):617-23. Woollacott MH & Crenna P. Postural Control in Standing and Walking in Children with CPIn Hadders-Algra M, Carlberg EB (eds) In Postural Control: A key issue in developmental disorders. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 179. 2008. Mac Keith Press. 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