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Dennis L. Cates, Marc A. Markell, and Sherrie Bettenhausen, “At Risk for Abuse: A Teacher’s Guide to Recognizing and Reporting Child Neglect and Abuse,” Preventing School Failure, Vol. 39, Winter 1995.
In 1992, 2.9 million children were reported as suspected victims of abuse or neglect, an increase of 8% from 1991 (Children, Youth, & Families Department [CYFD], 1993). The exact number of children who are abused is, of course, difficult to determine because many cases of abuse go unreported and the definition of abuse varies from state to state (Winters Communication [WCI], 1988). Not only does the definition of abuse differ among states, but professionals also define abuse in different ways (Pagelow, 1984). Additional reasons for the difficulty in determining an accurate rate is that there may be a failure to recognize and report child abuse among professionals. Giovannoni (1989) stated that the failure to uncover child abuse and neglect is generally a result of three factors: a) failure to detect injury caused by abuse, particularly when parents use different medical treatment facilities each time or do not seek medical treatment; b) failure to recognize the indicators of abuse and neglect, especially for middle- and upper-income families; and c) failure to report the case to the appropriate agency when injury is detected and recognized as abuse or neglect.
Although exact numbers for children who are abused are not available, it is known that an alarming number of children are abused each year. These children are in our classrooms throughout the United States.
Child abuse can lead to the development of a full range of problems in children, from poor academic performance and socialization to a variety of physical and cognitive disabilities. Because children are required to attend school, teachers and other educators are faced with the responsibility of maintaining a protective and vigilant posture in relation to their students’ well-being.
Studies have shown that children with disabilities are at greater risk for abuse and neglect than are nondisabled children (Ammerman, Lubetsky, Hersen, & Van Hasselt, 1988). Meier and Sloan (1984) suggested that “most certifiably abused children have been identified as suffering from various developmental handicaps” (p. 247). They further stated that “it is seldom clear whether or not the handicapping conditions are a result of inflicted trauma or, because of a misreading of the child’s abilities by parents, such disappointing delays precipitate further abuse” (pp. 247–248). Blacher (1984) suggested that children with disabilities are more likely to supply the “trigger mechanism” for abuse or neglect. It has further been indicated that parents who abuse often describe their children as being backward, hyperactive, continually crying, or difficult to control.
The premise that a disability, developmental delay, or problem adjusting to the school environment may be directly linked to an abusive home environment requires that educators must be especially vigilant in dealing with those children who are at risk for the development of educational disabilities or poor school performance. Because many children will not report abuse directly, teachers need to be aware of specific behavioral and physical indicators that may indicate that abuse has occurred (Parent Advocacy for Educational Rights [PACER], 1989). The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with potential indicators of abuse, guidelines in dealing with child abuse in at-risk children, and information related to their legal responsibilities in reporting suspected child abuse.
Definitions and Extent of the Problem
The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974 defines child abuse and neglect as follows:
the physical or mental injury, sexual abuse or exploitation, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of eighteen, or the age specified by the child protection law of the state in question, by a person who is responsible for the child’s welfare under the circumstances which indicate that the child’s health or welfare is harmed or threatened thereby (42 U.S.C. § 5102).
Maltreatment of a child can be further described in terms of neglect and physical, verbal, emotional, and sexual abuse.
Neglect typically involves a failure on the part of a parent, guardian, or other responsible party to provide for the child’s basic needs, such as food, shelter, medical care, educational opportunities, or protection and supervision. Further, neglect is associated with abandonment and inadequate supervision (Campbell, 1992).
Verbal abuse may involve excessive acts of derision, taunting, teasing, and mocking. Verbal abuse also involves the frequent humiliation of the child as well as a heavy reliance on yelling to convey feelings. Physical abuse can involve shaking, beating, or burning.
Emotional abuse is a pattern of behavior that takes place over an extended period of time, characterized by intimidating, belittling, and otherwise damaging interactions that affect a child’s emotional development (PACER, 1989). It may be related to an intent to withhold attention or a failure to provide adequate supervision, or relatively normal living experiences. Sensory deprivation and long periods of confinement are also related to emotional abuse. Emotional abuse is very difficult to define or categorize.
Sexual abuse of children is also referred to as child sexual abuse and child molesting. It is typically defined in terms of the criminal laws of a state and involves intent to commit sexual acts with minors or to sexually exploit children for personal gratification (Campbell, 1992). Sexual intercourse need not take place and, in fact, is rare in prepubertal children. Sexual abuse involves coercion, deceit, and manipulation to achieve power over the child (PACER, 1989).
In Table 1, we provide possible physical and behavioral indicators of neglect and physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. A child who persistently shows several of these characteristics may be experiencing the symptoms of abuse or neglect.
It is important to note that the physical and behavioral indicators of neglect and emotional, sexual, and physical abuse suggest or indicate that abuse may have taken place. They do not prove that abuse has occurred and may be indicators of other situations happening in the child’s life. Additionally, educators need to be cognizant of the fact that children who are motorically delayed or impaired may be prone to accidents and as a result have bruises, scrapes, cuts, or other minor injuries. This may also be true of children with severely limited vision. Children with diagnosed medical conditions may develop symptoms that result in a change of demeanor or physical appearance. It is important that teachers who serve these children become familiar with the child’s condition and be well acquainted with the child’s family, Frequent meetings, by telephone and in person, will assist the teacher in keeping up to date with changing medical conditions and aid in monitoring changes in family life patterns.
A teacher who is equipped with knowledge of the symptoms of child abuse and neglect and the characteristics of the child and the family will be able to better determine whether an at-risk learner or child with a disability is a victim of abuse.
|Physical indicators |Behavioral indicators |
|Emotional Abuse and Neglect |
|Height and weight significantly below age level |Begging or stealing food |
|Inappropriate clothing for weather, scaly skin |Constant fatigue |
|Poor hygiene, lice, body odor |Poor school attendance |
|Child left unsupervised or abandoned |Chronic hunger |
|Lack of a safe and sanitary shelter |Dull, apathetic appearance |
|Unattended medical or dental needs |Running away from home |
|Developmental lags |Child reports that no one cares for/looks after him/her |
|Habit disorders |Sudden onset of behavioral extremes (conduct problems, depression) |
|Physical Abuse |
|Frequent injuries such as cuts, bruises, or burns |Poor school attendance |
|Wearing long sleeves in warm weather |Refusing to change clothes for physical education |
|Pain despite lack of evident injury |Finding reasons to stay at school and not go home |
|Inability to perform fine motor skills because of injured hands |Frequent complaints of harsh treatments by parents |
|Difficulty walking or sitting |Fear of adults |
|Sexual Abuse |
|Bedwetting or soiling |Unusual, sophisticated sexual behavior/knowledge |
|Stained or bloody underclothing |Sudden onset of behavioral extremes |
|Venereal disease |Poor school attendance |
|Blood or purulent discharge from genital or anal area |Finding reasons to stay at school and not go home |
|Difficulty walking or sitting | |
|Excessive fears, clinging | |
Table 1
Physical and Behavioral Indicators of Possible Neglect and Abuse
Legal Obligations
Children who are at risk for developmental delays are at greater risk for child abuse than children who are not. Teachers who work with these students should, therefore, be aware of their responsibilities relative to child abuse and neglect.
Child abuse cannot be legally ignored by school officials. Teachers and administrators are required by law in all 50 states to report suspected child abuse (Fossey, 1993; Trudell & Whatley, 1988). In most jurisdictions, it is a criminal offense for a person to fail to report abuse when he or she is required by law to do so (Fossey, 1993). Therefore, failure to act may result in the filing of criminal charges or civil suits. The courts have also ruled against teachers for delaying their actions (McCarthy & Cambron-McCabe, 1992). The possibility of criminal or civil proceedings may give many teachers pause and result in undue anxiety or overreaction to the problem. Educators must, therefore, become aware of their legal and administrative responsibilities.
The state laws governing the reporting of child abuse generally require teachers, doctors, school counselors, nurses, dentists, and police, to name a few, to report suspected child abuse to those human services agencies responsible for child welfare. Generally, teachers are required only to have a reasonable suspicion that child abuse has occurred before they are required to report it. Reasonable suspicion suggests that one is relieved of the responsibility of researching a case or of having specific facts related to the incidence of abuse. Given teachers’ training in child behavior and their daily contact with children, they are in a position to recognize unusual circumstances. Exercising prudence in reporting suspected abuse will generally protect the teacher from criminal or civil action. Persons who report abuse and neglect in good faith to the appropriate state agency are immune from civil liability (Fossey, 1993). Laws vary from state to state in this regard, however.
Reporting laws in all states give final authority to investigate abuse charges to agencies other than the schools (Fossey, 1993). The advantage of reporting suspected abuse to agencies other than the school lies in the fact that the burden of gathering facts does not rest with the school. These agencies can research each case objectively and determine the need for action. Teachers may report child abuse to law enforcement officials; however, most states require them to report to local service agencies such as children’s protective services, child abuse hotlines, local welfare departments, local social service agencies, public health authorities, school social workers, nurses, or counselors. In extreme cases, teachers may be required to report cases to hospital emergency rooms. Questions often arise, however, about the procedures for reporting abuse.
Should teachers report suspected abuse directly to the appropriate human service agency or to their building principal or immediate supervisor? These questions may be difficult to answer if specific policies and procedures have not been outlined. If no policy exists, and a teacher reports suspected abuse to the principal, and the principal fails or refuses to report the case to the proper authorities, both teacher and principal may be subject to legal action. In such a case, a teacher may be held responsible depending upon specific circumstances involved.
A specific policy or procedure for reporting abuse should protect the teacher from legal liability if those procedures are followed. A policy requiring a teacher to report to the principal or school counselor relieves the teacher of the need to second-guess the system. Teachers are encouraged to familiarize themselves with existing law as well as district policies related to child abuse. If policies do not exist or are not clear, teachers should work through their professional organizations to help promote institutionalization of such policies.
McCarthy and Cambron-McCabe (1992) suggest that low levels of reporting by teachers may be related to the lack of clearly defined administrative policy. Additionally, they recommend the development of in-service programs to acquaint teachers with their legal responsibilities as well as the signs of abuse.
Even though specific laws may require the person suspecting abuse to report specific information, the following suggestions from PACER (1989), CYFD (1992), and WCI (1988) should answer many questions a teacher may have concerning the reporting of suspected abuse.
1. To whom should I report suspected child abuse? If the teacher suspects that a child has been abused, she or he must report the suspected abuse to the local social service agency, the local police, or the local county sheriff’s department. Reporting the suspected abuse to another teacher or the school principal may not be enough to fulfill the requirements of mandatory reporting.
2. Should I tell the parents or alleged abuser of my suspicion of child abuse? The teacher should not disclose the suspicion of abuse or neglect of a child to either the parents, the caregiver, or the alleged perpetrators. The teacher should report the suspected abuse to the local social service agency, the local police, or the county sheriff’s department.
3. What should I report? The teacher should report the following information (if known):
▪ identifying information about the child (name, age, grade, address, and names of parents)
▪ name of the person responsible for the abuse
▪ where the alleged abuse took place
▪ description of the child, any relevant statements made by the child, and any observations made
▪ how long ago the incident described took place
▪ the reporter’s name, address, and phone number
▪ if the child has a disability, any information that may be helpful to the officials (i.e., if the child has difficulty with communication, uses a hearing aid, has mental retardation, emotional, or behavioral difficulties, or has a learning disability that indicates special needs)
Summary
To ensure that accurate information is reported to the appropriate human service agency, teachers who serve children at risk for the development of educational problems must be prudent in their efforts to know their children and their families well. Parents who abuse or neglect their children often exhibit characteristics that may be heightened or triggered during family crises. This is of critical importance to teachers of children at risk for developing educational problems because of the additional stress that often results from the child’s presence. Parents who abuse or neglect their child may exhibit low self-esteem or appear to be isolated from the community. They typically fail to appear for parent-teacher conferences and are often defensive when questioned about their child. Their child’s injuries are often blamed on others or unsatisfactorily explained. The child may relate stories of abuse or unusual behavior by his or her parents. Limited parenting skills may be a result of lack of education, experience, or maturity. Parents may lack patience and be overly demanding of a child who, because of developmental difficulties, is unable to meet their demands in a timely manner. Often, parents who abuse their children were abused themselves.
In determining whether a child is subject to abuse or neglect, the teacher should make note of consistent behaviors or physical evidence, being aware that one incident may not be evidence of child abuse. An isolated incident should be recorded for future reference but should not necessarily be reported immediately. This will depend, of course, on the severity of the injury or the effect on the child’s behavior. Knowing the parents well will certainly aid in making a decision relative to reporting of abuse and neglect.
Recognizing abuse and reporting it to the appropriate agency is expected of all teachers and administrators. The experienced teacher makes the extra effort to gather information about the family, to become well acquainted with the parents, and to monitor all of his or her students’ physical and behavioral conditions. Teachers must know their students if they intend to effectively deal with child abuse and neglect.
In addition to understanding the procedures for reporting abuse and neglect, teachers may also contribute to improved parent–student relations by participating in the development of parenting education programs or in setting up a more flexible schedule for parent conferences. Efforts should be made to help parents see the advances and improvements made by their children. As parents develop a more realistic view of their child’s abilities and potential, they may become more patient and understanding of their child’s actions. Teachers should preface a note home with a friendly telephone call or an informal letter discussing the child’s overall performance in school. Given a situation in which abuse is present, a teacher’s first note home detailing a disciplinary action may precipitate undue punishment. One key to reduced child abuse is improved parent–teacher communication. Teachers cannot afford to wait for the parent to initiate contact. Open lines of communication must be established and supported by the school’s administration.
Children at risk for the development of educational problems are at greater risk for abuse and neglect than those children who develop normally. Teachers who serve these children must be aware of this and be able to recognize the warning signs. They must also have a complete understanding of the legal and administrative procedures for reporting abuse. Most important, they must know their students and work to establish effective parent–teacher communication. To stem the tide of abuse and neglect among disabled and at-risk children, teachers must be vigilant, understanding, observant, prudent, and effective record keepers.
Acknowledgment
We wish to thank Dr. J. David Smith and Dr. Mitchell L. Yell for their editorial assistance in the preparation of this manuscript.
At the time this article was written, Dennis L. Cates was an assistant professor in Programs in Special Education at the University of South Carolina in Columbia and Marc A. Markell was an associate professor in the Department of Special Education at St. Cloud State University in St. Cloud, Minnesota. Sherrie Bettenhausen is a professor in the Special Education Department of the University of Charleston. Dennis L. Cates, Marc A. Markell, and Sherri Bettenhausen, “At Risk for Abuse: A Teacher’s Guide for Recognizing and Reporting Child Neglect and Abuse,” from Preventing School Failure, Vol. 39, No. 2, Winter 1995. Reprinted by permission of the authors.
References
Ammerman, R., Lubetsky, M., Hersen, M., & Van Hasselt, V. (1988). Maltreatment of children and adolescents with multiple handicaps: Five case examples. Journal of the Multihandicapped Person, 1, 129–139.
Blacher, J. (1984). A dynamic perspective on the impact of a severely handicapped child on the family. In J. Blacher (Ed.), Severely handicapped young children and their families: Research in review (pp. 3–50). New York: Academic Press.
Campbell, R. (1992). Child abuse and neglect. In L. Bullock (Ed.), Exceptionalities in children and youth (pp. 470–475). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974, 42 U.S.C. § 5101 et. seq.
Children, Youth, and Families Department (CYFD). (1993). Stop child abuse/neglect: Prevention and reporting kit. Available from Children, Youth and Families Department, Social Services Division, Child Abuse Prevention Unit, 300 San Mateo NE, Suite 802, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1516.
Fossey, R. (1993). Child abuse investigations in the public school: A practical guide for school administrators. Education Law Reporter. St. Paul, Minn.: West.
Giovannoni, J. (1989). Definitional issues in child maltreatment. In D. Cicchitti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 48–50). New York: Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M., & Cambron-McCabe, N. (1992). Public school law: Teachers’ and students’ rights. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Meier, J., & Sloan, M. (1984). The severely handicapped and child abuse. In J. Blacher (Ed.), Severely handicapped young children and their families: Research in review (pp. 247–272). New York: Academic Press.
Pagelow, M. D. (1984). Family violence. New York: Praeger Publishing.
Parent Advocacy for Educational Rights (PACER). (1989). Let’s prevent abuse: An informational guide for educators. Available from PACER Center, Inc., 4826 Chicago Avenue South, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55407-1055.
Trudell, B., & Whatley, M. H. (1988). School sexual abuse prevention: Unintended consequences and dilemmas. Child Abuse and Neglect, 12, 103–113.
Winters Communication, Inc. (WCI). (1988). Child abuse and its prevention. Available from Winters Communication, Inc., 1007 Samy Drive, Tampa, Florida 33613.
Postnote
The abuse (or, more accurately stated, the torture) of a helpless child by an adult is one of those crimes that truly cries out for attention. The effects of abuse usually spill over into a child’s school life and can make him or her impervious to the best schooling. Recently, greater attention has been given to child abuse in the hope of alerting teachers and other youth workers to the problem and sensitizing adults to its long-term harm.
The National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information (in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) distributes materials, collects data, and conducts research into this problem area. If you wish to obtain more information, one especially useful report from the Center is titled, “The Role of Educators in the Prevention and Treatment of Child Abuse and Neglect,” which can be found at .
Discussion Questions
1. Describe a case of child abuse you know of personally or through media accounts. What was the outcome of the case for all parties involved?
2. What legal responsibilities do teachers have in your state for reporting child abuse? Do they have any legal protection (such as anonymity) once they have reported a case? How comfortable are you with the possibility of meeting these responsibilities?
3. What services are available in your area for children who have been abused? Consider child protection or welfare services as well as law enforcement agencies at the state, county, and city levels.
Reflection Assignment
Based on the laws and policies of a state and school district where you are interested in teaching, develop a checklist of steps to take if you suspect that one of your students is being abused or neglected.
Web Links
Visit the following web sites for more information on child abuse and neglect, and to gather background information for the discussion questions or reflection assignment.
National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information
This site give you access to the current state laws regarding child abuse, as well as research publications, statistics, and prevention information.
Prevent Child Abuse
This national organization dedicated to stopping child abuse of all kinds has chapters in 39 states. The web site links you to a great deal of information as well as to other resources.
Child Abuse
This collection of resources from ERIC links you to several sources of data and advice on preventing and responding to child abuse.
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