Product Design and Cost Considerations: Clock, Watch, and Typewriter ...

[Pages:6]Product Design and Cost Considerations: Clock, Watch, and Typewriter Manufacturing

in the 19th Century

Donald Hoke

OutagatnieMuseum,Appleton,Wisconsin

This paper examinesthree products--woodenmovementclocks, watchesa,ndtypewriterst-o- illustratetheheretoforeoverlookeidmportance of productdesignin 19thcenturymanufacturingI.t doesthiswithinthe contextof the scholarlydebateon the rise of the AmericanSystemof Manufacture1s.

Nineteenthcenturymechanicasndentrepreneurwsereacutelyaware of costconsiderationisn manufacturing.They designedproductsto be adjustableasanintegralpartof themanufacturinpgrocessdueto the nature of the productitselfandthe materialswithwhichtheyworked. Theywere drivenbya technologicaiml perative-t-heproductanditsmaterials--to lower costthroughproductdesign.

Mechanicsand entrepreneursused new designsto enter existing marketsandcompetwe ithexistingdesignsth, uscreatingsuchnewindustries astypewritearndwatchmanufacturingT.hesenewindustriefsollowedsimilar developmenptatternsc,haracterizebdytheappearancoef a hostof newfirms withnewproductsin, tensecompetitiona,ndtheevolutionoftheindustrfyrom a highlycompetitiveone to an oligopolydominatedby largefirms with successfuldlyesignedproducts.

The American SystemDebate

Merritt Roe Smithfired the firstshotin thedebateonthe originof the AmericanSystemwithhisprize-winninbgook,HarpersFerryArmoryandtile New Technolog[y3]. Smith'sstudyfollowedthe evolutionof fire arms manufacturinagt a federalarmoryduringthe firsthalf of the 19thcentury. Accordingto Smith,theAmericanSystemoriginatedin thefederalarmories- thepublicsector.

David Hounshelltakesup the "ArmoryPractice"bannerin hisprizewinningbook,FromtileAmericanSystemtoMassProductio[n1]. Hounshell alsobelievestheAmericanSystemoriginatedin the federalarmories(hence theterm"ArmoryPractice"a)ndthenspreadthroughthemigrationof armorytrainedmechanictso theprivatesectorn, otablyin sewingmachinesr,eapers, bicyclesa,ndautomobilesH. is surveyof theliteratureisexemplarayndthe technicaal ccountsof manufacturinpgrocesseasre excellent.

1ThdeatainthispapeisrdrawdnirecftrlyommyIngenioYuasnkaTesh;aRiseofthe

American System of Manufacturesin the PrivateSector, (New York: Columbia University Press,1989). The readeris directedto that workfor primarysourcecitations.

BUSINESS AND ECONOMIC HISTORY, SecondSeriesV, olumeEighteen1, 989. Copyright(c) 1989by the BusinessHistoryConference.ISSN 0849-6825.

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SmithandHounshellhavegenerateda paradigmfor interpretingthe rise of the AmericanSystem--governmenst ubsidizedR&D that createda bodyof knowledgecalled"ArmoryPractice"followedbytheappropriationof thattechnologbyytheprivatesectorforitsownenrichmentA. sDavidNoble hassummarized[2, p. 337]:

As is well known,the uniformitysystemdevelopedin the armoriesbecamethebasisof the so-calledAmericansystemof manufacturesc, haracterizedby specialmachinery,precise gauges,and interchangeabilitoyf parts. Men left the arms businessto setup the machinetool industryandwenton from thereto carrythe principleof uniformityinto the manufacture of railroad equipment,sewing machines,pocket watches, typewritersa, griculturailmplementsb, icyclesa, ndso on. The rest,astheysay,is historyt,hehistoryof progress.

Buttherewasanothersideto thisstoryw, hichwehavenot

heard much about.

Therecertainlyis! My ownbookontheAmericanSystemfocuse'son developmentisn the privatesector. My interpretationof the rise of the AmericanSystemdiffersquitesharplyfrom that of SmithandHounshell.

The AmericanSystemisprimarilyandoverwhelminglayprivatesector phenomenon.Americanprivatesectormanufacturerhseldthe technological lead in America throughouthe 19th centuryand sharedit only briefly (between1820and 1840)with the federalarmories. While privatesector manufacturecrsertainlyderivedsomebenefitfromthetechnicadlevelopments in the federalarmories,theydevelopednew productsn, ew methodsn, ew materialsn, ewsalesandpromotiontechniquesa,ndnewdesignws ithoutany federalsubsidy.

Oneespecialliymportanatspecot ftheAmericanSystem'dsevelopment in the privatesectoris productdesigna, topicnotablyabsentfrom mygood friendDavid Hounshell'swork. For example,he givesus the clearestm, ost concisedescriptionof Ford's productiontechnology,but never once considerehdowthe ModelT's designchangedbetween1908and1927and how thosedesignchangesinfluencedmanufacturingtechnologyand costs.

Thispaperexaminetswoaspectosf producdt esignasit influencedthe AmericanSystemof Manufactures:

a) at themlcroeconomliecvel--costcutting. b) at the industrylevel-- competitionand patternsof industry development.

Cost Cutting

Cleverlydesignepdroductsp,articularlpyroductdsesignetdobeadjusted as an integrapl art of themanufacturinpgrocessc,ut final productcostsby increasintgherangeof acceptabtleoleranceosnmanypartsandreducingthe assembltyimerequiredbyincludingadjustablfeeaturesthatpermittedtheuse of thosepartswithwidertoleranceasndeliminatintgheneedto altertheparts

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themselves. During assemblyo, nly the relationshipbetweenthe parts changedn, ot the parts. Three 19thcenturyproductsw, oodenmovement clocksfrom the antebellumperiod,and typewritersand watchesfrom the postbellumperiod,illuminatethisconcept.

Wooden Movement Clock Design

The manufacturoef hang-upor wag-on-the-wacllocksbeganin 1807 withthepioneeringworkof Eli Terry. In 1814Terryinventeda shelfclock thatheperfectedoverthenextfewyears.It waseventuallmy anufactureidn greatquantitiesbyovertwentydifferentmakers.The newshelfclockdiffered in manywaysfrom its hang-upclockpredecessomr, ost notablyin its escapement,he devicethatregulatesthe clock'sspeed. The escapemenits the mostcriticalpartof a woodenmovemenct lock,theonlypartrequiringa truly closefit. The escapemenwt heel and the vergemustbe properly "depthed("locatedin relationto eachother) in order to run properly. Depthingwasa problemwithTerry's1807hang-upclock,but not withthe newshelfclock--it featuredanadjustablescapement.

Terry'snew shelfclockdesignbroughtthe escapemenotutsidethe clockplates.The escapewheelarborwascarriedthrougha holein thetop plateandwassupportedby a bridge. Beneathit, thevergewasmountedon an iron pin set off-centerin a brassplug. To depththe escapementth, e assemblehradonlyto applysomepressureto theescapewheel,thenturnthe plugcarryingthevergeuntilthevergewasin theproperpositionwithrespect to theescapewheel. Thenthebrassplugwasnailedintoplace. In thelate 1830sbrassclock makersadoptedthis design. Indeed, the adjustable escapemenret maineda featureof Americanclocksthroughthe1920s.

The economicimplicationsof thisdesignare important.Thisdesign allowedclockmakersto producepartswithina widerrangeof toleranceasnd to bringeachclock"intobeat"quicklyand easilyby adjustingthe relative positionosf thevergeandtheescapewheel,notalteringthepartsthemselves but theirrelativepositionsT. he sameis truewithwatchesandtypewriters.

Watch Design

Like woodenmovementclocks,watchesrequiredproperlyadjusted escapementso keeptime. However,theyweremorecomplexandprecise, requiringa moresophisticateadpproachthanthe clumsywoodenmovement

clocks.

Watches were routinely adjustedas an integral part of their manufactureT. hisis particularlytruewiththe escapemenatndbalance.A discussioonf thismechanismit,sassemblya,ndits adjustmenwt ill illuminate the extent to which all American Systemmanufacturersand watch manufacturerisn particularweredrivenby the natureof theirproductsand thematerialswithwhichtheyweremadeto adoptparticulartechnologies.

Waltham and most American watch manufacturers used the detached

straightline leverescapemenwtitha club-toothescapewheelandanescape leverwithjeweledpallets.Similarlym, ostmanufacturerusseda temperature

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compensatin(gcut),bimetallicbalancewithtimingandpoisingscrewsin its rim anda bluedsteel(hardenedandtemperedh) airspring.

The entiremechanismconsisteodf theescapewheelanditsarbor,the escapeleverandits arbor,twopalletstonest,wobankingpins,a guardpin, the roller (and sometimesa doubleroller), roller jewel, balancestaff, hairspringh,airsprincgolleth, airsprinsgtudh, airspringstudscrewh, airspring regulatorb, alancewheel,anduptotwenty-twotimingandpoisingscrews(and perhapstimingwashers)t,he cocksandscrewsto holdthe escapementa,nd the end stonesand hole jewels and jewel screws--as many as fifty-six individualpartsdependingon the model. This was a complexprecision

mechanism.

"Matchingtheescapemenwt"asa particularlyskilledjob,asthewatch's performancedependedgreatlyon therelationshipbetweenthe escapewheel andtheescapeleverwithitsjewels. "Matchingtheescapemenct"onsisteodf cementingthe pallet jewelsinto the pallet fork usingheatedshellacwith speciahl andtoolsin analcohollampflame.Despitetheproductioonf escape wheelsand forksandjewelsto precisestandardse,achhad to be matched independentldyuringtheprocessof assemblyT. he palletfork anditsjewels were designedto be adjustedasan integralpart of that assembly.

Watch manufacturernseverautomatedthe assemblyand adjusting phasesof production.Dependingon the modeland grade,adjustingcould takeupto fivemonths.In thehighergradesa, djustingconsistedof timingthe watchin sixpositions-p- endantup,pendantdown,pendantsidesd, ialup,dial

down--in temperaturreasngingfrom38* to 95', andadjustinfgor

isochronism.

The adjustercsouldmakeasmanyaselevenadjustmentisn theprocess of escapemenat ssembly.Theseinclude:

1) placemenot f the twopalletstonesin the escapelever, 2) adjustingthetwoescapeleverbankingpins, 3) placemenotf therollerjewelin therollertable, 4) placemenotf therollertableonthebalancestaff, 5) placemenot f the hairspringcolleton the balancestaff, 6) adjustingthe effectivelengthof the hairspringwiththe regulator

lever, 7) adjustintgheplacemenotf thebalancejewels(holejewelsandend

stones), 8) adjustingthetimingandpoisingscrews(mayincludeaddingtiming

washersor undercuttinsgcrews), 9) bendingthe guardpin on the escapelever, 10)repositionintghe hairspringin itsstud,and 11)raising& loweringthe hairspringstud.

The watchescapemenatndbalancewasundoubtedltyhe mostprecise assemblyproducedby AmericanSystemmanufacturersin the nineteenth century.Typewritersh, oweverw, eremore complex.

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Typewriter Design

The mostimportantperformancecriterionfor typewriterswas"perfect alignment,t"he degreeto whichthe loweredgesof the lettersline up when typed. Typewritermanufacturerrsealizedthat their extremelycomplex productrequiredadjustmento accomplish"perfectalignment,"and they designedadjustabilitiynto theirmachines.

The designingenuityin the Remingtontypewriteris evidentin the typebarhanger,whichwassecuredwith a machinescrew.Anotherclever designaspectof the typebarhangerwasits reversibility.The samehanger suspendeadll the typebarsb, ut, to provideclearancefor the typebararms,

everyothehr angewrasinstalleadt180?fromthehangeorneithesr ideofit.

This is not the only Remington typebar adjustment. Another adjustmenwt asthesteelwire connectintghetypebarto the keylever. This adjustmenat ssuredthat the keyson the keyboardcouldbe adjustedto the sameheightwithoutaffectingthe typebarsthemselves.The Remingtons advertisedtheir earliestmachinest,heSholes& Glidden,asbeingadjustable by the user.

If anytypeshouldgeta trifleoutof alignmenta, gentlepressure againstheinnerendof the type-baro, newayor theother,as may be needed,will put all right again. If a typeshouldget radicallyoutof place,it canbeadjustedbylooseningthescrew of itshanger-bearingb,ut thisshouldnotbe attemptedtill one is fullyfamiliarwiththe machine.

The Remingtondsevelopesdpeciatloolstoinsuretheproperalignment of the type,notablya specialtypebaradjustingt'?ure, whichinsuredthat whenthetypewashungin itshangere, achtypewouldstrikea commonpoint. The typebaringwasplacedin a framesupportedonfourlegs,similarto the typewriter'stop plate. The typebarshungas they wouldwhen finally assembled.Acrossthe backof the f?ure wasan adjustableiron bar on whichwasmountedan indicatingarm whichmarksthe centerpoint of the typebars.

Despitespecializemd achinerya, gaugingsystema,nditsdedicationto the interchangeablseystemt,he AmericanWritingMachineCompanyalso foundit necessartyobuildadjustabilitiyntoitswritingmachinet,heCaligraoe1?. The examinationof a Cah?al)h revealsfour separateadjustmentpoints betweenthesteeltypefaceandthewoodentypelever. First,therewasa turn bucklejoiningthe"LongConnectinRgod"withthe"ShortConnectinRg od" betweenthe typebarandthewoodentypelever,allowingeachbankof keys to be adjustedto a singleheight.Secondt,herewasthetypebarhangerh, eld in placeby the"HangerWasher"anda machinescrew.Third,thetypebar anditshangerfeaturedadjustablceonicabl earingsto takeupwear. Fourth, eachtypewasforcedintoa taperedholein thesteelblockbrazedontothe endof thetypebar.AdditionaCl aligral)ahdjustmenitnscludedtherack,dog, carriagetensionp, aperfeed,ribbonfeed,andfinger-keytensionadjustments.

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The complexityof the typewriterand its thousandosf movingparts forcedtypewritemr echanictso develop"exercisinmgachinest"o manipulate thesemechanismms echanicallbyeforefinal adjustmenat nd aligning.This ideaof makingpartsworktogetherduringthemanufacturinpgrocessappears not to havebeenuniqueto the typewriterindustryb, ut apparentlywasnot widelypracticed.Onlya sewingmachinemanufactureWr, heeler& Wilson, is knownto haveadoptedthe practiceof "breakingin"its machineswith a machineasa stepin the manufacturinpgrocess[1, pp.68,75].

The AmericanWriting Machine Companyexercisedits Caligraph typebarsin 1886beforefinalassemblyT. he typebarandhangerassembly wasscrewedinto placeon a "WorkingJack"as it wouldbe later in the machineitself. A reciprocatinrgackandpinionarrangemenrtapidlymoved thetypebarsf,orcingthebearingsto wearintoeachother.Theresultwasto "obtainan accurateandeasymovemenot f thetypebarswhen... insertedin themachine."In 1903the "OliverExerciserw" orkedthe completedmachine ratherthana particularsub-assemblyA.fter it was"exercisede,"achOliver typewritewr asagainsubjectedto anotherrigidinspectionandalignment.In 1924theL. C. Smith& Bros."TypebaEr xerciserw"orkedeachballbearing typebarfor twohours,theequivalenot f 36,000keystrokesb,eforethetypebar wasassembleidntothemachineE. ventheHallTypeWriterCompanyw, hich producedan inexpensiviendexor indicatormachineu, seda specia"l device for easingthe 'motions,t'hattheymayrun smoothly."

The complexityof the typewriterforcedtypewritermechanictso organizetheir factoriesto accommodattehe assemblya,djustmenta,nd alignmentof the machine. Each sub-assembtloyok placein a separate department. As early as 1.886the Remingtonfactoryhad at leastthree different departments, an assembly department for "Putting in Connecting-roadnsdLevers,a"n"AligningRoom,"andan"AdjustinRgoom."

In 1906 shortly after its "recentenlargement,"the Remington TypewriteCr ompany'nsewfactorywasdividedintoproductioanndassembly sections.Productionrequired70 percentof the factorycomplex. The remaining30percenwt asusedto assemblea,djusta, ndinspecttheindividual machinesI.n Remington'"sgreatmachinehall"some3,000machinews erein procesosf assemblayt anyonetimeby"severahlundredosfskilledassembling experts.""Afterreceivinga registerednumber,"themachine"rapidly[grew] ?.. to a frame..." Thevariouscomponenotsf themachine(thetypebasket, carriage,ribbon mechanisme, tc.) were added at variousstagesof the assemblpyrocesasstheincreasingclyompletme achineprogressetdhroughthe factory. There were severalsub-assemblayreasin which the various componenwtsereassemblewd,hilesomeminorassembliewsereputtogether in theproductionwing.After itsassemblyth, emachinewasreadyfor itsfirst adjustingf,ollowedby its secondor "touchingup"alignmenta, nd thenits "ordeaol f finalinspectioanndadjustment.""Seldom[wasa machinep] assed

without criticism."

Significantlyin, 1906the Reiningtonsillustratedtheir promotional literaturewith onlythreeproductionmachineillustrationsandsixassembly and adjustingillustrations.Assemblyand adjustingand aligningwere the highly skilled, labor intensiveaspectsof typewritermanufacturingat

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Remingtonin the early 20th century. Interestinglyt,hey seemto have approachetdheconcepot f anassembllyine--thetypewriterms oveddownthe lengthof the buildingas theygraduallygrewfrom frameinto completed machine-- andperhapsWilliamK. Jenne(whodesignedthefactoryandmuch of its machinery)consideredsuchan idea only to discardit due to the problemsof intricateassemblyP. erhapsin theinterestof qualitya, ssembly

was not rushed.

The OliverTypewriterCompanyalsodevelopedanextensivaessembly, adjustmenta, nd alignmentorganizationin its WoodstockI,llinois factory. Their organizationconsistedof at leastsixseparatedepartmentsT:ype Bar DepartmentC, arriageDepartmentA, ssemblyDepartmentT, abulatorsand AdjustmentI,nspectionDepartment,andAligningRoom.

L. C. Smith& Bros.dividedtheirfactoryintoproductionandassembly departmentsT. heydividedthe assemblpyrocessaccordingto thepartsand mechanismsof the machineitself. Each departmentemployedmany operativefsor eachassemblyA. t leastfortymenassemblebdallbearingsinto the typebars. Each machinepassedthrougha seriesof ten assembling departmentasnd"ineachdepartmenct ertainparts[were]addeduntilfinally the machine[was]complete."

The needfor adjustingassembleadndalignedtypewritercsontinuedat leastthroughthe early1950s.In theRoyalTypewriterCompany'sfactoryin 1954the final adjusterwasan especiallyskilledpersonwhoadjustedonly threeor four typewritersper day.

Like other private sector American Systemmanufacturerst,he typewriterindustryfaceda technologicaiml perativein producingitsmachines. The typewritehr adspeciaal ssemblpyroblemsp, roblemsthatwererelatedto thenatureof thetypewriteirtself,nottheprocesosf manufacturinigtsvarious

parts.

All the manufacturerfsacedthe problemof assemblinga,ligninga, nd adjustinga verycomplexmechanism.All the manufacturerrsespondedby subdividingthe assemblyprocessinto the variouscomponentsof the typewriterandhiringvastnumbersof highlyskilledpeopleto dothecomplex assemblya,djustinga,ndaligningwork.

Competition and Patterns of Industry Development

Productdesignplayedan importanpt artin bringingcompetitorisnto anindustry.In thecasestudiesof woodenmovemenctlocksa, ndparticularly watchesandtypewritersa,familiarpatternrepeatsitself.Oncethepioneering firm hadcreateda marketby manufacturinagndsellingits product,other firmsbeganto competeu, suallywithnewlydesignedproductsT. he typewriter industryprovidesthebestillustrationof thisphenomenon.

The varietyof new typewriterdesignsthat appearedfollowingthe Remingtonsp'ioneeringworkis astoundingn,ot to mentionthe firmsthat simplycopiedtheRemingtondesignsB. etween1873and1890sometwentyfour newfirmsappeared.Between1890and 1900anothertwelvetried their luck in the typewritermarket. In 1900therewere thirty-seventypewriter companieisn additionto thetwenty-fivtehathadalreadyfailed. Mostfirms

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werebasedonnewtypewritedresignasn, dmostfailedafterafewyearso, ften due to unworkabledesigns.Yet out of the chaosof newlyinvented typewritercsamethenewdesign(svisiblewriting)thatwereto changethe typewriteinr dustrayndprovidenewcorporatleeadershipB.y1910suchfirms andL. C. Smith& Bros.,andespecialUlynderwoodh,adwrestedesign leadershipfromRemington.

Producdt esignquicklybecamean advertisintgoolusedto compete withexistinmg anufactureNrse.wfirmsoftenadvertisethdeirnewlydesigned typewritearsssuperiotrotheolddesignsF.or example, its multiple adjustmenwtsereanimportanatdvertisinpgointfor theAmericanWriting MachineCompanyand its Caligraph.The firm took speciapl ridein promotinigtsadjustabfleaturesn,otabltyhetypebarbs,othinitsadvertising

and its instruction manuals.

DURABILITY. Thisisanimportanctonsideratioans,writing machineasreexpensivaendsubjectocontinuouusseandin this respecwt e claimthe Caligraphis far aheadof all competing MachinesI.tstype-barasreadjustablea,ndin eventof anylost motionin the journalsi,t canbe takenup easily,no other machinpeossesstehsisunquestionaeddvantageT.hepaperfeed bandson the Caligraphare of temperedsteeland always adjustablea, greatimprovemenotvermachineussingrubber bandsforthispurpos[etheShole&s GliddenandtheRembtgton Nos. 1 & 2].

ALIGNMENT. The followingcut,whichrepresenttshe new type-bahr angerh, asanadjustinsgcrewandshowshowthewear canbetakenup,fromtimeto time,bytheoperator.Remember thisistheonlymachintehatcanbe alignedbyusersa, ndshows thebestworkunderhardstrainandrapidmanipulationT. he partswhichmove,in anykind of machineryw, ill wear. The fastertheymovethefastertheywear. Thisis commonto all; andtheCaligrapahloneisadjustableL. ookoutfor durability!

Therewereotherfactorsin theriseandfallof manyof thenewfirms, includincgapitarlesourcems,arketingexpertisem, anagemenqtualitya, nd patentconditionsN. everthelesths,eworkabilitoyf newtypewritedresigns playedperhaptshemostimportanrtoll. Thosefirmswithexceptionpalroduct design-R- oyal,Underwooda,ndL. C. Smith& Bros.--succeedewd,hileno firmwitha poordesignsurvived.

Conclusion

TheAmericanSystemisprimarilyandoverwhelmingalpyrivatesector phenomozonA. lthoughprivatesectorfirmsbrieflysharedthetechnological lead with federalarmoriesin the 1820-1840period,the armoriessoon stagnateadndthetechnologicaacltionquicklyshiftedto theprivatesector. Manyprivatesectoirndustriesshareda commotnechnologicgarloundwith

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