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Running head?Growth and Empowerment: A Theoretical Framework of Career DevelopmentEmily ShieldsThe College at BrockportAbstractThis paper will explore the ideas of Donald Super and David Tiedeman to provide a basis for my personal career counseling perspective. Super’s Life-Span, Life Space theory can be applied to a large population and acknowledges the importance of a developmental perspective when approaching career decision-making. Tiedeman’s psychosocial model of career development offers a similar model to Super’s in several ways, but also incorporates a clearer layout of stages in the career decision-making process and emphasizes an individual’s power to make changes in his or her life. This paper will present a synthesis of Super’s ideas with those of Tiedeman through a closer look at each author’s contributions to career development theory and also through a personal interview that illustrates its functionality. The over-arching principles of individuality, personal growth, and empowerment are fundamental to this discussion of lifelong career development.Keywords: career development, Super, Tiedeman, developmental, growth, empowerment Growth and Empowerment: A Theoretical Framework of Career DevelopmentWith countless theories and perspectives within the field of career development, it is necessary for each counselor to develop his or her own personal theoretical orientation to carry into practice. In this paper I will explore the perspectives of Donald Super and David Tiedeman as I formulate my own view of career development and how career decisions are made. From Super’s work, I will primarily investigate the importance of acknowledging individual change over time, life roles, and the relationship between career decisions and a person’s self-perception. While using Super’s theory as a basis for my perspective, I have incorporated ideas from David Tiedeman’s work that add depth and diversity to my view. Tiedeman’s theory is also developmental in nature, and focuses on the psychosocial factors that influence career decision-making. The non-linear theory depicts the career development process as an individually-driven progression that can be repeated over the course of one’s life. To illustrate my emerging theory, I will provide information from an interview with Matt P., in which career development and decision-making were discussed in detail. Theories and PerspectivesDonald SuperSuper’s theory of career development emphasizes the individual’s growth and change over the course of his or her life span, importance of life roles, and the formulation and modification of an individual’s self-concept (Harris-Bowlsbey & Niles, 2009). This perspective considers a variety of societal and personal elements that influence a person’s career decision-making process and focuses on the continuous changes in lifestyle, self-perception, interests, and goals (Amundson, Harris-Bowlsbey, & Niles, 2009). Super (1990) has illustrated his Life-Span, Life-Space theory through the Life-Career Rainbow and the Archway of Career Determinants, and these along with his research have culminated in the Career Development Assessment and Counseling (C-DAC) model. Super’s life span concept is based around five stages of a person’s life: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement/decline (as cited in Osborne, Brown, Niles, & Miner, 1997). These life stages delineate an individual’s journey through the career development process, from the childhood growth stage and adolescent/early adulthood exploration of career possibilities, to the establishment of a career path and maintaining an occupation, and gradual disengagement with work as the physical and psychological effects of aging begin to set in. Super was careful not to confine his life span concept to a rigid linear format. Throughout his work, Super emphasizes the differences of individuals, noting that the career development process is different for everyone, and is affected by a multitude of factors, including parental socioeconomic level, skills, personality traits, mental ability, education, values, and interests (Harris-Bowlsbey et al., 2009). All of these factors qualify each individual for a number of occupations. The life span model offers important elements – the notion that there is not just one perfect and lifelong career choice for each person, and the acknowledgement of an individual’s propensity toward change throughout life as opposed to stagnation. The second half of Donald Super’s theory – the Life-Space concept – connects with his developmental timeline by providing an analysis of an individual’s life roles. Super defines career as a “combination of all of the activities that take place in life roles being played by an individual at a given point in time” (as cited in Amundson et al., 2009). Super outlined the roles during a person’s life to include: son/daughter, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, and pensioner (as cited in Osborne et al., 1997). These roles are fluid, meaning they are not confined to certain ages or physical conditions, and do not always follow a linear pattern throughout the life span. Roles carry with them unique needs, values, and interests that all play a role in the career development process. Super (1990) illustrated this concept with the Life-Career Rainbow, a visual interpretation of how an individual’s life roles transform and overlap (as cited in Amundson et al. 2009). The roles of an individual change over the course of life and often occur simultaneously, affecting how a person chooses an occupation and what his or her primary interests and values are. Super revised his theory even more with the Archway of Career Determinants (1990), which more specifically depicts the influences of personal interests, values, needs, and personality traits along with societal constructs like community, family, peer groups, the labor market, and the economy (as cited in Amundson et al. 2009). The concept of life roles is significant in career development because it acknowledges that career choices are intricately connected to a variety of other interests, responsibilities, values, life-role demands, and needs that are continuously changing. Although Super’s theory is complex and includes several conceptual elements, it provides a far-reaching framework for career development. His theory has evolved with extensive study, but even in his early years as an author and researcher, Super (1951) articulated that choosing a profession is an individual’s attempt at self-actualization, or implementing his or her self-concept in the form of an occupation (as cited in Super, 1963). Self-concepts are the beliefs, perceptions, and developed ideas about ourselves that contain both objective comparisons to others and subjective constructs that distinguish us as individuals (Harris-Bowlsbey et al., 2009). This idea is where Super fuses his ideas to form a cohesive theory. Career development is the process of finding a professional path that best fits an individual’s self-concept, which is formulated and adjusted over time, and influenced by life roles and values (Gies, 1990).David TiedemanWith Super’s model of career development firmly established, there are some areas that are augmented appropriately by the work of David Tiedeman. There are many similarities between Super and Tiedeman’s theories, especially in relation to the developmental model that recognizes stages of an individual’s life. From childhood to adulthood, individuals experience periods of career curiosity, investigation, establishment of goals, pursuit of occupations, and maintaining employment. These phases are clearly named in Tiedeman’s career decision-making model (1961), which consists of Anticipation activities, (exploration, crystallization, choice, and specification) and Implementation activities (induction, reformation, and integration), (as cited in Duys, Ward, Maxwell, & Eaton-Comerford, 2008). These phases mimic Super’s theory in some ways, but are not to be viewed linearly or in accordance with specific age groups because Tiedeman’s viewpoint is one of constant re-evaluation, adaptation, and integration that occur in nearly any conceivable sequence. This element of Tiedeman’s model is relevant and valuable at this time in our current world and economy, because it considers the necessity for change within one’s occupation a normal and integral part of the career development process (Duys et al., 2008). Tiedeman’s focus is on the continual and purposeful adjustment and adaptation of the self to find career solutions that are meaningful and fitting. Tiedeman’s theory is driven by “purposeful action,” or an individual’s active pursuit of goals that give meaning to his or her life (Tiedeman & Field, 1962, as cited in Savickas, 2008). In Tiedeman’s perspective, career and life exist together, not separately, and career choices are not just a small part of life – they are integral to one’s life path. “Making a living must become a part of a larger goal if work is not to be overengrossing. ‘Making a life’ is a relevant larger goal” (Tiedeman, 1963, p. 4). Thus, he emphasizes the ability of the individual to be the engineer of his or her own life over the course of the life span, and he or she has the capacity to change, adapt, and explore different occupations. Although Tiedeman’s theory does not explicitly focus on changing life roles, it does acknowledge changing life and career priorities and values. As a person’s interests, responsibilities, and needs change over time, he or she can re-engage in the career decision-making process by exploring new options, crystallizing a viable career path, making choices, and becoming integrated into a new work environment. Tiedeman’s theory stresses problem-solving, consideration of alternatives, and personal empowerment for career development. By regarding the individual as the metaphorical captain of the career ship, it offers inspiration and motivation for calculated change and growth (Miller-Tiedeman & Tiedeman, 1990, as cited in Duys et al., 2008). The defined phases of Anticipation and Integration are helpful in identifying an individual’s current state of decision-making and offer insight into how one makes important life changes. While steeped in methodology and at times, complicated language, Tiedeman’s theory is grounded in observable reality and sensitivity toward each individual’s unique path in life. Theoretical SynthesisMy personal theory of career development has been greatly shaped by the work of these two influential theorists, Super and Tiedeman. The views presented coexist harmoniously and offer both insight into the career decision-making process and tools for individual empowerment and success. There is immeasurable value in understanding the developmental process, multiple life roles, and the enormous weight career decisions carry in people’s lives. Super’s Life-Span, Life Space theory recognizes the uniqueness of each person while drawing significant conclusions about the reality of aging, growth, and balance of roles. Where Super’s developmental model is broad, Tiedeman’s is specific, but not defined by age limitations or linear constraints. Tiedeman stresses individual autonomy, adaptability, problem-solving skills, and self-organization (Savickas, 2008). A merging of these two theorists’ views creates a career development model that recognizes individuality while acknowledging important phases of life, and at its core, encourages personal empowerment and unceasing growth. Personal InterviewCareer Development of Matt P.Matt P. is a 37-year-old married father of one daughter, age 7 (M.P., personal communication, March 23, 2012). He grew up in a small rural town with two brothers and one sister. His mother was a first-grade teacher; his father was a Navy veteran and repairman for a telephone company. The eldest child of divorced parents, he was encouraged to play sports, participate in activities, and pursue higher education. He played baseball, ran cross-country, and played the saxophone in the school band. His interest in exercise and sports led him to apply to college to study physical therapy.Matt attended a four-year state university in Buffalo, New York. As a student, he explored his intended field of study and gained skills and knowledge pertaining to anatomy and injury rehabilitation. After two years of college, he was denied admission to the selective physical therapy program because he had not earned high enough grades to qualify. Instead, he pursued his bachelor’s degree in exercise science and did an internship with the sports department at Southern Methodist University in Texas. After graduating from college, Matt moved home with his family while he worked at a fitness center nearby. Even before graduating college, Matt realized that he had no interest in pursuing a career in exercise science. He said that he had always had “bigger plans” for himself, so he began to focus on a possible career in federal law enforcement. This decision was based on lack of interest in exercise science, a desire for excitement and change in his profession, and a growing interest in federal law. He embarked on the exploration and crystallization processes (Duys et al., 2008) by researching the field and spoke to a friend at the fitness center whose father was an official in the United States Border Patrol. He also discovered that jumping into his dream job with the U.S. Marshals was not possible without some experience in law enforcement. With some acquired knowledge about government agencies, Matt crystallized his career goals and made the choice to apply for a position in the Border Patrol. After graduating from the Border Patrol Academy in Maryland, Matt was sent to Laredo, Texas to begin his new job. He remained in the Border Patrol for almost two years, but after one year he began to look for ways to transition to something new. The inspiration for change came from dissatisfaction with the location and nature of work. While exciting and invigorating, work as a Border Patrol Agent was dangerous and required him to live far from home in a personally undesirable part of the country. He researched a number of government agencies and decided against positions with the U.S. Marshals and the DEA, which in his opinion, seemed either too bureaucratic or offered too little compensation. With growing skills in law enforcement and an interest in other federal branches, Matt applied for jobs with the ATF and Secret Service. Matt was accepted into the Secret Service, completed training, and was sent to Los Angeles, California. During seven-year tenure with the Secret Service he travelled extensively, attended many important functions, and met influential politicians, world leaders, and entertainers. The job provided a high level of respect and prestige, change and stimulation, and adequate compensation for Matt. During his last few years with the Secret Service, Matt’s life roles began to change, and so did his career goals. Matt got married and soon had a daughter, and found himself less and less satisfied with the unpredictable and grueling travel schedule of his job. He preferred to be home with his family, and the endless travel put stress on his marriage. He had simultaneously taken on the roles named by Super (1990) of worker, citizen, spouse, parent, and homemaker, which changed his priorities from individually-focused to family-focused. With a family to support in an expensive part of the country, Matt was reluctant to leave the Secret Service without finding a federal position with comparable pay. He again engaged in the exploration and crystallization processes (Duys et al., 2008) by researching numerous positions, making contacts, and narrowing his options. After discussing occupational options with his wife relating to pay scale, location, and degree of travel, Matt applied for a federal investigator position with the United States Postal Service. It offered Matt the things he valued most in a job – comparable pay, limited travel, flexible work schedule, and good benefits. The position itself was not significantly different from the type of work Matt was used to – investigating criminal activity – but did not require the mentality of “the job comes first” that was ever-present in the Secret Service. Matt’s career decision-making process is an ideal example of Tiedeman’s concept of “making a life” (1963). He actively pursued new professional avenues after careful research and consideration of his roles and values, and sought to find the best-fitting position that would express and fulfill his needs. He has experienced many of the life stages discussed by both Super and Tiedeman, and his career path has reflected these stages of growth. Over time, Matt has sharpened his skills within his field and he continues to grow in his profession. It seems he is in what Tiedeman would call the “integration” phase, in which he is now a member of the professional and social web associated with his federal position (Duys et al., 2008). Super (1990) would call this stage “establishment,” in which Matt focuses on maintaining an acceptable level of performance, earning a positive reputation, and looking forward to opportunities for advancement within his chosen occupation (as cited in Harris-Bowlsbey et al., 1997).Matt has exemplified what Tiedeman would call “purposeful action,” or decision-making that is calculated and creates meaning for an individual (Tiedeman & Field, 1962, as cited in Savickas, 2008). He has formulated a self-concept over time that he has implemented in the form of his profession. Having given careful consideration to his life roles, needs, values, and interests, and coinciding with his life stages, he has pursued goals that fulfill these areas. Matt’s life path so far has illustrated his need for change in his career that reflects all of the categories outlined by Super, and his continual process of exploring new professional paths and following the best available options display congruence with Tiedeman’s psychosocial model of career development.ConclusionsThe Melding of Theory and RealityThroughout this paper, I have presented some of Donald Super and David Tiedeman’s theories and perspectives and explained how their work can be interpreted to form a cohesive theoretical view. Both theorists offer valuable perspectives on the developmental nature of career decision-making, the importance of one’s life roles in the decision-making process, and how an individual’s unique life circumstances, interests, abilities, and goals influence career pursuits. Although both theorists have produced broad bodies of work, I chose to explore the theoretical concepts most consistent with my personal views and logic. When viewed holistically, these concepts present a theoretical perspective that is grounded in the realities of growth and development, and emphasizes individual autonomy and ability to reason and make decisions. Rather than focusing on the obstacles that different cultures, communities, genetic variations, and economic circumstances often present, this perspective acknowledges their existence and moves forward with emphasis on individuals’ power to make choices that best suit their lives. These views best represent my current beliefs, which will continue to evolve as I gain knowledge and experience, but the work of Donald Super and David Tiedeman has helped me lay a theoretical foundation of career development that I plan to expand upon and incorporate into future practice.ReferencesAmundson, N.E., Harris-Bowlsbey, J., Niles, S.G. (2009) Essential elements of career counseling: processes and techniques, 2nd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.Harris-Bowlsbey, J., Niles, S.G. (2009) Career development interventions in the 21st century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.Duys, D. K., Ward, J. E., Maxwell, J. A., & Eaton-Comerford, L. (2008). Career counseling in a volatile job market: Tiedeman's perspective revisited. Career Development Quarterly, 56(3), 232-241. Gies, V. (1990). Developing a personal career counseling theory: An overview of the theories of Donald Super and David Tiedeman. Guidance & Counseling, 6(1), 54.Osborne, W. L., Brown, S., Niles, S., & Miner, C. U. (1997). Career development, assessment & counseling. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.Savickas, M. L. (2008). David V. Tiedeman: Engineer of Career Construction. Career Development Quarterly, 56(3), 217-224.Super, D.E. (1963). Career development: Self-concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space, approach to career development. In D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Tiedeman, D.V., O’Hara, R.P. (1963). Career development: Choice and adjustment. New York: College Entrance Examination Board. ................
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