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How to Organize Tasks in Lessons and Lessons in Unit

U.S. Constitution as an Example

Martin Kozloff

Unit

| Tasks | Tasks | Tasks | Tasks |

|____|__|_|__|____|__|_|____|_|_|__|______|____|__|_____|___|_|____|

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5

Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4

1. Every task is a sequence of simple declarative statements arranged to teach something new

(acquisition), to generalize knowledge to new examples, to build fluency, or to ensure retention of

facts, lists, concepts, rules, or routines. For instance, here’s Task 2, Lesson 3.

Task 2.

“Boys and girls. Listen up.” [Gain attention and focus]

“Here’s a list of facts [written on the board or in an electronic document] on the Constitution. Get

ready.” [Frame the instruction]

“Written in Philadelphia, in the summer of 1787. Finished September 17, 1787. Ratified by the states,

June 21, 1788 . First ten amendments added December 15, 1791. The first ten amendments are called

the Bill of Rights.” [Model]

“Read those facts with me.” [Lead]

“Now you read those facts….. Great! Again, but this time by heart. See how many you can do.”

[test/terminal performance. The objective might be four facts. Later repetition will result in more

remembered.]

2. The subject matter does not matter. The design is always:

a Simple declarative statements for teaching facts, lists, concepts, rules, and routines organized into

b. Tasks organized into

c. Lessons arranged into

d. Units on, for example,

(1) Math: X and Y axis; what a data point is; slope and intercept; calculate the quick way with a

ruler (“When X goes across from 4 to 8, Y goes up from 10 to 14. Delta Y/Delta X = 4/4 = slope of

1.00”; calculate slope from X/Y data; calculate slope from data on the internet. [Note the

progression from elements (such as concepts) to larger wholes that CONSIST of the elements.]

(2) History: Writing and ratifying the Constitution.

(3) Geology: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.

(4) Spanish: new vocabulary, grammar, literary devices, and culture applied to Don Quixote.

(5) Beginning reading: teaching blending (rrruuunnn ( run), segmenting (man ( mmmaaannn);

letter sound correspondence (“This sound [r] is rrrrr.); integrate into sounding out words.

3. The grade level does not matter.

4. Whether a knowledge system is tightly-coupled or loosely-coupled does not matter.

Tightly-coupled knowledge systems and systematic, explicit, focused instruction

5. The structure (units consisting of lessons; lessons consisting of tasks; tasks consisting of a sequence of

simple declarative statements that communicate facts, lists, concept definitions, rules, or routines, all

ending with an integration of what was taught) is largely the same no matter what you teach and to

whom you teach it. How?

Because humans use the SAME set of logical operations to learn something new (acquisition)…They

use a routine called…

Inductive reasoning.

“Ms. Razorback used a routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 to solve problem M. She did the same thing with problem N, problem P, and problem O. So, I (believe, infer, conclude, figure) that using the routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 is THE way (routine) to solve THIS kind of problem.”

And human beings use the same set of logical operations to APPLY (generalize) knowledge to new examples….They use a routine called…

Deductive reasoning.

“Okay, here’s a NEW problem---Q. It has the same features as problems M, N, O, and P. Therefore, it is the same KIND of problem as problems M, N, O, P that I’ve already worked.

Deductive reasoning (syllogism)

I use the routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 to solve this KIND of problem (premise).

Problem Q IS this kind of problem (fact).

Therefore, I should use the routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 to solve problem Q.” (conclusion)

That’s all there is, Ladies and Gentleman. If you don’t believe me---and, after all, why should you?---ask Zig. Or read this, by Engelmann and Carnine. Theory of Instruction. It will only take about a month to do 30 pages.

No other theory is needed. Check it out. You’ll be so smart, your hat won’t fit any more. You’ll look like is kid.

[pic]



Therefore, if you design Units, Lessons in Units, Tasks in Lessons, and declarative statements in Tasks in a way that makes it easy for students to perform the routines of inductive and deductive reasoning, they are going to learn and apply what they learn.

Any way of teaching that does not facilitate inductive and deductive reasoning is by DEFINITION inconsistent with how the learning mechanism does its business.

Of course, you must clearly communicate knowledge of facts, lists, concepts, rules, and routines, with simple declarative statements arranged in a systematic, explicit, focused way (especially with tightly-coupled knowledge systems) that is slightly different for each kind of knowledge.

6. You are STILL teaching ONLY 6 kinds of knowledge (representations of reality) in the form of simple

declarative statements arranged into procedures (routines) for teaching:

a. Facts. “Here’s a fact (frame). Blah blah blah (model). What’s our new fact? (test)”

b. Lists. “The main offices in Roman government were: emperor or dictator, consul, praetor,

curile, aedile, quaestor, tribune, plebian. Listen to the first two…. Say the first

two….[repeat for the whole list]





c. Sensory concepts.

(1) Model examples. “This is red. This is red. This is red”

(2) Juxtapose examples and nonexamples.

“This red. This is NOT red. This is NOT red. This is red.”

(3) Test all. “Is this red? Is this red?”

d. Higher order concepts.

(1) Model the verbal definition. X is in the genus Y, and it has features 1, 2, 3

(2)Model examples. “This (thing is in the genus Y with obvious features 1, 2, 3).”

(3) Juxtapose examples and nonexamples. “This is X: notice 1, 2, 3. This is X. Notice 1, 2, 3. This is NOT X. Notice, 1 and 2, but no 3. This is NOT X. Notice, 2 and 3, but no 1. This IS X. Notice 1, 2, and 3.”

(4) Test all. “Is this an X?... How do you know?” [Students use verbal definition to justify answer.]

e. Rules. Two ways to teach.

>>>Deductive: general (rule) ( particular (examples).

(1) Tell the rule.

“All democracies become corrupt and destroy themselves.”

(2) Teach students to say the rule.

(3) Give examples and nonexamples to reveal the features consistent with the rule.

Athens, Rome.

(4) Give new examples and nonexamples) and ask students if each one fits the

rule. “How do you know.” (generalization test)

(5) Have students FIND more examples (generalization). Use this method when you want NO

errors and want fast acquisition, as in teaching tool skills. (generalization = deduction froma general to new particulars).

>>> Inductive: particular (examples) ( general (rule)

(1) Give examples and help students compare them to INDUCE (figure out) the connection = the

rule, and to state it properly (“The more X, the more Y.” “Whenever X, then Y.” “If and only if X,

then Y.”

(2) Have students find more examples.

In the inductive method, you have to teach HOW to induce a general idea (concept, rule) from

examples. That is, how to describe, compare, and contrast examples and nonexamples; identify what is common to examples and not IN nonexamples; and then state the general. “The rule is, When X increases, Y decreases.”

So, use the inductive method when figuring out (induction) IS an objective = loosely coupled

systems. Errors are okay—part of the process of making sense.

f. Routines. As with lists,

(1) Model the whole routine. Tell what you are doing (explicit teaching) so students can internalize it.

(2) Then model one or two steps.

(3) Then have students do those steps with you (lead).

(4) Then have students do those steps by themselves (test/check)

(5) Then repeat with more steps until students do the whole routine by themselves.

(6) Then repeat with more examples. Fade out the lead (“Do it with me.”) part.

(7) Show NONexamples and model/explain how these are different from the routine just taught, and so you can’t USE the same routine.

(8) Then give NEW examples (generalization).

More here.





This is the second time I’ve shoved these links in! You gonna click or not, Pilgrim?

7. The main differences between knowledge systems are:

a. WHAT you are talking about—math, science, literature, beginning reading.

b. How many elements ARE IN any new thing to be taught, and therefore how much BACKGROUND

KNOWLEDGE of those elements (PRE-SKILLS) kids need in order to learn the new thing to be

taught.

8. Each task in a lesson will FOCUS on one small chunk of knowledge. In Task 1 you might be teaching

a new concept. In Task 2, you might be teaching a new routine. In Task 3 you might be reviewing

facts. So, each task has a specific instructional function.

a. Teach something new (one of the six forms of knowledge) = acquisition phase.

b. Generalize knowledge to new examples = generalization phase.

c. Teach students to USE their knowledge faster but still accurately = fluency phase.

d. Review and firm up; reteach if needed = retention phase.

e. Add more to what students already know---examples of a concept, examples of problems,

examples of poems, words to sound out, items on a list of causes of war.

e. Integrate elements in larger wholes. Use concepts, rules, facts, and lists to perform an

experiment that tests an hypothesis (rule).

9. Always start planning at the end of the unit. What do you want students to KNOW = DO? So,

WHAT will they do to show it = terminal performance? And HOW will they do it to show competence

= terminal objectives.

Work backwards. What does each preceding task in each preceding lesson have to review and teach

in order to learn the next?

To find out what knowledge students need to do the terminal performance for a unit, do a

knowledge analysis of the terminal performance. What elements are involved. If possible, analyses

even these elements into smaller elements. For example, if the terminal performance is reading a

story, a knowledge analysis tells you that to read a story you have to (1) read paragraphs, which

means that you have to (2) read sentences, which means that you have to (3) read words fast, which

means that you have to be able to (4) read words fast, which means that you have to (5) sound out

words, which means that you have to be able to (6) segment words into separate sounds and (7)

know the sounds that go with the letters, which means that you have to (8) be able to say sounds.

So the knowledge analysis tells you the elements you have to teach, and it tells you the logical order

in which you have to teach them. Use this information to arrange tasks in lessons and lessons in

units.

10. A unit should end with a terminal performance and terminal objectives that cover the whole

unit---review, test new material, integrate elements.

Every lesson should end with a terminal performance and terminal objectives that cover the lesson.

And every task should end with a terminal performance and terminal objectives.

Of course, the terminal performance and objectives for tasks are short and quick.

“This letter makes the sound rrrr.” [model]

“When I touch under the sound, you say the sound with me. rrrr.” [lead]

“Your turn…When I touch under the sound YOU say the sound. Get ready…” rrr. [TEST]

“Yes, rrr.” [verification]

10. Lessons are usually organized like this.

Task 1. Frame the lesson. “Here’s what we’re working on. Here are the objectives. When you’re done,

we’ll….”

You need to know the objectives for the end of the lesson (or unit). These are TERMINAL OBJECTIVES.

You need to know what students will DO at the end, to show whether they’ve achieved the objectives. This is the TERMINAL PERFORMANCE.

Task 2. Review and firm pre-skills.

Task 3. Teach something new that is an element of the terminal objectives. Fact, list, concept, rule, routine.

Task 4. Work on fluency or generalization of earlier-taught material---facts, lists, concepts, rules, routines. Or, add more to existing fact, list, concept, rule, routine, knowledge.

Task 5. Teach another something new.

Task 6. Review Tasks 3 and 5.

Task 7. Integrate earlier and new knowledge into something larger; e.g., kids sound out words, kids read sentences, kids read stories, kids do an experiment, kids write a paper. This is the terminal performance. Did they meet the objectives in terms of: (1) accuracy (% correct, included all elements, raised questions, provided invented examples?); (2) speed?

12.CAUTION! You do NOT make a template of tasks and lessons and fit instruction into these. Instead,

you plan instruction first, and THEN draw lines (for tasks) separating chunks of instruction that have a

clear and focused function (teach something new, review/firm, work on fluency or generalization,

integration of elements into wholes, terminal performance/test). For instance, you say to yourself,

“We’ll learn the definition of a new concept. (a) I gain attention and frame the instruction. (b) I

state the verbal definition (model). (c) Students repeat the definition. (d) I give examples of the

concept. (e) I give contrasting, nonexamples. (f) I present all the examples and nonexamples, and ask

‘Is this X?.... How do you know?’ (terminal performance/test). That will be task 2.”

Task 2 Lesson 3

|____________________________|

a b c d e f

Here’s an example that integrates all of the above elements.

Unit 3. U.S. Constitution

| Tasks | Tasks | Tasks | Tasks |

|____|__|_|__|__|____|__|_|____|_|_|__|______|____|__|_____|___|_|____|

1 2 3 4 etc 1 2 3 4 etc 1 2 3 etc. 1 2 3 4 etc.

Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4

Unit 3. U.S. Constitution

Considerations When Planning Instruction

I have to cover the objectives cited by the NC Standard Course of Study, but my objectives, materials, and methods of instruction will also be guided by experts. For example,

The State of State U.S. History Standards 2011. Sheldon M. Stern and Jeremy A. Stern



I will make sure to follow the guidelines below.

“The strongest standards tend to:

( offer coherent chronological overviews of historical content, rather than ahistoric themes

organized into different social studies strands; So, I’ll have a timeline of events. The

timeline will show connections---how one event sets the occasion for the next.

( offer a clear sequence of content across grades, revisiting the content of early grades in later

grades in a more thorough and sophisticated manner, appropriate to students’ developing

cognitive abilities;

( systematically identify real (and important) people and specific events, and offer

explanations of their significance;

( integrate political history with social and cultural history; We’ll examine historical origins

of the theory of government by the consent of the governed (Greece, John Locke). We’ll

show how the Constitution tried to handle differences between those who wanted a

strong central government (federalists) and those who wanted a weak central

government (anti-federalists).

( recognize historical balance and context, discussing — for example — both the rise of

political liberty and the entrenchment of slavery in America, the growing conflict between

these concepts, and the long American struggle toward greater social and political justice;

( recognize America’s European origins, while also acknowledging and integrating the roles

and contributions of non-Western peoples; encourage comprehension of the past on its

own terms, discouraging “presentism” — whereby students judge the past through the lens

of today’s values, standards, and norms — and avoiding appeals to “personal relevance”;

and

( be presented in clear, jargon-free language, with straightforward internal organization.”

I will avoid (in fact, I will explicitly challenge) any revisionist history and political correctness in materials.

Now I’ll start planning with the Standard Course of Study and resource materials.

North Carolina high school social studies standards

COMPETENCY GOAL 1: The learner will examine the constitutional underpinnings of United States government.

Objectives

1. 1.01 Evaluate the theories and styles of democratic government.

2. 1.02 Analyze the philosophy and ideologies that influenced the formulation and adoption of the Constitution.

3. 1.03 Investigate the experiences that influenced the beginnings of American government.

4. 1.04 Understand the implication(s) of separation of powers as a foundation of American government.

5. 1.05 Understand the implication(s) of federalism as a foundation of American government



My focus (for now) is on 1.01-1.03.

However, I have to improve these standards.

Improve the Curriculum Standards

Curriculum standard as written.

1.01 Evaluate the theories and styles of democratic government.

[“Evaluate” is unclear. Are students supposed to examine the definitions and logic of

theories, or the benefits and risks of each KIND of democracy---mass, representative,

constitutional?]

Curriculum standard with improved writing: clear and concrete.

101. Students will learn the theory of government in which legitimacy rests on consent of the

governed—the theory of which is paragraph 2 of the Declaration.

Objective: students will define main concepts and state the rules-statements in sequence.

We will compare the Declaration of Independence with the French Declaration of the rights of man,

which seems to lean more towards mass democracy because of its references to The People.

Curriculum standard as written.

1.02 Analyze the philosophy and ideologies that influenced the formulation and adoption of the Constitution.

[“Analyze” is unclear. Do they mean take different theories---such as Locke’s---apart and

examine the adequacy of definitions and rules? Even so, this is too ambitious for a high

school course.]

Curriculum standard with improved writing: clear and concrete.

102. Students will learn the main concepts and rules (propositions) in Locke’s theory of government, which influenced the Declaration and the Constitution.

Objective: students will define main concepts and state the main rule-statements.

Curriculum standard as written.

1.03 Investigate the experiences that influenced the beginnings of American government.

[“Investigate” is not concrete. “Experiences” is vague.”]

Curriculum standard with improved writing: clear and concrete.

103. Students will describe the sequence of major events from the 1750’s to 1776 (including dates, persons, social groups, and effects of events) leading to the start of the American Revolution.

Here are some resources to supplement the textbook.





Guided Notes

Here are Guided Notes for students. Hand them out or put them on your website. Naturally, the Notes have more room for writing. The Notes would also have hot links to other docs, such as a glossary (concept definitions) and internet sites and downloaded docs.

|Cues = Questions, |Notes |

|Hypotheses | |

| |Lesson 1. Review relevant background knowledge from earlier units. |

| |Task 1. List of colonies. |

| |Task 2. Timeline leading to Constitution: dates and events. |

| |Task 3. Facts about Jefferson, Madison, Washington, Hamilton, Paine. |

| |Task 4. Theory of government in Declaration of Independence |

| |Task 5. New concepts. Political systems: democracy, republic, monarchy, aristocracy, theocracy, |

| |dictatorship, oligarchy. |

| | |

| |Task 6. Review/test of this lesson. |

| |Lesson 2. Issues that affected the design of the Constitution. |

| |Task 1. Two positions: federalism and anti-federalism |

| |Task 2. Facts about the Articles of Confederation: who, what, when, where, why. |

| |Task 3. What each Article prescribes and prohibits. |

| |Task 4. Main Strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. |

| |Task 5. Review/test of this lesson. |

| | |

| |Lesson 3. Issues that affected the design of the Constitution (continued) |

| | |

| |Task 1. Review Lessons 1 and 2. |

| |Task 2. New concept: constitution.   |

| |Task 3. Examples of constitutions: Athens under Solon. |

| |Task 4. Examples of constitutions: Rome. |

| |Task 5. How democracies become corrupt. List of basic weaknesses and subsequent changes. |

| |Task 6. Review and firm knowledge from all lessons to prepare for next lesson. |

| |Lesson 4. Content of the Constitution |

| | |

| |Task 1. New concepts: federalism, separation of powers, republic, checks and balances, article, clause, |

| |bicameralism. |

| |Task 2. Membership and authority of each branch. |

| |Task 3. Read each article; extract rules; list. |

| |Task 4. Review/test. |

| |Lesson 5. Ratification and Bill of Rights |

| |Task 1. Conflict of federalists and anti-federalists. |

| |Task 2. Examples of federalism and anti-federalism in writing. |

| |Task 3. Ratification process. Stages |

| |Task 4. What the Bill or Rights was Supposed to DO |

| | |

| |Task 5. Integrate all content. (1) Review/test concept definitions; theory of representative government; |

| |timeline. (2) Short essays (generalization). (a) Using a sample of speeches and documents, compare and |

| |contrast the Tea Party movement with anti-federalism. (b) Examine samples of legislation and federal |

| |programs over the past 50 years (abortion, health care, regulation of private corporations and energy). |

| |What are the official justifications? To what extent are these legitimate/illegitimate with respect to the |

| |Constitution? [definitions of privacy? definitions of “regulate interstate commerce”] |

Note: every task, every lesson, and the whole unit will end with something students DO (a terminal performance) to show

(1) Whether they LEARNED (acquired) what you tried to teach in that task, lesson, or unit.

“I’ll say a word. You give me the definition in the form of subject, genus, and difference.”

“I’ll give you five equations with 1 unknown—the very equations we just worked. YOU solve all of them yourself.”

(2) Whether they RETAINED what they learned, or finally learned what you tried to teach.

“I’ll name a person, group, or event. You list as many facts as you can.”

(3) Whether they can use their knowledge FLUENTLY.

“I’ll name a person, group, or event. You list as many facts as you can. You have 30 seconds for each item. Second place prize to the 5 students with the most facts is a trip to Jersey City. First place prize is you don’t have to go. Bwaha.”

(4) Whether they can GENERALIZE (apply) knowledge to new examples.

“Does the First Amendment. Does it protect the right to wear whatever you want on the job? What if you claim that wearing live chickens is part of your religion?... Does the so-called establishment clause obviously prohibit a town from displaying Christmas scenes?”

(5) Whether they can INTEGRATE elements into larger wholes (such as essays).

“Using the corruption of Athenian and Roman democracies as examples, and drawing on the writings of the anti-federalists, the warnings of Jefferson, and the predictions of de Tocqueville, develop a scenario in which the United States becomes a despotism—hard or soft fascism.

Lesson 1. Review relevant background knowledge from earlier units.

Task 1. List of colonies. [How do you teach a list?]

Task 2. List of facts about Jefferson, Madison, Washington, Hamilton, Paine.

Task 3. Timeline leading to Constitution: basically a list, with dates and events.

Task 4. Theory of government in Declaration of Independence. A logical argument = routine knowledge

[I don’t want to tell the theory. I want students to EXTRACT it and restate it for themselves. How do you teach this text-analyzing routine? And what do students have to know in order to DO the routine; that is, to restate the theory? (1) Translate sentences into simple declarative statements; (2) what a rule statement looks like (If, when, whenever X, then Y; all/no/some X is part of/has Y; (3) What a first (most general) premise looks like, that anchors the argument (“All men are created equal.”) and what a conclusion looks like (“Given the aforementioned rules, whenever any government no longer (X), then the people have the right (Y)…”]

So,

(a) PRE-teach 1-3 in earlier lessons.

(b) Review these now.

(c) Model how to apply this knowledge to para 2 of the Declaration.

(d) Have students do it with you. (lead)

(e) Have students do it themselves. [Test. This is the terminal performance for this TASK.]

Task 5. Political systems: democracy, republic, monarchy, aristocracy, theocracy, dictatorship, oligarchy.

Higher-order concepts.

Task 6. Fast question-answer on the above. “State the argument in paragraph 2 of the Declaration. Use simple declarative statements as we’ve learned.”…”Name 5 colonies….”…”Name 5 more.”….”I’ll say a word. You define it….Dictatorship…..Go!”

Lesson 2. Issues that affected the design of the Constitution.

Task 1. Two positions: Those wanting strong central government (federalists) vs. those wanting weak central government and strong state governments (anti-federalists). Definitions of federalism and anti-federalism = concept knowledge. List of features of each position = list knowledge.

Task 2. List of facts about the Articles of Confederation: who, what, when, where, why.

Task 3. What each Article prescribes and prohibits.

Students read the document each Article at a time and extract simple declarative statements of what is to be done and what cannot be done, and put the items on a list= list knowledge.

Task 4. Main Strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Make a list of pros and cons as federalists and anti-federalists would see it.

Task 5. Review. “So, what was the Articles of Confederation supposed to do?”….What does Article 1 prescribe?...What does it prohibit?”…”How would federalists feel about the provisions for taxation in Article 8? Why?”…”How would anti-federalists feel about Article 9? Why?”

Lesson 3. Issues that affected the design of the Constitution (continued)

Task 1. Review Lessons 1 and 2.

Task 2. Define constitution.  A constitution (subject) is the system of fundamental laws and principles (genus or larger class in which constitutions are located) that prescribes the nature, functions, and limits of a government (difference between constitutions and other things in the class of systems of fundamental laws. Genus and difference are the predicate).” Concept knowledge

The class of things that are systems of fundamental laws and principles.

The class of things that are constitutions.

The class of things that are religions.

The class of things that are philosophies.

The class of things that are mathematics.

Task 3. Examples of constitutions: Athens under Solon. Extract simple declarative statements from Aristotle, beginning with Part 7. Make a list of features.

Task 4. Examples of constitutions: Rome. Extract simple declarative statements from Polybius, beginning with Part V, 11/11 to 18. Make a list of features. *.html

Task 5. How democracies become corrupt. List of basic weaknesses and subsequent changes.



Task 6. Review and firm knowledge from all lessons to prepare for next lesson. Focus on conflicting positions (federalists vs. anti-federalists); definition of constitution; what functions a constitution is supposed top serve.

Lesson 4. Content of the Constitution

Task 1. Main concepts: federalism, separation of powers, republic, checks and balances, article, clause, bicameralism. Define by genus and difference.

Task 2. Membership and authority of each branch. Executive (President, Vice President; cabinet), legislative (senate, house), judicial (Supreme Court) List knowledge.

Task 3. Read each article; extract rules; list.

Task 4. Review/test. “I’ll say a word. You define it….” “I’ll state a subject; you tell more about. Qualifications of President…” “Powers of taxation…”

Lesson 5. Ratification and Bill of Rights

Task 1. Conflict of federalists and anti-federalists. List differences.

Task 2. Examples of federalism and anti-federalism in writing.

Students extract simple declarative statements that

express objections to features of the Constitution List knowledge

Task 3. Ratification process. Stages

List what happened in each stage.

Task 4. What the Bill or Rights was Supposed to DO

Read each amendment and translate into simple declarative statements. Doing this is a routine.





Task 5. Integrate all content.

(1) Review/test concept definitions; theory of representative government; timeline.

(2) Short essays (generalization).

(a) Using a sample of speeches and documents, compare and contrast the Tea Party

movement with anti-federalism.

(b) Examine samples of legislation and federal programs over the past 50 years (abortion,

health care, regulation of private corporations and energy). What are the official

justifications? To what extent are these legitimate/illegitimate with respect to the

Constitution? [definitions of privacy? definitions of “regulate interstate commerce”]

(3) Discussion. “Using the corruption of Athenian and Roman democracies as examples, and

drawing on the writings of the anti-federalists, the warnings of Jefferson, and the predictions

of de Tocqueville, develop a scenario in which the United States becomes a despotism—

hard or soft fascism.

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