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Study Guide for Exam 1: Chapters 1-6 (Prenatal/Infant Development)

Exam Format: This exam will consist of 50 multiple-choice questions.

Study Tips: When studying, focus on lecture notes first, but it is useful to read concepts covered in lecture in the textbook to get more examples/further understanding of topics. There are some segments/topics in the textbook that are not covered in my slides; those segments will not be on the exam). Also, try to think about these concepts critically- visualize things, think about new examples; don’t just skim the topics and assume you know the information because you may not recall that information as easily on exam day. Everything on this study guide could be on the exam, but if it’s not on the study guide, it’s not on the exam!

Other Resources: The quizzes you have been taking for each chapter on REVEL will be good to review particularly if you got any particular question wrong in the past. A blank copy of the quizzes will be accessible by 2/14 for studying purposes (find answers by going through REVEL- you can click through the quizzes you have already submitted). Email me questions if you have anything you want me to explain or stop by my office hours. I will be creating a Question and Answer document and posting it in the Study Guides folder on Canvas; this document will include all questions students ask me and my response to them (removing identity of student of course). I will update that document (in study guide folder on Canvas) periodically, noting when the file was last updated. Please check this file for helpful feedback and content!

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Lifespan Development

An Orientation to Lifespan Development

• What is the definition of lifespan development?

o A field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior throughout the lifespan

• Describe some of the basic influences on human development (identify history-graded influences, age-graded influences, sociocultural-graded influences, and non-normative life events).

o History-graded influences: how growing up during a war, 9/11, etc., will affect you differently than growing up without these historical factors

o Age-graded influences: puberty, menopause, etc.

o Sociocultural-graded influences: growing up poor vs. wealthy, in third world countries vs. United States

o Non-normative life events: traumas as a child/teen

• Identify/understand the 4 key issues in the field of lifespan development (continuous vs. discontinuous changes; critical vs. sensitive periods, lifespan approach vs. focus on particular periods, nature vs. nurture)

o Continuous vs. Discontinuous change:

▪ Continuous change: gradual, achievements at one level build on previous level, underlying developmental processes remain the same over the lifespan

▪ Discontinuous change: occurs in distinct steps or stages, behaviors and processes are qualitatively different at different stages, underlying developmental process remain the same over the lifespan

o Sensitive vs. critical periods:

▪ Critical periods: certain environmental stimuli are necessary for normal development; emphasized by early developmentalists

• Rubella during first 20 weeks of pregnancy

▪ Sensitive periods: people are susceptible to certain environmental stimuli, but consequences of absent stimuli are reversible; current emphasis in lifespan development

• Orphanages in infancy and later social development

o Lifespan approach: current theories emphasize growth and change throughout life, relatedness of different periods

o Focus on particular periods: infancy and adolescence emphasized by early developmentalists as most important periods

o Nature (genetic factor) vs. Nurture (environmental factors)

Research Methods

• Know the key components of a correlational study (including problem of directionality and third variables, as well as no causality issue) and the cons of a correlational design.

o Correlational (no causality assumed): examines relationship between 2 or more variables

o Experimental: involves random assignment of independent variable and high levels of experimental control

• Know the key components of an experimental study; particularly that random assignment and experimental control make an experiment a true experiment (no random assignment in correlational studies, and often little experimental control- you want to know what those terms mean) and the cons of experimental designs.

o Not “naturalistic”, hard to “control” for everything, not always feasible/ethical

• What is the difference between a field study and a laboratory study? What are the pros/cons to each study type?

o Field Study: capture behavior in real-life settings

▪ Used in correlational studies and experiments

▪ Hard to exert control over situation

▪ Easier recruitment for participants

o Lab study: developmental experiments are typically conducted in the lab

▪ Hold events constant

▪ Causality is easier to establish

▪ Difficult to maintain/costly

• Identify longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential studies.

o Longitudinal: measuring individual change over time, same group of participants (strongest kind of study you can have)

o Cross sectional: measuring people of different ages at the same point in time (takes longer)

o Sequential studies: mixture of longitudinal and cross sectional studies (gets a bunch of data all at once, can start doing data analysis)

Chapter 2: The Start of Life- Prenatal Development

Earliest Development

• Be familiar with differences between Preformationism and epigenesist.

o Preformationism: a formerly-popular theory that organisms develop from miniature versions of themselves. Belief that they are pre-formed at conception

o Epigenesis: the emergence of new structures and functions over the course of development. It was accepted in the 1700’s.

• Define gametes (for males and females) and zygotes; how many chromosomes are in a gamete vs. a zygote?

o Sperm (male gamete) and egg (female gamete) fuse together to form a zygote

o Get 23 chromosomes from each mom and dad ( 46 chromosomes

• Know the 3 kinds of multiple births (monozygotic, dizygotic, trizygotic) and factors that cause multiple births

o Monozygotic: identical twins, 1 zygote

o Dizygotic: fraternal twins, 2 zygotes

o Trizygotic: triplets, 3 zygotes

o Factors that cause multiple births: fertility drugs, older age, and racial differences can all influence a mother to carry multiples

• How is the sex of an individual determined (know that father’s sperm determines sex of child, know which pair of chromosomes determines sex, and what combination is female vs. male)

o The 23rd pair of chromosomes determine and individuals sex

o Father’s sperm determines sex of child

o Female: XX

o Male: XY

• Define the following terms: genotype, heterozygous, homozygous, and phenotype

o Genotype: underlying combination of genetic material present

▪ Heterozygous: inheriting different forms of a gene for a given trait (Bb)

▪ Homozygous: inheriting similar genes for a given trait (BB or bb)

o Phenotype: observable trait, depends on whether alleles consist of dominant or recessive traits

• Identify these genetic disorders

o Down syndrome: mental retardation (Trisomy 21)

o Fragile X: messed up gene on the X chromosome

o Sickle cell anemia: abnormal sickle shaped cell

o Tay-Sachs: inherited disorder that destroys nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, genetically tested

o Klinefelters: an extra X chromosome in males (XXY)

The Interaction of Heredity and Environment

• What is multifactorial transmission?

o Most traits are a product of the interaction between genetic and environmental factors (Multifactorial transmission)

• How are adoption, twin, and family studies used to show how much a skill or behavior stems from a person’s genetics? (If correlation is higher between identical twins compared to fraternal twins, then trait is thought to be more genetically based; if correlation is high between non related children who grew up in same home, environmental impacts are most likely)

Personal Growth and Change

• Define fertilization and know different lifespans of sperm vs. ovum

o Fertilization: sperm and ovum join to form zygote

o Sperm and ovum have different lifespans

• Know the 3 stages of prenatal development

o Germinal (0-2 weeks from conception to implantation): Blastocyst, rapid cell division, creation of placenta (know function of the placenta and what “placenta previa” is and why it’s worrisome)

▪ Condition where the placenta lies low in the uterus and partially or completely covers the cervix. The placenta may separate from the uterine wall as the cervix begins to dilate (open) during labor

o Embryonic (2 weeks to 8 weeks, starting with implantation): organs are differentiating from each other; 3 layers of embryo—ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm—know what is made from each of these layers; rapid neuron growth; brainwaves detected by 5 weeks

▪ Endoderm ( digestive system, liver, pancreas, lungs

▪ Mesoderm ( circulatory system, lungs, skeletal system, muscular system

▪ Ectoderm ( hair, nails, skin, nervous system

o Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth): organs now differentiated and functional; interconnections between body parts become more complex and integrated; brain more sophisticated; stages of fetal sleep and wakefulness observed, fetal behavior linked to newborn behavior (in what way?); fetuses can hear and feel vibrations from when in the womb (know basics on the cat in hat study by DeCasper and Spence), how do maternal foods influence infant diet?

• What is the definition of infertility, what can cause infertility, and what is IVF (you don’t have to know difference between other fertility treatments or pregnancy rate of IVFs or ethical issues)?

o Infertility: the inability to conceive a child, 12-18 months of trying to conceive

▪ Caused by age, substance abuse, stress, or physical/medical abnormalities

o IVF: pregnancy rate as high as 48% for women under 35

• What is miscarriage defined as and what percentage of pregnancies end in miscarriage? When are miscarriages most likely to happen and what is the primary cause of miscarriage?

o Miscarriage: spontaneous abortion before developing child reaches 20 weeks conception

▪ 15-20% of all pregnancies

▪ Caused by: genetic abnormalities, hormonal problems, infection, umbilical cord problems, or maternal health problems

• What is a teratogen? Know how timing and quantity of exposure affects impacts of a teratogen.

o Teratogen: environmental agent (drug, chemical, virus or other factor) that produces a birth defect

o Any exposure in the 3-8 week window could be bad

• How can the mother influence prenatal development? Focus on factors of 1) age- particularly older and younger moms, 2) mom’s drug use, particularly timing impacts of thalidomide on prenatal development 3) stress/timing effects of stress

o Diet and vitamin intake, age, drug use (legal and illegal), alcohol use (fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects), tobacco use, stress

• How can fathers influence prenatal development?

o Age, tobacco use, alcohol and drug use, father’s exposure to toxins (lead or mercury), treatment of mother

Chapter 3: Birth and the Newborn Infant

Birth

• What is the purpose of contractions and what hormone is released during contractions? What are Braxton-Hicks contractions?

o CRH triggers release of oxytocin from pituitary gland, which stimulates contractions of the uterus

▪ Contractions of uterus force head of fetus against the cervix, which causes cervix dilation and effacement

o Braxton-Hicks contractions: irregular prelabor contractions of the uterus,

• Know the basics of what happens in the 3 stages of labor, including which stage is the longest and which is the fastest (you don’t need to know details between early, active and transition that occurs within Stage 1); also know what an episiotomy is.

o Stage 1: Contractions

▪ Longest part of labor (~11-19 hours)

▪ Water breaking: rupture of amniotic sac happens during stage 1, but usually AFTER contractions start

o Stage 2: Pushing

▪ Begins once cervix is fully effaced and dilated 10 cm until the baby comes out

▪ Typically lasts around 90 minutes

▪ Episiotomy: incision made to increase the size of the vagina opening to allow the baby to pass

o Stage 3: Clearing out the uterus

▪ Umbilical cord and placenta are expelled from the mother

▪ Typically lasts minutes, occurring about 5-20 minutes after baby comes out

▪ Fastest stage

• What are the benefits of skin-to-skin at birth and during the newborn period?

o Skin to skin: encourages milk production, helps with first latch, regulates newborn temperature/heart rate/blood pressure, helps physical growth, enhances bonding between parents and infant

• What are the 5 things measured in the APGAR test; know that scores 7-10 indicate normal functioning; 4-7 scores might require some resuscitative measures; baby with score under 4 needs immediate resuscitation.

o Appearance (skin color)

o Pulse

o Grimace (reflex irritability)

o Activity (muscle tone)

o Respiration

o Reasons for low scores ( ................
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