NewRS



Religious Studies A-LevelChristianity (Eduqas)ThemesReligious figures and sacred textsReligious concepts and religious lifeSignificant social and historical developments in religious thoughtReligious practices that shape religious identityTheme 1. Religious figures and sacred texts1A Jesus- his birthCan We Harmonize the Birth Narrative?Matthew 1:18 – 2:18: Mary conceived by the Holy SpiritCalled Jesus, as he will save his people from their sins.King Herod asks for Jesus to be found so he can worship him The Magi (wise men) gave him gifts of frankincense, gold and myrrhJoseph is told in a dream to escape to EgyptThey escaped and stayed in Egypt until Herod diedHerod killed all the boys in Bethlehem two years old or less, as he was tricked by the Magi. Luke 1:5-2:40:Elizabeth is unable to have children.Angel Gabriel appeared and told Zechariah that he and Elizabeth will have a child named John.Six months later, Mary is told she is going to have a son called Jesus who will rule the kingdom as God’s son.Mary visits Elizabeth and stayed with her for three months.Zechariah is unable to speak until he confirms his son’s name is John.Joseph and Mary travelled from Nazareth to Bethlehem to register for the census.Mary gives birth to Jesus and put him in a manger as there was no guest room available.Shepherds are visited by an angel, who told them about Jesus’ birth.Mary and Joseph take Jesus to Jerusalem to present him to God.Jesus is praised and blessed by Simeon and Anna, a prophet.Mary and Joseph, returned to Nazareth with Jesus. Redaction Criticism Redaction criticism is a critical method for the study of biblical texts. Redaction criticism regards the author of the text as editor of his or her source materials. It focuses on how the redactor has shaped and moulded the narrative to express his theological goals. People have changed the story to make Jesus seem more Godly, after this fact.‘If you pick up the four Gospels and read them at random, it will not be long before you learn that such and such an action, attributed to Jesus, was done so that an ancient prophecy should come true’.E.g. Mary’s arrival on a donkey – ‘All of this was done, that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet’ (probably Zechariah 9:9 in which It is said that a Messiah will come riding an ass).‘New Testament is a work of crude carpentry, hammered together long after the event, full of improvised attempts to make things come out right’.Hitchens: Gospels not a historical record, nothing published until many decades after the crucifixion, cannot agree on anything important.1B Jesus- his resurrectionLuke 24: Jesus’ body had disappeared from his tomb.Mary Magdalene told the disciples that Jesus had risen and they did not believe herJesus appeared and walked along with two people. They didn’t realise he was Jesus and told him about the crucifixion and finding the tomb empty. These people went to the disciples and told them, ‘the Lord has risen and has appeared to Simon’.Jesus appeared again and startled them.He told them to stay in the city until God called on them.Jesus ascended to heaven and blessed his disciples. They worshipped him and returned to Jerusalem.Mark 16: On Sunday morning Mary Magdalene, Salome and Mary the mother of James found the stone covering the tomb had moved. An angel appeared in the tomb telling them that Jesus had been raised from the dead.They fled from the tomb as they were scared.Mary Magdalene sees Jesus and tells her not to be afraid.She tells the disciples, but they don’t believe her.He appeared to them as they were eating, and they believed.Jesus was taken up to heaven and his disciples went everywhere and preached.Bultmann vs N.T Wright How do their interpretations of the Resurrection differ?Bultmann aimed to prove that the narratives of the life of Jesus were offering theology in story form and that the events didn’t actually take place in history. He had critically analysed the narratives of Jesus’ life and put what he believed are stories into context. Bultmann had the view that there was a historical Jesus who existed who became known as Jesus Christ from the gospel writers’ description and legends.Historical is something that can be proven by facts and is confirmed as true. Historic is something that is believed to be true but there aren’t any facts to prove it. This applies to the resurrection story as Jesus’ death and burial is historical, but his resurrection and rebirth is historic. Bultmann criticised scholars such as D.F Strauss because Strauss rejected the Bible as he believed it was unscientific. Bultmann believed that the Resurrection story was not historical but still had spiritual significance. The spiritual significance of the Resurrection was that it happened to Jesus disciples and not Jesus himself, also Jesus is seen as having a living presence within Christians. ‘Bultmann’s approach’ was to reinterpret the myths about Jesus in modern terms.Bultmann’s ‘final judgement’ is an event that takes place in each person’s heart as they respond to God. Humans experience heaven or hell in each moment.Christianity is not a moral philosophy or pathway of spirituality.The New Testament is important as it is first hand evidence for what happened and what Jesus’ followers thought about it.The historical evidence for Jesus’ life comes from virtually all historians and most agree with what the gospels said he did.The argument in point 4 is that Christianity is more than a teaching backed up by a dodgy ‘miracle’.First, Bultmann highlights the correlation between the crucified Jesus and the risen Christ. He makes it clear that the resurrection is not some kind of “extra thing” added to Jesus’ death, nor a mere reversal of the effects of death. Rather, it is precisely the Crucified One who is also the Risen One. Christ is risen not in spite of his death, but he is risen precisely as the Crucified One who died. Thus, the Risen One continues always to be the Crucified One; and the cross and resurrection are not two events but one. This fundamental insight has had a profound influence on post-Bultmannian theology, and it has continued to be a central theme in the work of theologians like Jürgen Moltmann and Eberhard Jüngel.Second, Bultmann sharply highlights the eschatological character of the resurrection. Jesus’ resurrection is not merely one historical event alongside others, but it is the eschatological event. This is the event of the end of the world and the end of history. This formulation has decisively influenced later theology; most notably, it has remained the central focus of Wolfhart Pannenberg’s thought.Third, Bultmann highlights the correlation between faith and resurrection. Only in the event of faith can we know God, since God is not an object that we can verify “objectively,” nor a psychological state that we can experience “subjectively.” There can be neither “objective” nor “subjective” knowledge of God, but only the knowledge of God which arises from our living encounter with God through the proclamation of the resurrection of the Crucified One. Faith itself, for Bultmann, is nothing other than “our resolving to trust solely in God who raises the dead.” There is therefore a close correlation between faith and resurrection: the proclamation that the Crucified One is risen awakens us to faith and through faith we encounter the Crucified One as the Risen One. In all this, Bultmann seeks to take us beyond both “subjective” (e.g. the resurrection as an experience of the disciples) and “objective” (e.g. the resurrection as a verifiable historical event) interpretations of the resurrection.Above all, Bultmann seeks to develop a theology of resurrection which does justice to the primitive Christian proclamation that the man who was put to death now lives and acts as the world’s true Lord.The Centrality of the Resurrection to Christianity Explain why resurrection of the dead is such a central idea to Christianity.Jesus’ resurrection is central to Christianity as it verified his being a messiah. This would mean that Jesus’ promises and teachings were true. Jesus’ resurrection also proved that God had chosen Jesus to be the Messiah. It also proves that God can have victory over death, showing he is omnipotent. This is central to Christianity as Christians believe God is omniscient, omnipresent and all-powerful.Jesus’ resurrection also opened the way to eternal life for those who believe in him and God. His resurrection meant after his dying for everyone’s sins, he returned and gave us an opportunity to have a relationship with him and God. Jesus also became a forerunner and proved that resurrection can take place.The resurrection is central to Christianity as it follows a prophecy made by Jonah when he was trapped for three nights and three days, this is seen to as foretold Jesus being resurrected after three nights and three days, if he was the ‘Son of Man’.1C The Bible as a Source of Authority in Daily LifeThe English word ‘Bible’ comes from the Greek for ‘the books’.Collection of sacred books put together in two volumes the Old and New Testament Old Testament originally written in Hebrew – sacred scriptures of Jewish faith, also sacred to Christians.Protestants have 39 Old Testament books, the same as Jewish scripture. Catholics have 46 books, includes other books (Apocrypha), Protestants consider them as genuine (deuterocanonical).Old Testament written and edited by many authors over many centuries. Tells stories of God’s engagement with the people of Israel from the earliest times to the return to Jerusalem from exile in Babylon 538 BC.The New Testament was originally written in Greek – containing 27 books, focusing on Jesus.Four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) telling the story of Jesus’ life.The book of Acts, which tell the story of the founding of the first church.21 Epistles (letters), to various churches, many written by Paul.A book of visions, known as Revelations, written by an early church leader.Can be read in many ways – book of history, poetry, reflectionBut, for Christians, its main aim is practical: These things are written so that you may come to believe that Jesus in the Messiah, the Son of God, and that through believing you may have life in his name.Christians believe that the Bible gives instruction on the meaning and purpose of life – a guide to everyday living, a source of comfort and encouragement.Teaching on the Meaning and Purpose of LifeThe Bible tells of how God dealt with various people over various centuries – tells of God’s plan to save humans from sin, it is known as ‘salvation history’.Bible begins with an account of how God created everything. Genesis implies that God’s purpose for humans was to be the pinnacle of creation; the rulers and maintainers of creation. Everything was good until Adam and Eve disobeyed God and brought sin and death to the world (The Fall). Their sin (original sin) is passed onto all generations, but God has a plan to save us.God makes a ‘covenant’ with Abraham, who promised to give countless generations who will inherit the Promised Land. Abraham’s twelve great grandsons became the ‘founding fathers’ the leaders of the twelve tribes of Israel.The Israelites became the slaves of Egypt – God sent Moses to liberate them. Their escape and subsequent 40 years in the wilderness is known as Exodus. During this time, God makes a covenant with Moses and gives him the law (Ten Commandments). Moses dies and the conquest of the Promise Land is led by Joshua – splits Israel into 12 regions; a pattern develops: they disobey God, they are conquered by enemies, they cry to God for help, God chooses men and women called ‘judges’ to lead them to victory, everything is fine until the crude begins again.Saul becomes the first king of Israel, succeeded by son-in-law, David, he and his son, Solomon, turn Israel into a powerful empire, Jerusalem as the capital. But both give into temptation and Israel is split into two, Israel in the north and Judah in the south as its people are unfaithful to God.God lets Assyrians and Babylonians conquer Israel and the Jews (of Judah) are left in exile. When they return to Judah – the Old Testament ends.The story continues in the Apocrypha – Judah is conquered by the Greeks 150 BC – the Maccabees lead a successful revolt to secure Jewish independence. Other new Jewish groups rise around this time, such as the Pharisees.Contains Psalms – poetry about faith in God, guides to good living.New Testament takes up the story. Judah is invaded by the Romans. God sends his son to show that salvation comes through faith and not political power.Brings God’s plan full circle. Man is saved.The Holy Spirit descended upon the disciples and gave them the courage to go and preach about Jesus’ life – set up Christian communities and spread Christianity through the Roman Empire. Christians can find no meaning in life other than God.Meaning of life is found in Jesus – ‘I am the way, the truth and the life’. Purpose of human life is to find God, to know him, to do his will, to obey him, to show him to the world. Christians should worship him and follow the teachings of Jesus to earn eternal life.The Bible as a Guide to Everyday LifeGuide for daily living.Contains some laws, but also general advice.Mostly ‘follow Jesus’ example’.Faith in Jesus leads to behaviour conditioned by love of God, not fear of punishment.Christian life is to follow Jesus’ example:Show loyalty by rejecting selfish desire.Obedience to God.Care for the poor and disadvantaged. Do Christians Ignore the Old Testament?‘Do not think I have come to abolish the law of the prophets’.He has come to fulfil those laws, not abolish them. He told followers that their righteousness should exceed that of the Jewish leaders to enter heaven which annoyed the leaders.He criticised their interpretations of the law and the fact that they followed him to the letter, rather than the laws themselves.He said you should follow the spirit of the laws, not the letter of the laws – not only their actions, but their motives must be pure.Christians are not to follow the minor Jewish laws on diet etc. But. they are to be free to do as they will as long as they’re obedient to God. A young person can stay pure and be a good person by following God’s word. Read the Bible to learn what God wants from you in your life. Do not disobey God’s rules.God’s word will guide you.Don’t be tempted away from God’s rule.Follow God until you die.The Bible as a Source of Comfort and Encouragement St Paul wrote that the Holy Scriptures are ‘for our instruction, so that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope’.Source of comfort because; deals with timeless elements of human nature; hopes and failures; portrays a God whose love is never changing.Humans struggle with temptation, sin, bereavement, poverty, conflict and fear of death that the Bible deals with each.Temptation and sin leads to repentance which God forgives. Bereavement and death isn’t the end.Poverty means everyone should be treated equitably. Suffering should lead to humility.Fear of death, Jesus conquered death.1D The bible as a source of wisdom and authorityKey Terms Canon: an official and standardised list; In Christianity a list of authoritative scripture established by the Early Church. Canon with the canon: certain central themes and ideas which influenced the basis on what was accepted as canonical. Muratorian canon: The oldest known list of 22 books out of the 27 in the New Testament (dating to about 170CE) Theopneustos: the Greek term used in 2 Timothy 3v16, meaning ‘God breathed’ Fundamentalist: Christian who defends key doctrines (fundamentals) by associating them with a literal approach to the Bible. Plenary verbal inspiration: the belief that the words of the Bible were given directly to God by the human authors and therefore the Bible is fully (plenary) inspired. A view held by fundamentalists, who also believe the Bible is inerrant. Doctrine of Accommodation: Calvin’s idea that, in the language of the Bible, God chooses to become intelligible to human experience by limiting Himself to human understanding – as a mother might use ‘baby talk’ to her baby. Apostolic Fathers – early Christian theologians who knew some of the apostles or were significantly influence by them. Propositional Revelation – truths revealed directly to humankind by God.Formation and order of the Canon Books in the Bible span 1000 years and many different genres. 1. Jewish writings Jewish canon contains 3 sections Law (Torah), Prophets ((Nevi’im) and Writings (Kethuvim), collectively called TNK (Tanakh). TNK not finalised until 1st Century CE. Even then some dispute - the Septuagint contains Jewish writing written in Greek, later excluded from Jewish canon. These were accepted by Augustine, and are still accepted by the Catholic Church as deutero-canonical. Found in the Old Testament section of Roman Catholic Bibles, but are called ‘Apocrypha’ by Protestants who do not include them. (Marcion did not want to accept any Jewish writings into the Christian canon.) 2. Christian writings – At first Christians only had the Jewish canon. The Christian message existed orally as the apostolic preaching/kerygmata. NT canon was formed from earliest Christian writings – such as epistles by Paul and later various gospels telling of Jesus’ life and teachings, plus one apocalyptic writing (Revelation). Criteria for accepting these as canonical a clear connection with the Apostles supporting faith and practice in the churches conform to faith in Jesus. ‘Apostolic Fathers’ accepted Jewish writings Disputed books eventually accepted – eg James, Hebrews; Revelation. Later 2nd century works regarded as useful but not canonical – Didache; Shepherd of Hermas. How the canon was formed is linked to the issues of Inspiration and Authority. Does the Church have authority over the Bible or vice versa? Different views in Catholic and Protestant thought. Protestant– ‘sola scriptura’. Catholic – Tradition and MagisteriumBible as Word of God – Objective and subjective views of Inspiration ‘Word of God’ – for most Christians this phrase refers to how the Bible functions in their lives (Theme 1C stuff), but it can also relate to its ‘supernatural status’ Objective view is of God speaking directly through the writer – literally ‘God breathed’’. Divine dictation model. (In 2nd Cent Athenagorus used metaphor of a flautist blowing into a flute.) Human writers had only a passive role. This view is also called Plenary Verbal Inspiration. Key doctrines of atonement, Incarnation , Trinity etc are claimed by Fundamentalists to be found in the Bible. (Link to various other Themes eg 1A,B; 2A,B,C etc.) A highly Propositional view of revelation. Divine Guidance model as favoured by Biblical and Theological Conservatives. It is still a Propositional view of revelation but bridges the way to more subjective views of Inspiration. Also objective but a more middle position. Origen said authors not merely passive but fully aware of their part in the process of inspiration (eg see Theme 1A Redaction Criticism.) God seen as directing and guiding the writers through the Holy Spirit. In the ancient world dictation of letters commonly not word by word. The author would give the general message and let the scribe decide how best to communicate it. Also seen in the formation of the canon and translating of the Bible etc. Subjective view is of inspiration not directly through words but through experience. This is Non-Propositional revelation - writer ‘sees’ God acting in the world and records this experience in his own words. Subjective views sit more easily with Enlightenment thought. Salvation History – The idea that the Bible is a human and fallible record of people’s attempts to explain how they see/experience God’s plan for salvation in human history. For Liberal Christians who hold this view, the Bible is Salvation History. Karl Barth points out that it is Jesus who is the true Word of God, not the Bible. (See John ch 1) Barth’s Neo-Orthodoxy represents an Induction model whereby inspiration is not a quality of the text, but of a reader’s experience with the text. The Bible induces an inspiration in the reader. Calvin’s doctrine of Accommodation (see Key Terms). ‘We must never forget that God is above and beyond our language’ CalvinGod’s message is communicated according to the knowledge and understanding of the timeGod ‘lowers himself’ to our levelDraws analogy with ‘baby talk’ – adults can communicate in a more sophisticated way but choose not to in order to be able to relate to the baby The Biblical writers do the same – e.g. Genesis 1 describes two lights in the sky – sun and moon. But there are other ‘lights’ too, e.g. Saturn. But this would have confused people of the time, so poetic licence is allowedThe Bible is without error and entirely true. The Genesis passage is entirely true from the perspective of someone on EarthAccommodation is also used by some modern theologians to reconcile apparent contradictions in the Bible. They accept that Biblical writers had wrong scientific and historical assumptions but these do not detract from God’s overall message. How far is the Bible the inspired word of God?2 Tim 3v16 suggests it is God-breathed – thus objectively inspired. Divine dictation. Athenagoras’ flautist metaphor.Formation of the canon shows human involvement but criteria still discerned what was from God eg Torah, prophetic words, Apostolic. Divine Guidance model. Holy Spirit at work though the whole process. Origen’s view – inspired but authors not merely passive. Divine GuidanceBarth - Jesus is the true Word of God, but passages of the Bible are transformed into God’s Word for the reader in the right conditions.Calvin – inspired through God’s ‘Accommodation’.Circular argument. This is the Bible claiming its own authorityHuman involvement was exactly that. Books that were accepted and rejected entirely down to human involvement at Councils of the Church. Church suppressed alternative writings Translation issues etc. How can it be word for word God’s word?Writers had their own theological agendas. They wrote what they wanted. At best the Salvation History model so subjective and non-propositionalWider problems of verifying revelation and Religious Experience – link to Philosophy of ReligionIs the canon/order of the texts inspired, as well as the books themselves?There is clearly an order - In the Hebrew writings Torah is placed first, suggesting it forms the context for the Prophets and the Writings. In the NT gospels are first, showing importance of Jesus. In some churches the congregation stand for the gospel reading, suggesting its importance.Most Christians would say that the New Testament plan of salvation through atonement by Jesus means that the ‘Old’ Testament Law is superseded.If the Holy Spirit worked through the Church Councils etc, maybe the order is inspired that way.No – there are different orders in different Bibles. The Jewish scriptures are rearranged by the Christian Church – suggesting human involvement – unless God changed God’s mind!Some texts are only deutero-canonical- seen as having a lower degree of authority. Roman Catholics include these in the Old Testament whereas Protestants call them Apocrypha. For some Christians this implies that they are ‘false’Order needn’t imply importance anyway.Plenary verbal inspiration would suggest all is equally inspired.1E The early church (in Acts of the apostles)KEY TERMSKerygmata- proclamation, announcement or preachingCanonical gospels- the ones which the Church has recognised as divinely inspired and which faithfully hand on the apostolic tradition. There are four, and only four: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.?Apocryphal gospels- those which the Church did not accept as part of the genuine apostolic tradition, even though they themselves claim to have been written by one of the apostles.Apocalypticism – the belief that the world is about to end. In 1c Judaism, the belief in the sudden coming of God to rule the world and judge it – preceded by the arrival of the Messiah (In Christianity, linked to the second coming of Jesus – the Parousia)The kerygmata ?A main theme of the kerygmata of the early church was the belief that Jesus fulfilled the promises of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) through his life, works, death, and resurrection. ?There is also an emphasis on Jesus as miracle worker – for example, Peter draws attention to Jesus’ “miracles and wonders and signs” in Acts 2:22. ?The principal analysis of the kerygmata of the early Christian community is associated with C. H. Dodd. ?Dodd reconstructed the main teachings (kerygmata) that the early church had in common from Paul’s letters, and then argued that these teachings could also be found in Acts of the Apostles. ?Dodd identified six elements common to the speeches that he considered to be authentic: 34766255143500that Jesus fulfilled the promises of the Hebrew Bible that God was at work in Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection, which was according to God’s purpose that Jesus has now been exalted and is in heaven that the Holy Spirit has been given to the church to form God’s new community that Jesus will soon return in glory that those who are privy to the message must change their lifestyles accordingly and follow Jesus (repent and be baptised). Dodd distinguished kerygma from didache: he understood kerygma to be a declaration of beliefs, whereas didache is moral exhortation or teaching (though the two may often be found together in the New Testament). Some critics (e.g. Schweitzer) have suggested that because of the focus on Jewish Apocalypticism (point 5 above) the kerygma is irrelevant. Dodd responds with the idea of realised eschatologyRealised eschatology – the view that although God will come at the end the world, He has ‘broken into the world’ through the life and ministry of Jesus. We don’t have to wait until the end of the world to experience the fullness of God, it can be realised now.Rudolf Bultmann argued that since ideas can never be expressed without words, there is never a ‘pure kerygma’ that exists separate from the language and mythos of the timeBultmann argued that the kerygmata were the expression of the meaning that Christ had for the early Christians, rather than an expression of historical truths. As such, they need to be ‘demythologised’ to recover their existential meaning. Since so little can be known about the Jesus of history, belief should be concerned with the Christ of faith. Does the kerygmata still have value for Christians today?The kerygmata focus on the person of Jesus and his status and reminds Christians of the origins of their tradition. The New Testament kerygmata provide Christians today with a clear, relatively concise statement of faith and a means of understanding their origins. In an age of increasing diversity in terms of denomination, this could offer Christians common ground. The focus of the kerygmata on action and expectation (Christ will come again soon; there is a need to repent and be baptised) give a sense of urgency to the Christian message – this could have value in inspiring Christian communities. Rudolf Bultmann argued that the kerygmata were the expression of the meaning that Christ had for the early Christians, rather than an expression of historical truths. As such, they need to be ‘demythologised’ to recover their existential meaning. Since so little can be known about the Jesus of history, belief should be concerned with the Christ of faith. This could be argued either way. If Christians today are able to demythologise the kerygmata, they may have lasting value for Christianity. Alternatively, it suggests that the traditional understanding of the kerygmata as truth statements about Jesus, God, and the Christian community do not have value for Christians today. The kerygmata don’t have a lot to do with modern practice – even though they provide a basis for many key theological concepts, they are not all immediately obvious to practicing Christians. The kerygmata can be considered of very limited value since a key element has not come true: the early Christian community appear to have expected the imminent return of Christ, but this still has not happened yet. Schweitzer – the one thing that can be known about the historical Jesus (his preaching of Jewish Apocalypticism) is the very thing that makes him irrelevant for todayA strict focus on the kerygmata potentially devalues more recent divine revelation and action in the world. This may mean that the kerygmata are of limited value to those Christian groups that teach that God is still revealing God’s self (for example, the “God is still speaking” campaign by the United Church of Christ). For some evangelical Christians, the suggestion that some biblical verses are of more value than others (or than the New Testament messages as a whole) is problematic. The kerygmata may have value, but it should not be over-emphasised. Is the book of Acts trustworthy?The value and accuracy of Acts was never questioned by the early Church. Given that it reports widely known public events this suggests it was seen as trustworthy. It was affirmed by the Muratorian canon, Tertullian, Clement, Origen Even though Luke wasn’t there, and it was written long after, there is a clear tradition that Luke travelled with Paul on his missionary journeys so would have had access to first-hand accountsThe amount and kind of detail given makes it unlikely it was completely made upIt is common for authors to arrange their material, and to express things in their own style and vocabulary. This doesn’t mean that there are no historical rootsLuke’s purpose is to explain how the disciples spread the good news of Jesus, ignoring history would not serve this purposePaul’s themes may be ‘missing’ as his letters had a different purpose to his speechesCH Dodd examined Paul’s letters and found that all 6 elements of the kerygma are clearly there Some scholars suggest that Acts is a literary work representing Luke’s views, rather than a historical account that accurately reports what Peter, Stephen and Paul actually saidLuke was not a Jewish Christian so would not have been present for the reported events of Acts 2-3 in JerusalemLuke-Acts was probably written in the 80s CE, 40-50 years after the eventsActs is highly organised – suggesting deliberate editing The language used is more similar to the gospel of Luke than to Paul’s ‘voice’ as revealed in his epistles (letters) and many of Paul’s central themes (e.g. faith v works, spiritual gifts) are missing from Paul’s reported speechesActs includes reports of miraculous events and dramatic changes of viewpoint that are more associated with ancient literature and legends so may be less convincing in a modern scientific age400812091440Evaluation of CrossanMany scholars believe that Crossan’s strata sources were actually written much later than the NT Gospels. This refutes their validity. Crossan’s sources are hypothetical- based entirely on speculation e.g. the cross Gospel being derived from the Gospel of Peter, written before the canonical gospelsPaul’s letters were written between 30 and 60 AD, which would qualify them as first strata sources. However, Crossan still denies that Jesus is the Messiah, even though there is supporting evidence in these books.Crossan’s own strata sources e.g. Gospel of the Hebrews, make reference to Jesus as Messiah, however he still denies thisThree of Crossan’s strata sources present Jesus as the one who brings salvation and as the incarnation of God. Crossan still denies this. 00Evaluation of CrossanMany scholars believe that Crossan’s strata sources were actually written much later than the NT Gospels. This refutes their validity. Crossan’s sources are hypothetical- based entirely on speculation e.g. the cross Gospel being derived from the Gospel of Peter, written before the canonical gospelsPaul’s letters were written between 30 and 60 AD, which would qualify them as first strata sources. However, Crossan still denies that Jesus is the Messiah, even though there is supporting evidence in these books.Crossan’s own strata sources e.g. Gospel of the Hebrews, make reference to Jesus as Messiah, however he still denies thisThree of Crossan’s strata sources present Jesus as the one who brings salvation and as the incarnation of God. Crossan still denies this. 1F Two views of JesusJohn Dominic CrossanCrossan viewed Jesus as the social revolutionary using apocryphal gospelsIn order to understand Jesus, you need to understand eschatology – not an understanding of end-times, but that the?eschaton?would be ‘the Great Divine Clean-Up of the World. ?Rulers and their kingdoms would be judged and overthrown by God. ?Jesus was challenging the ideology of Empire, but through non-violent means.He described Jesus as a ‘peasant Jewish cynic’- he saw Jesus as a product of his time. Crossan did not believe that Jesus thought of himself as the Messiah.Crossan relies on strata sources- documents written between AD 30 and 60. Because Crossan dates the NT Gospels from AD 70 to 90, he does not accept them.Crossan’s criteria for historical accuracy is multiple independent assentation; something must be attested to in more than one independent source. As Paul wrote most of his letters, Crossan did not accept these as historical truths. Crossan denies that Jesus is the Messiah depicted i the NT GospelN. T Wright?Jesus was the true MessiahWright seeks to find the best explanation for the traditions found in the Gospel‘But if he was an eschatological prophet/Messiah, announcing the kingdom and dying in order to bring it about, the resurrection would declare that he had in principle succeeded in his task, and that his earlier redefinitions of the coming kingdom had pointed to a further task awaiting his followers, that of?implementing?what he had achieved.’Wright believes that we must keep learning about the real Jesus. He maintains that being a Christian requires learning about the history and challenging false beliefs Wright translates Jesus’ message for people today; to be the bearers of God’s redeeming love and of his creative stewardship. Theme 2. Religious concepts & religious life2A Religious concepts- the nature of GodKEY TERMSEcofeminist: someone who is interested in both the environment and women’s rightsMetaphor: something that represents or is a symbol for something elsePanentheism: the belief that the universe is the visible part of GodImmutability: unchangeableDocetism: the heresy that Jesus did not suffer on the cross because his body was not humanImmutability: unchangeable Impassibility: having no human feelingsIs God male?-The original language of the Bible speaks of God as ‘Father’-God is referred to as ‘he’-Jesus, the son of God, is male and the Holy Spirit is spoken of as ‘he’-God is likened to a human father-In the NT, God’s fatherhood conveys two distinct ideas:1.God as creator of the world2.The relationship between God and Jesus. Jesus called God ‘Father’ and taught his disciples to do the same. -There are several passages in the Bible that portray God in female terms, e.g. in Isaiah 66:13, God is described as a comforting mother. In Matthew 23:37, Jesus uses a motherly illustration of himself, and in Luke 15:8-10, he compares God to a woman searching for a lost coin. -The Bible makes it clear that God is neither male nor female. Jesus himself said: ‘God is spirit’ (John 4:24). -He can identify with the needs of all people, male and female, because he created them in His own image, ‘male and female he created them,’ (Genesis 1:27).Sallie McFague: God as Mother-American theologian who wrote from an ecofeminist perspective-Maintains that all language used about God is metaphorical; names and titles (e.g. king, father) are simply ways in which we think about God.-The metaphors used often turn into idols and we end up worshipping the metaphor instead of God-By using the metaphor of God as Mother, she is not saying that God is a Mother, or even female, but that the image of Mother highlights certain characteristics of God e.g. love for the world-She goes on the develop 3 metaphors for God’s relationship with the world:1. Mother- corresponding to the traditional title ‘Father’; doctrine of creation; justice’ agape love; the love God has for the world2. Lover- corresponding to the traditional title ‘Son’; doctrine of salvation; ethical element of healing3. Friend- corresponding to the traditional title ‘Spirit’; doctrine of eschatology; companionship; philia-masculine language conveying God’s sovereign rule had led to abuse of the natural world and the domination of women. If God is called mother, if follows that the world is no longer ruled over by God but is part of God’s body or womb. To harm nature is to harm God (panentheism).-Argues that maternal images of God ‘giving birth, nursing, comforting and caring’ highlight humanity’s reliance on God-God should not be imagined in female, feminine terms because ‘the first refers to gender whilst the second refers to qualities associated with women.’-She warns against sentimentalising maternal imagery. We cannot suppose that mothers are naturally loving, comforting, or self-sacrificing. These are social constructions-Some theologians have rejected McFague’s concept of God as mother as unbiblical; Jesus asserted that God was ‘Father’. If he was wrong on this fundamental point, how can we trust him on anything?Can God suffer?-Traditional Christian theology has always proclaimed the impassibility of God-God is unable to experience emotion or suffering or pain, and therefore has no feeling analogous to human feelings -The OT reveals that God is omniscient, omnipotent and omnibenevolent and transcends all that exists. Nothing can cause a change in his inner emotional state-Whilst he displays a range of emotions- love, anger etc. – he consistently acts with compassion and mercy-The NT reveals that God has become incarnate in Jesus. Jesus, in his human nature, is passible; he is able to feel emotion and pain-Several theologians have challenged the traditional view of God. In response to a conviction that after two world wars, the Jewish Holocaust, continuing genocide, Christians cannot have faith in a God who is immune to suffering. -They argue that God is passible, he does undergo emotional change and he can sufferJurgen Moltmann: The crucified God-German theologian who argued in The Crucified God that God suffers with humanity -Attempts to answer Jesus’ cry from the cross, ‘My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?’-Maintains that in the cross of Christ, God experienced death-His theology of the cross is the reverse side of his theology of hope. Christian hope is based on the resurrection, but it cannot be realistic and liberating ‘unless it apprehends the pain of the negative.’-Christian identity is an identification with the crucified Christ. In him, God has identified himself with those abandoned by God. God suffers with those who suffer-Christian identification with Christ means solidarity with the poor, the oppressed and the alien-The church has made the cross attractive by stripping it of its significance e.g. the mass as sacrifice denies the finality of Christ’s death-In the Middle Ages, the poor came to see the cross in a mystical way, in which God was recognised in the suffering Christ. This ‘mysticism’ is important because it shows God suffering with the oppressed-The meaning of Jesus’ death cry, ‘My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?’ is that ‘the abandonment on the cross… is something which takes place within God himself… the cross of the son divides God from God to the utmost degree. The resurrection of the son abandoned by God unites God with God in the most intimate fellowship.’-The crucified Jesus is God; God is not greater than he is in his humiliation… nor more glorious than he is in this self-surrender.-Protest atheism is resolved in the cross where God himself protested against suffering in the death of the Son-He dismisses Docetism- the idea that it was only the human nature of Jesus that suffered while his divine nature was unaffected The theological implications of a suffering God-God’s impassibility means that he cannot suffer-Theologians who believe in an impassable God are accused of panentheism- God is part of the natural world, infected with evil and suffering. If this is the case, he cannot be the omnipotent creator.-If God can suffer, he loses his transcendence and cannot free humans from sin and death-Some Biblical evidence contradicts this/ OT refers to God as responding to events on earth, sometimes with compassion, or anger-NT shows Jesus’ possibility e.g. feels pain, weeps at the death of Lazarus, displays mercy/anger-Moltmann- in order to be omniscient, God must be able to experience emotions and suffering-To affirm the impassibility of God betrays Biblical images of God who is involved with his creationExtension – Going deeper on ‘The Crucified God’We tend to view the world through the lens of our own preconceptions. Some of these are about physical reality and some of them are metaphysical, about beliefs and values. To understand Jurgen Moltmann’s effect on theological debate, we need to grasp how his book The Crucified God is profoundly offensive to a certain Christian worldview. This worldview, which he contradicts, has several elements. Traditionally:God cannot feel or suffer: God is impassable or apathetic, “apathetic” has the meaning of “showing no emotion” rather than “showing no interest”. It is linked to the view that God is unchanging, immutable.The Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are separated by their function not united in their feelings and experiences. The question of ‘how can God be omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient?’ is answered in a certain way by arguing that God needs to be true to himself and so cannot change – and feeling passibility involves change. Moltmann grounds his theology firmly in the cry of dereliction of the crucified God in Mark ‘My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?’ Mark 15:34, a cry very different from that of John ‘it is finished’, John 19:30 or Luke ‘Father into your hands I commit my spirit’, Luke 23:46. The Death Cry of Christ The Gospel of Mark finishes in a very dark place: not only is the sun extinguished in a great darkness covering the land, but the one called ‘the Son of God’ utters what has sometimes been called a cry of dereliction, in the loneliness and agony of crucifixion Jesus seems to ask of God the unanswerable question that is on the lips of every abandoned person: “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Mark 15:34).We have already noted that this cry is very different from the cry emitted by the Christ of John or of Luke. The Markan cry is unmitigated by any sense of relief. As if to emphasise the point, the author of Mark has no resurrection appearances and leaves the disciples fearful, confused and bewildered, with only a hint of a resurrected Jesus going on ahead of them into Galilee. It is also a direct quotation from Psalm 22:1. But whereas in Psalm 22, it is Israel as a nation which is pleading with God at a time of exile and disaster, here it is the one who claimed to be God’s special son, the Messiah or anointed one, the one born to be a king who is abandoned. As Moltmann’s points out, the meaning of this cry is essentially different from the cry in Psalm 22, it is radically personalised. “The cry of Jesus in the words of Psalm 22 means not only “My God why hast thou forsaken me?” But also “My God why hast thou forsaken thyself?” The abandonment on the cross which separates the Son from the Father is something which takes place within God himself; it is the stasis within God, ‘God against God’, particularly if we are to maintain that Jesus bore witness to and lived out the truth of God” (1974:151-2).So, the cry of god-forsakenness has at its centre a paradox. God the Father and God the Son are still united but are also separated by the sentence of crucifixion. Part of the debate in theology exists in trying to understand how two, Father and Son can be one and yet still be distinct. Moltmann argues that the Father is still suffering with the Son and with the Spirit, whereas traditional theology of the cross holds that the Christ of Golgotha descends into a place of utter desolation where there is no hint of unity preserved. So, the cross and its cry signify the most profound abandonment and most profound depths of despair that is possible; ‘God against God’, as Moltmann describes it.Just as ‘the resurrection of the son abandoned by God unites God with God in the most intimate fellowship” (1974:150), so the abandonment of the Son suggests a most agonising separation. And as Moltmann acknowledges, the death-cry of God forces us to come to terms with our own suffering, stripping away the pretence and concealment and the sufferings of our present time and ask ‘why’ and ‘what is to be done?’The Theodicy of Abandonment (Links to 2C Atonement & Phil 2A-C Problem of Evil)The characteristics of God portrayed in the Bible confront us with what has been called the inconsistent triad. How can God who claims to be all-powerful known as omnipotent and all-loving know as omnibenevolent and all-knowing and all-understanding known as omniscient tolerate the level of suffering in the world exhibited in violence, death, disease, poverty and starvation? How can God look on and seemingly do nothing when monstrous injustices persist? Moltmann faced this question in his own life, for as a conscript in the German army he had to confront the reality of Auschwitz, a crime of almost unimaginable injustice and cruelty done in the name of the German people. Moltmann’s answer is to argue that God the Father wasn’t just looking on. He was involved in the suffering himself. Part of Moltmann’s argument is to say that God allowed the suffering and gave Jesus the strength through the Spirit: ‘the Father allows the Son to sacrifice himself through the Spirit’ (1974,241 Quoting Steffen). The only way to understand the cross is through a theology of the Trinity. Yet Moltmann pushes this idea further. He argues that the Father is not impassible or unfeeling but unites with the Son in this moment of dereliction. As Moltmann explains in his book on the Trinity, “The form of the Trinity which is revealed in the giving up of the Son on the cross appears as follows: (1) the Father gives up his own Son to death in its most absolute sense, for us; (2) the Son gives himself up, for us; (3) the common sacrifice of the Father and the Son comes about through the Holy Spirit, who joins and unites the Son in his forsakenness with the Father” (Trinity, 83).Moltmann’s argument is not just that this event reveals the character of God, but that the essence of God the Father is included in the event. Moltmann is emphasising the unity within the godhead and essential unity in the suffering of the Trinity as the key to unlock the mystery of the Cross. “Humiliation to the point of death on the cross corresponds with God’s nature in the contradiction of abandonment. When the crucified Jesus is called the ‘image of the invisible God,’ the meaning is that this is God, that God is like this. God is not greater than he is in this humiliation. God is not more glorious than he is in this self-surrender. God is not more powerful than he is in this helplessness. God is not more divine than he is in this humanity. The nucleus of everything that Christian theology says about ‘God’ is to be found in this Christ event” (1974:205). It is this point about the Trinitarian nature of the Cross, whereby each part of the Trinity, Father Son, and Holy Spirit share in the event, which many Christians find offensive.How can the unchangeable God change in this way and experience human suffering? How can the eternal Father gain a foothold in mortality? How can the God beyond feeling impassible plumb the very deepest depths of human feeling passability? In his own words, Moltmann explains the apparent paradox thus: God is never more glorious than in the moment of self-surrender. To express the idea in its most offensive form, one might say in the words of the dogma of the early church: the first person of the Trinity casts out and annihilates the second.Moltmann concludes: “A theology of the cross cannot be expressed more radically than it is here” (1974:241). The Divine Relationship of Love “The generation and birth of the Son come from the Father’s nature, not from his will. That is why we talk about the eternal generation and birth of the Son. The Father begets and bears the Son out of the necessity of his being. Consequently, the Son, like the Father, belongs to the eternal constitution of the triune God. In Christian terms, no deity is conceivable without the eternal Father of the Son and without the eternal Son of the Father” (1974:167).“A God who cannot suffer is poorer than any man. For a God who is incapable of suffering is a being who cannot be involved... He is so completely insensitive that he cannot be affected or shaken by anything. He cannot weep, for he has no tears. But the one who cannot suffer cannot love either. So, he is a loveless being. Aristotle’s God cannot love... A God who is only omnipotent is in himself an incomplete being, for he cannot experience helplessness and powerlessness... A man who experiences helplessness, a man who suffers because he loves, a man who can die, is, therefore, a richer being than an omnipotent God who cannot suffer, cannot love, and cannot die. Therefore, for a man who is aware of the riches of his own nature in his love, his suffering, his protest and his freedom, such a God is not a necessary and supreme being, but a highly dispensable and superfluous being” (1974:222- 3). ‘In order to be completely itself, love has to suffer.’ (Trinity, 33) If we take the relinquishment of the Father’s name in Jesus’ death cry seriously, then this [the ‘abandonment’ of the Son in the crucifixion’ is even the breakdown of the relationship that constitutes the very life of the Trinity: if the Father forsakes the Son, the Son does not merely lose his sonship. The Father loses his fatherhood as well (Trinity, 80). According to Moltmann, such divine fellow-suffering constitutes the only possible way to vindicate God from the charge of cruelty and console grieving humanity without at the same time justifying and thus perpetuating the injustices at the root of human grief. (Jowers, page 251).Hope, suffering and the human condition ‘Christ’s suffering on the cross does not consist merely in the ethical suffering of love…Jesus was also rejected by inhuman persons because of his love for those whom they had dehumanised. But this was not all: he was also, and most complete all, abandoned by his Father, whose immediate presence he proclaimed and experienced in his life. This rejection in suffering, this judgment in the cross, goes far beyond the suffering involved in the love of one’s neighbour and one’s enemy. But it leads beyond it not into metaphysics, but into the universal, cosmic eschatology of the end, into the abandonment by God of the godless and the destruction of all that exists…and the new creation (1974:64).Suffering is part of the human condition and in a sense, the hardest part for a Christian to explain. To the atheist, suffering just is: an atheist sees no meaning or purpose in suffering. But to a Christian, suffering has a purpose. God identifies with us in our suffering. If God has experienced suffering he knows what it is for human beings to suffer and can, therefore, comfort us. It points towards the end when the judgment of the world will come upon us, the word ‘eschatology’ in the above quote means ‘the end times’.It points beyond the immediate to a higher purpose of transformation through suffering. Jesus’ cross, Moltmann reminds us should never be seen in isolation, but as the death-and-resurrection of Christ. Moltmann also presents us with the challenge of making all this relevant to the world which appears to reject God. He writes: ‘Christian theology must show how far the Christian confession of faith in Jesus is true as seen from the outside and must demonstrate that it is relevant to the present-day understanding of reality and the present-day dispute about the truth of God and the righteousness of man and the world’ (1974, 84). Moltmann’s conclusion is a powerful one, God didn’t put humanity on like we put on a shirt, but actually became human, entering right into the human condition with all its complexity and paradox. “If the eternal Logos assumed a non-personal human nature, he cannot then be viewed as a historical person, and we cannot talk about ‘Jesus of Nazareth.’ The human nature that was assumed would then seem to be like the human garment of the eternal Son, something which he put on while he walked on earth. It becomes difficult to find an identity here between this human nature and our own”. Moltmann The Way of Jesus (1990:51).2B Religious concepts- the trinityKEY TERMSAdoptionism: the belief that Jesus was an ordinary man who became the Son of Go only at his baptismArianism: the belief that Jesus was the highest of all created beings but not of the same substance of GodSebellianism: the belief that Jesus was divine but not humanFilioque: Latin for ‘and the Son’OVERVIEWChristianity is a monotheistic religionThe Christian God exists as three persons- Father (creator), Son (redeemer), Holy Spirit (sustainer)The doctrine asserts that each person is fully GodThe doctrine does not split God into 3 partsIt was Tertullian, an early Christian author, who came up with the term ‘Trinity.’ The doctrine was formalised in the Nicene Creed (325)Tertullian tried to counteract 3 heresies: adoptionism, sabellianism and Arianism. The word ‘Trinity’ does not appear in the Bible, but the concept that it represents doesThe Bible teaches that God is oneThe Church has never been able to explain adequately how God can be one, and at the same time three. It regards the Trinity as a mystery.The Filioque Controversy The question at stake in the discussion was whether the Spirit proceeded from the Father and Son as a co-eternal unity, or whether the Spirit proceeds from just the Father. It appears in the phrase “proceeds from the Father and the Son” in the Nicene Creed in Western Christianity, but both the phrase and the teaching are rejected by the Eastern Orthodox Church.As such, Western Christians will normally include “and the Son” in the recitation of the Nicene Creed (but do not insist upon it).Western Christianity teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Son as well as the Father; Eastern Orthodox Christians may see this as undermining the role of the Father.The Eastern Orthodox Church understands the three persons of the Trinity to each have a unique quality: ‘fatherhood’ is unique to the Father; ‘begottenness ‘ is unique to the Son; ‘procession’ is unique to the Holy Spirit. The Western Church emphasises the divinity of the Son and the unity of the Trinity by having the Holy Spirit proceed from both the Father and the Son. The Eastern Orthodox Church emphasises the “monarchy of the Father” and teaches that this results in unity between the three persons of the Trinity – since both the Son and the Holy Spirit come from the Father, there is one ‘source’ for all three persons, and the unity of the three can also be represented by just one of the three (the Father). The issues of the wording of the Nicene Creed and the doctrinal understanding were historically separate, but the issues became linked when the insertion of the wording was used by Pope Benedict VIII. Answers may note that there are diverse positions within the Eastern Orthodox Church: some hold that the teaching that the Holy Spirit also proceeds from the Son is serious doctrinal error; others consider the divergences within Christianity to be primarily due to misunderstandings and different emphases’The Immanent Trinity and the Economic Trinity-The term immanent Trinity signifies what God is (three persons, one God)-The term economic Trinity signifies what God does (Father creates, son redeems, Holy Spirit sanctifies)-The Western church accepts Augustine’s argument that humans can know the Trinity from their own experience because there are traces of the Trinity in the human soul (triad of self knowledge, memory, understanding, will)-For Augustine, since the Holy Spirit acts within the Trinity as the bond of love between Father and Son, it follows that the Holy Spirit must proceed from both.-For the Eastern Church, Augustine’s theory was unacceptable because humans cannot base the doctrine of the Trinity on their own experience. That confuses the incomprehensible structure of the Trinity with its actions. It also makes the nature of God dependent on human beings. -The Eastern Orthodox church accepts the structure of God as three equal Persons, but does not accept that anything has been revealed to us of the inner being of God except:1.The Father alone is the source of divinity2.the Son alone is begotten of the Father3.the Spirit proceeds from the Father aloneModern developments of the Trinity-Karl Barth wrote, ‘The doctrine of the Trinity is what basically distinguishes the Christian doctrine of God as Christian.’-God has revealed himself to humans in 2 movements:1.In the son, this is an objective ‘unveling’ of what God is2. In the spirit; this is a subjective reception, or ‘imparting’, God working for us-The objective unveiling of God in Jesus is not enough; there must be a subjective recognition imparted by the Spirit-Barth asserts that humans are incapable of responding to the objective revelation of God in Jesus, unless a recognition of that revelation is imparted to them by the Holy Spirit-This imparting by the Spirit proceeds from both the hidden father and the reveled son-Barth therefore endorses the use of the word filioque -The imparting is done through God’s grace which is an attribute of God. But grace is also ‘the Holy Spirit received.’ -For Barth, as for Augustine, the Immanent Trinity (who God is) is reflected in the Economic Trinity (God working for us) Monotheistic claims of the doctrine of the Trinity-The Trinity causes problems for Christianity as a monotheistic religion as to conceptually speak of three as one is logical nonsense -Polytheism is a heresy according to Christian tradition-Mainstream Christianity believes it is a heresy that the son and spirit are not God-Some Christian denominations believe that God is ‘triune’, God is one but exists in three persons -Augustine compares the Trinity to three parts of a human being- mind, spirit and will. They are distinct but inseparable-The Bible maintains that God is love- love only exists in a relationship. The trinity is a relationship of love. Is the doctrine of the Trinity necessary for Christian belief?It interprets monotheism in the light of a specific set of events and experiences revealed through scriptureIt is the only way that Christians can make sense of the content and teaching of the BibleIt plays a central part in the worship of all mainstream Christian traditions It sees God as a community of three persons coexisting in a coequal relationship of eternal love, providing a model for human relationshipsSome people dismiss the trinity as an abstract belief Karen Kilbly: ‘the doctrine of the trinity so easily appears to be an intellectual puzzle with no relevance to the faith of most Christians.’The Trinitarian idea has confused things and led to heresies e.g. modalism The disagreement over filioque led to the great schism of 10542C Religious concepts- the atonementKey TermsAtonement – To make ‘at one’; to reconcile. Atonement theory - any explanation of how Jesus’ death reconciled sinful humankind to God.Expiation – turning away wrath (anger) by making an offering. Propitiation – Removing guilt by paying a penaltySacrifice – A key practice in OT Judaism, where people brought an animal to the priest, who killed it and sprinkled the blood on the altar in order to expiate God’s anger and propitiate people’s sin.Scapegoat - Animal used symbolically to carry away the sins of the community, according to a text in LeviticusRansom Theory – An early atonement theory and variation of the sacrificial model. Proposed by Origen in 2nd Century, it suggests that Jesus’ death was a ransom payment made by God to the devil to free humans from slavery to sin.Satisfaction Theory –proposed by Anselm in Cur Deus Homo. In this model the debt is not paid to Satan. It’s a debt of honour owed by Human beings to God. It relies on the doctrine of Incarnation as it says the debt was greater than humans could pay, so God paid it himself as Jesus, who in his human nature, could redeem humankind. Modified the Ransom model and paved the way for later Penal Substitution models.Atonement seen as necessary because of the ‘Fall’ – link to Problem of Evil (PoR), Freewill and Predestination (Ethics) and other topics eg, Can God suffer? Incarnation, Trinity, Eucharist, Faith and Works.OT shows a sacrificial model of atonement through Temple sacrifices. Also Scapegoat model.Also in OT Isaac ‘saved’ by a lamb and the Passover Lamb - Christians see both if these as ‘models’ or ‘types’ of Jesus as the ‘Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world’ – quote from John the Baptist in John’s gospel.NT also uses other ‘models’ of atonement too, but there is no single agreed explanation of how Jesus death brought about redemption for sin, salvation for humankind, reconciliation with God..Same throughout history of Christian thought – no one agreed model, but various ones which are not mutually exclusive.TheoryDescriptionStrengthsWeaknessesView of God85039203771900The view of God in each theory should also be considered in terms of the doctrine of the Trinity. If Jesus is God, then God is bearing the punishment, rather than an angry Father punishing his innocent Son.00The view of God in each theory should also be considered in terms of the doctrine of the Trinity. If Jesus is God, then God is bearing the punishment, rather than an angry Father punishing his innocent Son.Christus VictorDevised by Gustav Aulen in 19th Century. Uses ideas from Ransom model – that human beings are enslaved by sin, but instead of God paying a ransom to the Devil, He conquers these evil powers and sets people free. Also uses ides of Satisfaction – humankind has a debt to God., not God to the Devil. God pays the debt through waging war on evil through the cross Uses military language – waging war on the Devil. This is the favoured theory in the Eastern Orthodox Church√ Rescues Origen’s ransom model from the idea that God is in debt to the Devil. Jesus’ sacrifice is not a sacrifice paid to the devil, but a necessary cost of defeating evil.√ It takes the objective nature of evil seriously.√ It seems to make sense that evil and death are defeated if Jesus was resurrected.X Downplays individual sin and guilt as Jesus acts on a cosmic level against evil rather than dealing with individual sin.X Some think it doesn’t fully explain how Jesus death brought victory over Satan, or that it doesn’t fit with Jesus’ ministry which was to proclaim the KoG rather than wage spiritual warfare.√ Depicts God as loving, acting in Jess to bring about human freedom.Also: Links to Liberation Theology and its view of Salvation as Liberation from structural sin and the Christology of Jesus’ as liberator, bringing in the Kingdom of God as a reign of justicePenal SubstitutionTheory favoured by 16th Century Protestant reformers esp Luther and Calvin. Emphasises Jesus’ identification with sinful humanity, so that in effect when Jesus died on the cross he was bearing the punishment for human sin. Draws on OT ideas of God’s wrath and the need for justice. Jesus’ death as an expiation of God’s wrath – like the Passover Lamb or the OT sacrifices. Jesus as the scapegoat. Expressed in the language of the criminal justice system.√ For most evangelicals and Biblical conservatives this theory is strong because it has much Biblical support eg Suffering Servant passages in Isaiah, and many sections in Paul’s letters. √ Many argue that all of the other models of atonement only work because they present Jesus as a substitute, dying to pay a ransom, defeat evil, meet the demands of justice etcX It emphasises God’s justice rather than God’s love.X It ignores the injustice that an innocent is receiving the punishment.X It is a model rooted in violence which ‘splits apart the Trinity’ by presenting God as vengeful and full of wrath but Jesus as loving and forgiving.X It places too much emphasis on Jesus’ death rather than also the resurrection.X It seems illogical to argue that forgiveness can only be obtained by punishing an innocent. The Bible also suggests there are examples of God forgiving unconditionally.X Depicts God as angry, vengeful and unjust. “it makes God sound like a psychopath. If any human being behaved like this we would say they were a monster.” Rev Jeffrey John.X In fact the penal substitution model is hotly debated in evangelical circles today, as some evangelicals have also begun to view it as unacceptable. On the other hand, it is still the favoured view amongst most evangelicalsMoral ExampleFirst formulated by Augustine and then restated by Abelard in the 12th Century as a reaction against Anselm’s Satisfaction theory. In this model Jesus died not to placate God, but to show human beings the depth of God’s love for them and to lead them to repentance. The focus is on the moral improvement of humankind, with Jesus’ life and death being seen as a moral example.√ This theory appeals to modern Liberals as it does not require belief in any spiritual victory achieved on the cross. It is compatible with the idea of being inspired by a good moral teacher.√ This theory is compatible with many othersX it does not explain the need for the crucifixion – Jesus’ life could be the moral example that inspires people to repent.X It suggests human beings can achieve salvation through their own works. This is not a view that evangelicals can accept.X It doesn’t really seem to address the enormity of human sin – the atrocities of the 20th Century still happened. Humankind has not learned from Jesus’ example. √ This theory highlights God’s love for human beings and plays down the idea of God’s anger at human sin. It presents a God who hopes and waits for human beings to repent Religious life- faith and worksJustification – Made righteous in the sight of God (‘made right’ with God) What is needed for salvationFaith – what you believe (e.g. Belief in Jesus as the Son of God)right318135Works – what you do (e.g. Good deeds? Following the Jewish Law? Following Jesus’ commands? Sacraments such as baptism or eucharist)left4445-247650240665Set texts – letters from the Apostle Paul. Romans 1: 17 ‘He who is righteous will live by faith’Romans 5: 1 ‘Since we are justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ’Ephesians 2:8-9 ‘For by grace you have been saved through faith, and this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God— not the result of works, so that no one may boast.’Galatians 2:16 ‘yet we know that a person is justified not by the works of the law but through faith in Jesus Christ …because no one will be justified by the works of the law.’0Set texts – letters from the Apostle Paul. Romans 1: 17 ‘He who is righteous will live by faith’Romans 5: 1 ‘Since we are justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ’Ephesians 2:8-9 ‘For by grace you have been saved through faith, and this is not your own doing; it is the gift of God— not the result of works, so that no one may boast.’Galatians 2:16 ‘yet we know that a person is justified not by the works of the law but through faith in Jesus Christ …because no one will be justified by the works of the law.’-2355852540000Augustine taught that we are justified by God, as a work of his grace. Wrote anti-Pelagian works against the idea that our works could serve as the proper basis for our justification. 0Augustine taught that we are justified by God, as a work of his grace. Wrote anti-Pelagian works against the idea that our works could serve as the proper basis for our justification. 34728151189990Pelagius taught that one became righteous through works, by working to follow the example of Jesus' lifeCondemned as a heretic by 2 PopesPelagius taught that one became righteous through works, by working to follow the example of Jesus' lifeCondemned as a heretic by 2 Popes346456040005Set text – letter from the Apostle James (leader of early Jerusalem church and ‘brother’ of Jesus) James 2:24 ‘You see that a person is justified by works and not by faith alone’Set text – letter from the Apostle James (leader of early Jerusalem church and ‘brother’ of Jesus) James 2:24 ‘You see that a person is justified by works and not by faith alone’-2000256555105EP Sanders – a modern theologianTries to reconcile the divide by reflecting on what Jesus’ understanding might have beenJudaism never taught that you must be put right with God through works but in ‘covenantal nomism’ - Belief that God chose the Jewish peopleWhat they had to do was to keep this special status by obeying His LawJews entered through God’s grace, and stayed there through worksBut this was exclusive, so a new covenant was madeIn Jesus, God saved the world. This was his gift of grace, now Christians must respond in gratitude, keeping the commandments and seeking a relationship with ChristYour works are how you show your faith and gratitudeYou enter the new covenant through baptism (works) but are then kept righteous through faith and works00EP Sanders – a modern theologianTries to reconcile the divide by reflecting on what Jesus’ understanding might have beenJudaism never taught that you must be put right with God through works but in ‘covenantal nomism’ - Belief that God chose the Jewish peopleWhat they had to do was to keep this special status by obeying His LawJews entered through God’s grace, and stayed there through worksBut this was exclusive, so a new covenant was madeIn Jesus, God saved the world. This was his gift of grace, now Christians must respond in gratitude, keeping the commandments and seeking a relationship with ChristYour works are how you show your faith and gratitudeYou enter the new covenant through baptism (works) but are then kept righteous through faith and works2857503955415Protestant objections to Council of TrentFocus on works is unbiblical (see texts above)Trent taught that good works merit (deserve) God’s grace – Bible suggests grace is a gift, not a rewardJohn 6:29 says the only ‘work’ necessary for salvation is to believeGood works are not necessary for salvation, but salvation inevitably produces good worksProtestant objections to Council of TrentFocus on works is unbiblical (see texts above)Trent taught that good works merit (deserve) God’s grace – Bible suggests grace is a gift, not a rewardJohn 6:29 says the only ‘work’ necessary for salvation is to believeGood works are not necessary for salvation, but salvation inevitably produces good works35426653667760Council of Trent 1545-63 – RC Response to the Reformation Concluded in 1547 that;God doesn’t just automatically make people right with Him (righteous): they must do something themselvesGood works are needed if God is to forgive sins. They are necessaryBut they are not sufficient - more than good works are needed if people are to be justified. They must rely on God too and co-operate with God and his gracePeople are justified (forgiven) through baptism which is God’s gift but they also need to do things like go to Mass and do penanceCouncil of Trent 1545-63 – RC Response to the Reformation Concluded in 1547 that;God doesn’t just automatically make people right with Him (righteous): they must do something themselvesGood works are needed if God is to forgive sins. They are necessaryBut they are not sufficient - more than good works are needed if people are to be justified. They must rely on God too and co-operate with God and his gracePeople are justified (forgiven) through baptism which is God’s gift but they also need to do things like go to Mass and do penance-161925482058Martin Luther - German monk, professor of theology, began the Protestant ReformationTried to live a life of good works, but felt he could never do enoughTaught that human beings are saved sola fide – in other words, by faith aloneJustification = not a process that humans have a part in controlling, it is entirely the gift of God given in response to our acceptance of HimJustification is God seeing us as righteous, even though we are not – we are justified and sinful at the same time00Martin Luther - German monk, professor of theology, began the Protestant ReformationTried to live a life of good works, but felt he could never do enoughTaught that human beings are saved sola fide – in other words, by faith aloneJustification = not a process that humans have a part in controlling, it is entirely the gift of God given in response to our acceptance of HimJustification is God seeing us as righteous, even though we are not – we are justified and sinful at the same time3402330346710In the Middle Ages the Roman Catholic Church linked justification to baptism & penance. (both examples of ‘works’)If you were baptised your original sin was removed. If you confessed to the priest you were granted absolution in the form of special prayers or deeds to carry out (penance)Linked to purgatory - if you died without having done enough good things you would go to purgatory to keep doing ‘penance’ so that you could go to Heaven. Indulgences - a certificate issued by the Pope which granted forgiveness of sins in exchange for cash, not good works.Johann Tetzel was the commissioner responsible for the sale of indulgencesIn the Middle Ages the Roman Catholic Church linked justification to baptism & penance. (both examples of ‘works’)If you were baptised your original sin was removed. If you confessed to the priest you were granted absolution in the form of special prayers or deeds to carry out (penance)Linked to purgatory - if you died without having done enough good things you would go to purgatory to keep doing ‘penance’ so that you could go to Heaven. Indulgences - a certificate issued by the Pope which granted forgiveness of sins in exchange for cash, not good works.Johann Tetzel was the commissioner responsible for the sale of indulgencesright-179705left-219075134747010384790EP Sanders – a modern theologianJudaism never taught that you must be put right with God through works but in ‘covenantal nomism’ - Belief that God chose the Jewish peopleWhat they had to do was to keep this special status by obeying His LawJews entered through God’s grace, and stayed there through worksBut this was exclusive, so a new covenant was madeIn Jesus, God saved the world. This was his gift of grace, now Christians must respond in gratitude, keeping the commandments and seeking a relationship with ChristYour works are how you show your faith and gratitudeYou enter the new covenant through baptism (works) but are then kept righteous through faith and worksEP Sanders – a modern theologianJudaism never taught that you must be put right with God through works but in ‘covenantal nomism’ - Belief that God chose the Jewish peopleWhat they had to do was to keep this special status by obeying His LawJews entered through God’s grace, and stayed there through worksBut this was exclusive, so a new covenant was madeIn Jesus, God saved the world. This was his gift of grace, now Christians must respond in gratitude, keeping the commandments and seeking a relationship with ChristYour works are how you show your faith and gratitudeYou enter the new covenant through baptism (works) but are then kept righteous through faith and worksCriticisms of faith alone (sola fide)Despite the letters of Paul above, many New Testament passages seem to reject it e.g. Sermon on the Mount ‘let your light shine on others, so they may see your good works’Paul’s other letters support justification through works e.g. Romans ‘the doers of the law… will be justified’‘By faith alone’ only occurs once in the NT (James 2:24) where it is rejectedNT sees justification as a process, not as a one-off eventIt is antinomian – says that people do not have to follow the LawHow can people’s actions not count at all? Surely to be righteous, one must act righteously?Rejected by the RC churchCriticisms of faith + worksMany NT letters support the emphasis on faith, not works (see quotes above)Gospels and Acts contradict it – Jesus says in John ‘This is the work of God, that you believe in him that he has sent’ No mention of worksBible suggests grace is a gift, not a rewardToo much emphasis on the role of humans, not enough emphasis on the grace and power of God?Can lead to arrogance – people who are self-righteous as a result of their actionsIf justification depends upon human effort, can we ever achieve it? Rejected by several Protestant churches2E Religious life- the community of believersDidache – the name for the teachings of the apostles of JesusKerygma(ta)- proclamation, announcement or preachingcenter457200Acts 2:42-47 42?They devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers. 43?Awe came upon everyone, because many wonders and signs were being done by the apostles. 44?All who believed were together and had all things in common; 45?they would sell their possessions and goods and distribute the proceeds[a] to all, as any had need. 46?Day by day, as they spent much time together in the temple, they broke bread at home[b] and ate their food with glad and generous[c] hearts, 47?praising God and having the goodwill of all the people. And day by day the Lord added to their number those who were being saved0Acts 2:42-47 42?They devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers. 43?Awe came upon everyone, because many wonders and signs were being done by the apostles. 44?All who believed were together and had all things in common; 45?they would sell their possessions and goods and distribute the proceeds[a] to all, as any had need. 46?Day by day, as they spent much time together in the temple, they broke bread at home[b] and ate their food with glad and generous[c] hearts, 47?praising God and having the goodwill of all the people. And day by day the Lord added to their number those who were being savedPentecost – the event in Jerusalem, when the Holy Spirit descended upon the apostles, filling them with its powerThe New Testament Community of BelieversThe Acts of the Apostles is the earliest record we have of the spread of Christianity in the 1c CEThis is the period after Jesus’ ascension, after Pentecost, and before the gospels come to be written downGeneral agreement that Acts was written by same author as Luke’s gospelThe life of the earliest Christian community is largely characterised by enthusiasm under the guidance of the Holy Spirit After Pentecost the early believers felt fired up and brought to (new) life by the spirit and wanted to share this with others5553075381000There were 4 ‘elements of organised structure’ shared by the Jerusalem churchDevotion to apostles teaching and fellowship; breaking of bread;prayers; they had all things in common Apostles teaching (Didache and kerygma)An important part was teaching and preaching, and encouraging people to repentCH Dodd identifies the ‘kerygma’ (preaching/proclamation) at the heart of the didache (apostles teaching)Dodd identified six elements common to the speeches that he considered to be authentic; 421259041910001.that Jesus fulfilled the promises of the Hebrew Bible 2.that God was at work in Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection, which was according to God’s purpose 3.that Jesus has now been exalted and is in heaven 4.that the Holy Spirit has been given to the church to form God’s new community 5.that Jesus will soon return in glory 6.that those who hear the message must change their lifestyles accordingly and follow Jesus (repent and be baptised). Dodd distinguished kerygma from didache: kerygma = a declaration of beliefs, whereas didache = moral exhortation or teachingBreaking of bread2 uses – 1. The breaking of bread of the sacrament of the Eucharist 2. Dividing of loaves at a communal meal (known as table fellowship)They ‘devoted themselves to prayer’Followed the Jewish custom of 3 daily prayers at the Temple, but also prayed together in private homesThe intensity of Pentecost meant that they were constantly seeking fellowship with God, and with each other. They gained strength from it. Praying at the Temple brought them into contact with Jews who they could share their news about the MessiahWhat does it mean to say the early church believers ‘had all things in common’? They shared what they had and many (not all) sold their possessions to help support those in needEarly Christians had a voluntary, selfless and loving disposition Acts 2:42-47How is this reflected in the contemporary church?Devotion to apostles teachingAll contemporary churches stick closely to the original teachings of the apostles; belief that Jesus was Messiah, he performed God’s work on earth and was crucified, buried and raised. Fellowship - A special relationship with God and each otherDeveloped through partaking (taking part) in sacraments, accepting church doctrine and following a Christian lifeFellowship can be developed through shared worship, charitable works and group Bible studyFellowship with God can be further developed through private worship and prayerBreaking of breadSense 1 -Eucharist is seen as a sacrament by all churchesSense 2 – churches may help and encourage Christians to share ‘table fellowship’ with others by eating together Devotion to prayersChurches will regularly have public worship that includes prayer. They may encourage followers to pray regularly at home. Central importance of Lord’s prayerOutreach – growing in numbersChurches may evangelise, to bring in new members. For example, the missionary movement, and reverse missionary movement (3B) Many churches, influenced by the Pentecostal movement may run an Alpha course (as a response to New Atheism and secularisation)Some see ‘outreach’ as being a result not of preaching, but of the churches action in the world working against poverty and injusticeSold and gave to those in needMany Churches will actively support charity work (e.g. CAFOD, Christian Aid, but most local churches will be involved in their local area)Had all things in commonSharing of possessions not compulsory BUT many denominations have religious orders of monks and nuns who live, work and pray together and hole possessions (if any) in commonThe ‘Jesus Christians’ aim to live simply and have few possessions, they usually avoid buying and selling goods as far as possibleHow far should contemporary churches follow the New Testament modelJerusalem church was unified in belief and practice, this is an excellent model for modern churches to aspire toIt operated under the guidance of the Holy Spirit – many Pentecostal and charismatic churches follow this example today and report the ‘fruits of the spirit’It was founded in prayer and with a specific mission, to bring people to Jesus. It was joyful, enthusiastic & effective in its missions –appealed to outsidersActs reports that although there were disagreements, there were immediate arrangements made to solve themThe early Church seems to have adopted female leaders (e.g. Paul praises female deacons) link to feminist theologyActs reports that there were disagreements, disobedience, lying to the Holy Spirit, favouritism and jealousyIts leadership seems inconsistent Its mission seems initially to be focused only on converting from the Jewish communityThere were bitter arguments between Paul and the ‘Judaizers’ – those who wanted people to convert to Judaism before following JesusPaul’s letters report many frustrations including quarrelling, sexual immorality, boasting and a general lack of discipline – the church in Corinth in particular caused Paul concernPaul’s letter to the church in Rome is concerned that they are adopting a legalistic interpretation of Christianity, against Jesus’ exampleIs the main role of the church to provide religious teaching? (To Christians and non-Christians)Religious teaching is important so that Christians have the correct understanding of how to gain salvationIf salvation is through faith (see 2D faith and works) then correct understanding of doctrine is essentialReligious teaching is important so that people know how to love God and their neighbourReligious teaching is important, but only if it encourages Christians to action The early church was typified by its public teaching and evangelism, modern churches should do the sameThe modern Pentecostal movement has influenced the Alpha Course, which focuses on teaching key messages of Christianity Most churches have Bible study groups and regular sermons to help clarify teachingsTrue Christian love (agape) is unconditional, not directed at convertingIf salvation is through faith and works (see 2D faith and works) then correct understanding of doctrine is not sufficientThe church’s main role = carry out Jesus’ command to love thy neighbourThe church has been criticised in the past for focusing too much on orthodoxy and not on orthopraxy (link to Liberation theology)The church should be acting to fulfil Jesus'’ social teaching, as illustrated in the parable of the sheep and goats (feed the hungry, care for the sick and vulnerable, and those in prison)Contemporary Christianity puts this into action through encouraging fair trade, charity work, the pursuit of peace, care for the environment etcThe World Council of Churches has teaching as one of its aims, but also Diakonia (service) including activities around climate change, global health, women’s rights, stateless people and refugees2F Religious life- key moral principlesThe Importance of ‘Love your Neighbour’When Jesus commanded his followers to ‘love the lord your God with all your heart, soul and mind, Jesus was actually echoing what had been written in the OT book of Deuteronomy ‘You shall love the lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul and with all your might’ When Jesus commanded his followers to ‘love your neighbour as yourself, he was echoing the OT book of Leviticus ‘Love the alien as yourself, for you were aliens in the land of Egypt’ Leviticus 19:34 – This shows that Jesus was following the law of Moses and adapting it. The two commandments are repeated in the introduction to one of the best known parables that Jesus told ‘The Parable of the Good Samaritan’. Jesus is asked by a Lawyer what a man must do to get eternal life and he responds that he must ‘do what is written in the law’ (the Law of Moses as seen above). The man says that the law commands that he must love God and love his neighbour as he loves himself, to which Jesus says he is right. The Lawyer asks who is his neighbour and Jesus tells the parable of the good Samaritan which explains how it is the Samaritan that saves the dying man who had been attacked by robbers despite Samaritans and Jews being opposed to each other. It is also important to note that the man who was attacked was Jewish and two Jewish leaders had walked down the road and ignored the man. Jesus asked the man which one of the men loved his neighbour and the man says the Samaritan. Jesus tells him to go and do the same. By neighbour Jesus did not mean the person next door to you but everyone that you meet on life’s journey, whether they be a friend or enemy – This is supported by Jesus’ sermon on the mount in which he tells his followers to ‘love your enemies’God’s love as a potential model for Christian behaviour (Exodus 34:6 – 7; 1 John 4:19 – 21)The basic model for Christian behaviour is the love shown for human beings by God himself In the OT The famous passage in Exodus 34:6 – 7 shows God revealing himself to Moses and in words attributed to God himself, describes his own character proclaiming he is:Merciful, gracious, slow to anger, abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, forgivingIn the NT God’s steadfast love and faithfulness was revealed fully in the life and death of Jesus. Since God has so loved human beings, human beings must love God. John insists that it is impossible to love God without also loving other people. Those who say that they love God and hate their brothers and sisters, are liars. If they do not love their brothers or sisters, whom they have seen, how can they love God whom they have not seen. Regard for truth (1 Samuel 12:24; Ephesians 4:25 – 27)Christians have always considered themselves the guardian of the truth. By truth they mean the ultimate meaning and value of existence. They believe that the Bible communicates the truth about the nature of God, the Person of Jesus and the history salvation In the OT (1 Samuel 12:24), the Israelites are commanded ‘to fear the Lord and serve him faithfully with all your heart for consider what great things he has done for you’ – the great things he has done for you was to free Israel from captivity in Egypt and lead through forty years in the wilderness to promised landThe NT account of God’s grace is even more dramatic as through the death and resurrection of Jesus he has freed human beings from the captivity of original sin and death and has given them eternal life - because of this Christians are called to put away their old, corrupt self and to clothe themselves with ‘the new self, created according to the likeness of God in true righteousness and holiness’The role of conscience (2 Corinthians 1:12; 1 Timothy 1:5)The Bible teaches that because human beings were made in the image of God then they have an innate sense of right and wrong. This is known as a conscience (the inner feeling of rightness or wrongness seen as the voice of God) Those who support this believe they are able to judge life’s situations according to this conscience. As Paul writes in his letter to Timothy ‘the aim of such instruction is love that comes from a pure heart, a good conscience and sincere faith’ Christians believe that their conscience is informed by both the Bible and the work of the holy spirit and when they violate the standards expected of them they experience guilt. They would then confess their sin and experience forgiveness If conscience is repeatedly ignored then one’s sensitivity to moral issues becomes desensitised, and one goes along with things one knows are wrong Conscience can also become overly sensitive, condemning the believer for normal human failures and leading to false guilt. The goal of a Christian should be to develop a mature conscience based on biblical teaching and illuminated by the holy spirit The need for forgiveness (Matthew 14 – 15; Colossians 3:12 – 13)Forgiveness is a very prominent theme in the teaching of Jesus and there are many Bible quotes to support this teachingIn the sermon on the mount Jesus told his followers that if they do not forgive themselves then they cannot expect to be forgiven. This is also shown in the Lord’s prayer ‘forgive us our sins as we forgive those who sin against usOn another occasion, when Peter asked Jesus how many times he should forgive as many as seven times? Jesus answered ‘not seven times, but I tell you, seventy – seven times’ – this does not mean that you need to count seventy times, it means forgive as many times as it takes and that forgiveness is not easy but Christians should spend a lifetime forgiving Paul echoes the teaching of Jesus. For him the model for Christian forgiveness is the forgiveness freely granted to sinners by God ‘just as the Lord has forgiven you then you must also forgive’ Jesus also died on the cross to bring reconciliation and forgiveness St Paul said that Christians should try to live in peace with everyoneAll the churches teach that Christians should use forgiveness and reconciliation to end conflicts Jesus also overrides the law of Moses when he forgave the woman who committed adultery ‘let him who is without sin cast the first stone’. This is a really good example of Jesus overriding legalist rules with agape Consider the racially motivated murder of 18-year-old Anthony Walker, as told by his mother, Dee Walker. She describes her feelings of pain, loss and resentment, but also describes how forgiving the murderers is what Christ teaches her to do, and it has also helped to release her feelings of anger, bitterness and revenge. love of neighbour is the most important moral principle in Christianity Are other Christian moral principles more important than love your neighbour? so for example is it more important to forgive than to love your neighbour - You can talk about Antony Walkers mum who said she had to forgive the person who killed her son because if she didn't she would be full of hatred. Just because she forgave him doesn't mean she loved her neighbour although you could certainly argue she loved her enemy. She did it to unload her baggage and because as a Christian she thinks how can you expect God to forgive you if you can't forgive others. Remember Jesus died to save people from sin so forgiveness of sin is a fundamental principle in Christianity You could also argue that love your neighbour underpins everything else in Christianity. If you follow other Christian principles such as the golden rule, forgiveness, following your conscience then you are actually loving your neighbour, so it is really important. It is often referred to as the 11th commandment after all. Jesus said 'there is no other commandment greater than this' You could then go down the route of how it underpins a 'coming of age' morality in the form of situation ethics. Talk about how there are unique situations where you can't always apply those strict legalistic rules to for example stealing nuclear weapons from a madman, allowing an abortion for rape. Fletcher based situation ethics on the teaching of love your neighbour because he saw it as a middle way between antinomianism and legalism. Remember the New York taxi driver 'sometimes you've got to put your principles to one side and do the most loving thing'. Also remember Jesus practiced situation ethics when love was more important?(so he loved his neighbour over legalistic rules) Remember the words of St Paul 'if I have faith that can move mountains but I do not have love then I am nothing' - you could of course come back with another ethical theory such Kant’s deontology who thought ethics shouldn't be flexible so to him and to those who support NML they would say legalism trumps love your neighbour. Even the Pope said in terms of the zika virus that abortion shouldn't be allowed because it is not a doctrine of double effect. To allow an abortion would be loving your neighbourThe extent to which God’s behaviour towards humans is the basis for Christian moralityChristians often base their morality on what on what they know of God and his behaviour towards human beings.In the OT The famous passage in Exodus 34:6 – 7 shows God revealing himself to Moses and in words attributed to God himself, describes his own character proclaiming he is:Merciful, gracious, slow to anger, abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, forgivingIn the NT God’s steadfast love and faithfulness was revealed fully in the life and death of Jesus. Since God has so loved human beings, human beings must love God. John insists that it is impossible to love God without also loving other people. Those who say that they love God and hate their brothers and sisters, are liars. If they do not love their brothers or sisters, whom they have seen, how can they love God whom they have not seen. The appropriate way to respond to God’s love is to obey the commandments. The commandments however include not only those revealed to Moses in Exodus but also the way in which Jesus interpreted them. Think about how Jesus showed that agape was the most important thing to do and therefore it could be argued that Jesus is the exemplary model we should look at. As Jesus was fully God then the actions Jesus performed must be the basis for Christian morality. He forgave others, welcomed sinners, saved the woman who committed adultery and loved his enemies But is it always easy to follow Jesus’ example. He did after all challenge his followers to take up their cross and live an ascetic lifestyle.(Link to 3A Wealth and 3F Poverty)Theme 3. Significant social and historical development in religious thought3A Social - attitudes towards wealthKey IdeaThere isn’t just one Biblical approach to wealth. Instead the Bible displays a range of attitudes and ideas including (1) teachings on the dangers of wealth for one’s soul and relationship with God. (2) the concept of stewardship which includes the notions of the goodness of the material world and the assumption of private ownership. (3) the ascetic ideal of disciplining oneself to live faithfully for God. This discipline may involve fasting, voluntary poverty, prayer, celibacy and other forms of deprivation, and (4) the fact that God has blessed some heroes of the faith with health and wealth and as a result of these diverse ideas there are a range of Christian responses to wealth from voluntary poverty to the prosperity Gospel which teaches that Christians actually have the right to expect health and good wealth KEY BIBLE PASSGAES Mark 10:17-25 Rich man: give up money. Camel and needle Against wealth as spiritual barrier.Matthew 6:25:34 Do not worry, nature provides. Spiritual focus. Against anxiety about wealth.Luke 12:33-34 Treasure in heaven. Against a focus on money over spiritual1 Timothy 6:10 Root of all evil. Against loving money. Distraction from faith.The strongest argument against viewing wealth as a sign of God’s blessing is through the life and death of Jesus Christ. Jesus is God’s beloved son, someone who amplifies a close relationship with God, but Jesus had no wealth. He was born into a poor family and lived as a preacher relying on hospitality of others. He also died a violent death Constant message in the Bible:Wealth as a goal in itself is never viewed as a good thingJohn Stott observes that there are 3 responses that Christians can make to poverty:Become Poor Stay rich Be generous and contented Option 1: Become PoorThe Ascetic Ideal - Asceticism - discipline or training such as avoiding various indulgences for religious reasons. Remember from ethics that Pelagius was an ascetic Tip - Be sure to note the many different forms asceticism can take as well as the fact that more extreme forms appear to conflict with the way Jesus lived. Does the biblical teaching on the goodness of the material world conflict with strict asceticism? Background Asceticism comes from the Greek word askeo which means ‘exercise’ or ‘training’In Greek philosophy, it is referred to refraining from available pleasures in order to achieve a moral or intellectual goalThe word is only used once in the New Testament in Acts 24:16 where Paul refers to ‘striving’ to live in such a way that he has a clear conscience toward God and others. Yet, the idea of undertaking a special discipline or lifestyle is part of the Christian path permeates (spread throughout) the New Testament ‘’’Asceticism springs from the love of God and aims at overcoming all the obstacles to this love in the soul. It is thus not an end in itself but essentially a preparation for the life of union with God, since, in its positive aspect, it seeks to foster the interior tendencies that serve to develop the life of charity’’The Oxford dictionary of the Christian ChurchAccording to Tondeur when it comes to poverty an ascetic will think:Possessions are evil You work to cover a basic need Godly people are poor and ungodly people are rich You give because you mustYour spending is without gratitude Tip - Understand the ascetic ideal – Jesus in the desert. This shows that Jesus was characterised by severe self discipline and abstention from all forms of indulgence Also note the way in which John the Baptist looks and acts in comparison to others – he is living an ascetic lifestyleThe message from this– We must sacrifice/manifest some asceticism if we are going to be ChristianJesus said‘If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross and follow me’Mark 8:34What does it mean to deny oneself?For Jesus it involved:fasting (abstaining from food, drink and other activities for religious reasons)Devotion to prayer, turning away from possessions and living an itinerant lifestyle (constant travel, relying upon the support and hospitality of others)It also seems to have entailed abstaining from sexual relationships though this was not commanded. Jesus does however refer to this in Matthew 19:12 and Paul discusses the appropriateness of celibate life in light of God’s return in 1 Corinthians 7. However … At the same time the Gospels show Jesus as less ascetic than John the Baptist and enjoying hospitality. Jesus quoted gossip about himself (Luke 7:34) to the effect that he was a drunkard and a glutton in comparison with John‘the son of man has come eating and drinking and you say ‘’look a glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and sinners’’ Luke 7:33 – 34Asceticism in the history of the church Ascetic practices became widespread amongst early Christians, with some renouncing marriage, home, property and turning to extreme forms of fasting and self-deprivation. The theologian and spiritual writer Origen (185 – 254), dedicated himself to an ascetic lifestyle of voluntary poverty, fasting and vigils so that his soul could be purified from passion in order to secure true knowledge of God in this life.The Desert Fathers – Early Christian hermits who lived an aesthetic life in the Egyptian desertThe Desert fathers renounced an increasingly worldly church to focus on a simple lifestyle of prayer and devotion in remote locations. They viewed Jesus’ 40 days in the wilderness and the lifestyle of John the Baptist as examples to follow. the middle ages, monasteries attempted, in different ways, to build Christian character through a disciplined life. Some Christians focused on the differing of Christ and more violent firms of asceticism became a part of the Christian tradition – the wearing of hair shirts and chains as well as self flagellation (striking oneself with a whip). Other Christians developed spiritual disciplines such as prayer, penitence, reading spiritual works, pilgrimages and reflecting on the meaning of the sacraments. The rise of humanism and Protestantism brought questions about the value of asceticism, through fasting, prayer and concerns about ‘worldly pleasures’ have also been a part of protestant piety (dutiful and devout reverence to God). Asceticism can therefore refer to different practices depending on the type and branch of Christianity to which one is referring Asceticism raises the question of the attitude a Christian is to take towards the world. This might sound like a strange question in light of our cultural focus on the pursuit of happiness and increasing material prosperity. Yet, Christians view the world as in some way separated from God; therefore, care needs to be taken as to how to rightly participate in this world.On the one hand, Hebrew religion is known for embracing the world, celebrating the bounty of nature, enjoying festivals and even requiring its religious leaders to be married. At the other extreme, movements such as Manicheism (a religious movement that viewed the world as a conflict between good and evil, with the souls release found in asceticism) and Montanism (an early Christian movement which believed in the immanent end of the world, asceticism and continuing revelation of God in prophecy) considered the world to be evil and advocated extreme forms of discipline. Through these movements were judged to be heretical, most churches believe that some training and disciple is essential to live a God oriented life, through there is disagreement as to which types of discipline and how much. Option 2: ‘To stay rich’This is a characteristic of ‘prosperity teaching’, the claim that those who truly believe will receive financial blessings as a sign of God’s favour.This is a feature of the preaching of some well known evangelists, who overlook the biblical view that true riches go way beyond material possessions The Prosperity GospelThe prosperity gospel (also known as the “health and wealth gospel” or by its most popular brand, the “Word of Faith” movement) is a perversion of the gospel of Jesus that claims that God rewards increases in faith with increases in health and/or wealth. The prosperity Gospel is the teaching that Christians have the right to express wealth and good health. They can achieve this by making a positive confession of faith as well as ‘sowing seeds’ through the payment of tithes and offerings to religious causes. This approach became popular through prominent television of evangelists at the end of the 20th century and now has a following among some in traditional protestant churches, as well as many Pentecostal denominations and charismatic churches. It is also known as the ‘world faith’ movement, because of the teaching that it is not good enough to merely believe what they Bible says about wellbeing; one must proclaim or confess out loud that one has health and wealth's. For example, if one is ill or disabled, one must say out loud that the healing has occurred, even though the symptoms may be still present. This positive confession demonstrates faith and initiates God’s healing power. Those who preach this message take their starting point in a variety of biblical passages which emphasise the importance of faith, such as ‘you do not have because you do not ask’ (James 4:3) and ‘if you have faith the size of a mustard seed, you will say to this mountain ‘’move from here to there’’ and it will move and nothing will be impossible for you’ (Matthew 17:20). The theme of faith is combined with the view that the covenant that God made with Israel included a promise of material blessingDoes God want us to be wealthy?The patriarchs in the Hebrew scriptures did experience, at times, enormous wealth. In addition to this, God’s instructions for the tabernacle include costly materials. There are powerful images of the people of God inheriting the land that is ‘flowing with milk and honey’. These insights seem to portray a God who is not an ascetic, nor prescribing an ascetic ideal. Of course, there are many more insights on wealth in the Hebrew Bible that these, such as the hypocrisy of participating in worship whilst ignoring the needs of the hungry, the fatherless, the widow and other suffering people. The prosperity Gospel is popular in economically deprived places, offering Christians a sense of hope for upward mobility. It is popular, too, in more affluent areas as can be seen through the success of the book The Prayer of Jabez which centres on a prayer for material blessing (1 Chronicles 4:10). This book topped the New York Times Best seller list soon after its publication Is wealth a sign of Gods blessing?YesnoSome Christians are very clear that having an abundance of material possessions is a sign of being blessed by God and is also a sign of what Christians should expect to have in their livesWhat evidence could you use to back this up? The prosperity Gospel and the idea that if one is walking with the faith and giving generously to religious causes then God will give wealth‘You do not have because you do not ask’ (James 4:3) – This is a message that can be found in many charismatic and Pentecostal churches ‘if you have faith the size of a mustard seed, you will say to this mountain ‘’move from here to there’’ and it will move and nothing will be impossible for you’ (Matthew 17:20). The theme of faith is combined with the view that the covenant that God made with Israel included a promise of material blessing – If they were obedient then God would make them ‘abound in prosperity’ Those who responded to God’s call in faith were often blessed with wealth – Abraham had large flocks and wealth in silver and goldGod wanted the finest materials to be used for the tabernacle King Solomon build so much wealth that he built an ornate temple that became known through Jewish history The Biblical facts do not suggest that God was ascetic but wants people to enjoy the material worldThe Hebrew scriptures indicates that not everyone who walked in faith was consistently given health and wealth – Craig Blomburg notes that this blessing is never promised to individual Israelites but is a promise made to the nation of Israel. We actually find the opposite situation for some individuals in the Old Testament, Job for example, had faith in God but suffered incredible pain and the loss of all his wealth despite this fact. – although some come back with the argument that God works in mysterious waysBlomburg also asks if it is right to apply a promise made to a nation under the conditions of an old covenant to other nations, certainly we must not assume that Christians are under the same covenant as Jews since Jesus announced a ‘new covenant’In the New Testament there is no promise of health and wealth in return for faith and obedience. In fact, there is the principle that faith and ones spiritual life can be strengthened through suffering which is quite the opposite of the prosperity Gospel teaching The book of James which says ‘you do not have because you do not ask’ follows by saying that we do not know what to ask for and are often taken from spiritual goals by wanting pleasure The passage about faith in Matthew is actually about healing someone with a physical illness not about wealth and when St Paul speaks about God blessing those who give, he does not define what those blessings will be. They could be spiritual blessings The strongest argument against viewing wealth as a sign of God’s blessing is through the life and death of Jesus Christ. Jesus is God’s beloved son, someone who emplifies a close relationship with God, but Jesus had no wealth. He was born into a poor family and lived as a preacher relying on hospitality of others. Option 3 – Be generous and contentedStewardshipStott argued that it is the third option of ‘becoming generous and contented’ that is the most appropriate for Christian response to poverty. It is closely associated with ‘living simply’ a lifestyle which concentrates on need rather than want, and on seeing and responding to the needs of othersTondeur links this with stewardship – The careful and responsible use of God given resources Stewardship means administration or management; it comes from the role of a steward in ancient times, one who managed various aspects of a house. The theological concept of stewardship views humans as having the God – given position of managing all their resources well. According to Tondeur when it comes to stewardship:Possessions are a responsibility You work to serve Christ Godly people are faithful and ungodly people are faithless You give because you love God Your spending is prayerful and responsibleBiblical passages to support thisGenesis 1: 26 - 29‘’Then God said, "Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground." 27So God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. 28God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground."Genesis 2:15 ‘’The LORD God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it’PSLAM 8‘’Lord, our Lord,????how majestic is your name in all the earth!You have set your glory????in the heavens.2?Through the praise of children and infants????you have established a stronghold against your enemies,????to silence the foe and the avenger.3?When I consider your heavens,????the work of your fingers,the moon and the stars,????which you have set in place,4?what is mankind that you are mindful of them,????human beings that you care for them?[c]5?You have made them[d] a little lower than the angels[e]????and crowned them[f] with glory and honor.6?You made them rulers over the works of your hands;????you put everything under their[g] feet:7?all flocks and herds,????and the animals of the wild,8?the birds in the sky,????and the fish in the sea,????all that swim the paths of the seas.9?Lord, our Lord,????how majestic is your name in all the earth!’’KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER Wealth as a goal in itself is never viewed as a good thingThe opposite to stewardship is greed and covetousness, each of which are constantly condemned in the Old and New Testaments. This is condemned in Psalm 10 The Hebrew prophets are remembered for their searing rebukes over economic sins even to the point of declaring that participating in religious activities such as sacrifices and festivals is meaningless if one is involved in oppressing the poor (see Isaiah 1:10 – 20 and Amos 5:11 – 27)The unbridled quest for wealth is never approved; in fact, even kings are told that there are limits to their wealth ‘The king, moreover, must not acquire great numbers of horses for himself or make the people return to Egypt to get more of them, for the Lord has told you, “You are not to go back that way again.” He must not take many wives, or his heart will be led astray. He must not accumulate large amounts of silver and gold’ Deuteronomy 17: 16 - 17Those who see theory role in life as stewards don’t necessarily embrace a communist view of Christian community such as the monastic ideal or voluntary poverty, instead they view their role as managing wisely the resources that God has given to them This was reflected in the parables of Jesus ‘Make all you can, save all you can, give all you can’ John Wesley MESSAGE: If you want to achieve a goal you have to give up some pleasure3B Social - migration and Christianity in the UKBackgroundOpen any newspaper or news site and you are likely to see a story that involves immigration. The United Nations has declared that the number of people currently displayed by conflict is higher than ever recorded. Here in the UK we are aware of the needs of many from Syria. Afghanistan, Iraq, Kosovo and other countries who are seeking refuge and asylum. The desperate efforts to reach to reach a safer land involve fatalities on a weekly basis.Forced migration due to humanitarian crisis, however, is only one aspect of immigration. There are many who come to Great Britain from the European Union, commonwealth countries and elsewhere seeking economic opportunists. Others arrive from countries which are not as war but which they find oppressive for a variety of reasons from religious discrimination to a lack of educational opportunity However, immigration is a complex phenomenon which can benefit a host country, provide opportunities and enrich a population as well raise fears about security, economic stability and social cohesion. It appears that news stories about immigration will continue to be on the front page for some time to come Christianity: A story of migration Christians involved in welcoming migrants to their country and their churches believe that there are many biblical passages to support their workThe story of Israel's faith begins with the call to Abraham and Sarah to leave their land and make a journey to Canaan Later, Jewish tribes suffered an oppressive regime in Egypt and then wandered for decades without a home. It was during this time that the Bible said they received a command to treat those from other places with equality The alien who resides with you shall be to you as the citizen among you; you shall love the alien as yourself, for you were aliens in the land of Egypt’ Leviticus 19:34 The Gospels relate that Mary and Joseph were uprooted from their community three times: from Nazareth to Bethlehem, from Bethlehem to Egypt and Egypt to GalileeJesus told the Parable of the Good Samaritan which showed a Samaritan saving a Jews life. Remember Samaritans and Jews despised each other The Bible passages inform the conviction of many Christians as they offer humanitarian aid to refugees and extend a welcome to those migrants who are looking for a church home no matter what culture they are from The importance of Christian outreach to migrants is reflected for example by the fact that the Catholic church celebrates, annually ‘The World Day of Migrants and Refugees’Christianity: The challenges of migration to the UK Background Migration in the UK is having an impactLanguage barriers challenge pastoral care, teaching and worship Many churches are not equipped for the challenges e.g. Children turning up to their confirmation classes without any knowledge of the language Established churches are trying to deal with this. Remember however the RC Church celebrates world day for migrants and refugees The Facts Christianity is the religion with the largest representation amongst immigrants to the UK who have a religious affiliation. This means that tens of thousands of ‘new Christians’ are now joining churches each year; some of these will attend churches that have long been in Britain and that are also in their country of origin – such as Anglican, Catholic or Methodist churches. Others will join new denominations or independent churches with a significant immigrant population. This large influx welcome and integrate newcomers into their communities Some Christians who are new to Britain will be familiar with many aspects of worship and church life in their new church; however, this does not mean that it will be easy to integrate into the worshipping community. For example, the Catholic church in Britain has had an influx of believers from EU counties such as Poland and Lithuania. This has raised several cultural issues on which the church actively seeks to help congregations. The Problems they face and how they may combat them:A large influx of worshippers who may just be learning English can make pastoral care a challenge. How can a priest of vicar respond to a situation of personal crisis when there is a language barrier? This has led in some places to the appointment of an immigrant chaplain who can take responsibility for a migrant community within a church The language barriers can also hinder the teaching of the catechism, confirmation classes and preparation for the sacraments. Older migrants or others with relevant language skills are seen as an invaluable church resource in this situation; leaflets in the language of the migrant population can be used in worship services to increase understanding There can be significant differences in worship styles – even when and immigrant is attending the same denomination in Britain as their country of origin. Churches attempt to respect diversity and are encouraged t incorporate different forms of worship The overall challenge is to maintain both a sense of community cohesion as well as an openness to the traditions and preferences of those who are new to the worshipping communityPENTECOSTALISM Reversed church decline in some areasUp to ? a million Pentecostal in Southern Hemisphere For black majority churches – Pentecostal landscape really shifted The largest influx of Christians in Britain has come from the Caribbean and West African countries where Pentecostal Christianity is pervasive. This has led to thousands of new churches in Britain, the reversal of overall church decline in some regions and even to active outreach from migrant communities to what is viewed as secular atheist Britain What is Pentecostalism?It is a movement in Christianity that emphasises the experience of the worshipperIt makes constant reference to the powerful experiences of the early church in Acts Chapter 2, when it is reported that the Spirit of God came upon the followers of Jesus, enabling them to speak in other languages and perform acts of healing Pentecostal worship services do not follow a written liturgy and can have many of these components: exuberant singing, dancing, clapping, spontaneous prayer, sermons punctuated by impromptu response (‘YES!’, ‘AMEN!!’), faith healing and speaking in tongues ‘Pentecostalism is revolutionary because it offers alternatives to ‘literary’ theology and defrost the ‘frozen thinking’ within literary forms of worship and committee debate. It gives the same chance to all, including the ‘oral’ people’W. Hollenweger Why aren’t more congregations integrated?THERE MAY BE SEVEREAL REASONS WHY CHURCHES HAVE NOR ASSIMILATED MORE FOREIGN BORN WORHIPPERS SUCH AS:Worship differencesThere is clear difference sin worship between the Pentecostal style and the liturgical style of many traditional churches. However, this need not lead to a necessary lack of assimilation since 1. There are many churches from long standing denominations that have embraced a Pentecostal style of worship ( charismatic churches) – link to theme 4Social support Migrant groups have their own needs, related to the pressures of establishing a new home, a source of income and a social network. Churches that have a significant proportion of membership from migrant backgrounds can offer understanding and support for these challenges. In fact, many black and ethnic minority churches offer counselling on legal aspects of the immigration process and classes on career development, educational issues and financial managementThe uneven spread of immigration The office of National statistics reports that nearly 75% of all migrants go to London and an additional 10% to the south west. This may reflect the fact that there are strong social and economic reasons for immigrants to settle in cities. This means that there are no opportunities for some churches to assimilate those from different cultures The Reverse Mission Movement to the UKThe UK has had a long history of sending missionaries to spread the Christian message throughout the worldAs a result one can find Anglican and Methodist churches in almost every place that was once part of the British Empire, from India to the far North of CanadaJournalist, church leaders and scholars have noticed a recent phenomenon: missionaries are coming to the UK from some of these countries The countries that once sent missionaries become themselves the target of missionary work from the countries they once evangelised note of the reasons that these missionaries give for wanting to spread their faith in the UKWhat activities could be labelled reverse mission?Short term visits of a group of non-British Christians, perhaps sponsored by a host church in the UK that comes to share music, drama, dance etc in a public space with the intention of spreading their faithChurch bodies or workers who come the UK with the intention to evangelise and bring about conversions to Christianity from British citizensChurches or theological colleges intentionally appointing a leader from a migrant background as a pastor, priest, tutor or church leader as part of a plan to evangeliseDoes Christianity in the UK need the support of reverse missionaries?Many scholars of religion and sociology have supported the view of the secularisation thesis’ the view that modern societies such as Britain are becoming secular in at least 3 ways 1. A decline in church attendance 2. A decreasing role for the church in public life 3. A loss of personal faith and Christian beliefsThere was a decline in the census of those who cited ‘no religion’ from 15% in 2001 to 25% in 2011 – the number is even higher in some surveys when the question was worded differently There is also evidence that more people believe in life after death than believe in Christianity Church of England reported a 20% closure in churches in a year with many buildings being turned into apartments, bars or sold HoweverJust because there is a decline in church attendance doesn’t mean there is a decline in spirituality for example 47% of 18 – 34 year olds said they were religious but 67% said they prayed regularly There has been a rise in the number of evangelical churches The London Diocese of the Church of England has grown by 70% since 1990You can make many links to topics in theme 3 and 4 for this3C Social – feminist theology and the changing roles of men and womenKey termsAndrocentric – centred on men/malenessAndrogynous – combining/transcending male & femaleMisogynistic – anti-women/femalenessPatriarchy – a society where men have the powerContextThe 20th Century saw feminist movements start to make an impact in theology. Traditional views of God, Jesus, the Church and the status and role of women were challenged. Rosemary Radford Ruether Key claim - Christianity is traditionally androcentric but can be reformed Problems of Christianity – Christianity is traditionally androcentric Traditional views of men/women influenced by; 1) Genesis story of Adam and Eve – Eve was created as a ‘helpmate’ and was the temptress who led to the fall of mankind. 2) Aristotle’s view of women as ‘misbegotten males’ 3) Mankind was created by the Father and saved by the Son – implies men = higher ? This leads to idolatry – the idolisation and worship of ‘maleness’. ? This is her idea of ‘sexism as sin’ ? Traditional role models in Christianity for women are Eve (subservient, and fallen) and Mary (virginal and pure) Neither are empowering for women ? Ruether suggests that the maleness of Christ is irrelevant to issues of salvation – Jesus is in this sense gender-neutral. ? Jesus should be seen as the sophia, the Wisdom of God (gender-neutral) rather than the high priest of God (male). ? Male/female roles are a product of socialisation – in reality, both men and women are androgynous Failed attempts at reformShe notes there have been 3 movements which have attempted to liberate women from sexism, but each has failed;1) Romanticism – tried to encourage more ‘feminine’ thinking and qualities. But this traps women in sexist Romantic stereotypes2) Liberalism – looked to move women into traditionally male spaces (professionally and politically) But this turned out to be classist – the upper and middle classes benefitted but working class women did not3) Marxism – looked to treat men and women equally. But women still ended up subservientChristianity must be reformed ? We must transform a church disfigured by patriarchal assumptions ? Offers a new vision for Christianity, rooted in; 1. Marginalised forms of Christianity which centred more on the power of the female (Gnosticism and Montanism) 2. The prophetic tradition – where the prophets called out traditional power structures and spoke out for the vulnerable and oppressed ? She sees both of these as more authentic to the teachings of Jesus. ? We need a ‘feminist hermeneutic’ - anything in the Bible, or Church practice, that doesn’t proclaim and affirm the full humanity of both men and women is invalid. ? Argues for female ordination – women must be seen as leaders in Christianity. ? Promotes the setting up of base communities (as found in Liberation Theology), focused on equality – equal roles and no hierarchy Mary Daly Key claim - Christianity is too androcentric & misogynistic to be reformed View on gender in society ? Society still has a ‘sexual caste system’ – fixed ideas of nature and potential of men and women. Women are second class citizens ? ‘Feminine’ characteristics are assigned by patriarchy, and help to sustain the patriarchy ? Women should strive for an androgynous form of life, not ‘feminine’ values Problems of Christianity –Church is ‘irredeemably patriarchal’? Male leadership, male images of God, male saviour – all of this excludes women? ‘If God is male, then the male is God’ – patriarchy makes a God out of man, and places him above woman? Women are damaged by membership of the church, always seen as subservient, and not fully human? Means that women cannot flourish while they stay in the churchWrong view of God - God is treated as a noun (an object/thing) not a verb (a dynamic force)? If we see God as an object, then woman is also an object, and is always below Him? For Daly - ‘God’ is a verb, not a noun? This objectification is what leads to the ‘unholy trinity’ – rape, murder, genocide.? These are the ‘original sin’ – caused by objectification? Women are unfairly blamed for original sin when it is a product of the patriarchy of the church? Seeing God as a noun, leads to Christolatry (worship of Jesus) and Bibliolatry (worship of the scripture) both are objects of worship? The view of Mcfague, that we need to change the language used of God does not solve this issue. We don’t need new nouns for God, we need a new way of conceptualisingChristianity must be abandoned ? Daly asks us to abandon the Bible and exit the church – the Bible is too gender biased to be useful and the Church too patriarchal for redemption. ? Women need to form their own communities of sisterhood, rooted in sisterly support and with no hierarchies or dogmas ? Influenced by pagan goddess traditions ? This sisterhood cannot be found in the church ? Women need to become ‘Post-Christian’ and anti-church Should women be priests? Allowed by – Protestant churches including the Church of England. ? Bible teachings - Galatians 3:28 says 'In Christ there is ... no male or female.'; Romans 16 'I commend to you our sister Phoebe, a deacon of the church’; Genesis 1 male and female made at the same time ? A woman can carry out all of the roles of a priest - the priest only represents Jesus - they are not supposed to be identical to him ? Ruether- Jesus' maleness was accidental rather than essential to his nature. ? 1 Corinthians 14 and 1 Timothy texts were written in response to specific circumstances; just a product of their patriarchal time ? Jesus was restricted by the age he lived in. If he had chosen women as disciples then he would have been unlikely to have been listened to ? Jesus did have close female followers. E.g. Certain women are mentioned repeatedly and women are crucial to the resurrection accounts Not allowed by – Catholic and Orthodox churches ? Biblical teachings - 1 Corinthians 14 says that women should remain silent in church, 1 Timothy women are told that they must learn in silence and full submission and may not have authority over a man. ? In a communion service the priest represents Jesus and as Jesus was male only a man can represent Jesus adequately. ? Leadership is fitting for a man, but not for a woman as man was created first. ? Jesus had only male disciples - implies he did not think women would be suited ? Traditionalists would usually stress that women are equally valuable to men but that they are better suited to some roles than others Recent Roman Catholic statement: Ordinatio Sacerdotalis ? The priesthood has always been just for men. ? Women have a different - but equally important - role (motherhood). Are men and women equal in Christianity? ? Bible teachings - Galatians 3:28 says 'In Christ there is ... no male or female.'; Genesis 1 male and female made at the same time ? Female leaders in early Church and now in many Protestant churches. Church of England now also has women bishops ? Ruether – Jesus is in the prophetic tradition and came to save the oppressed, including women ? Jesus was radically pro-women, particularly the picture in the gospel of Luke (link to redaction criticism) ? Many churches are against female ordination (see evidence above) ? Women to obey men within marriage, husband ‘the head’ of wife (Ephesians) ? Traditionalists argue that men and women are ‘equal but different’ – women are expected to take on the role of mother and wife ? Negative influence of Genesis story of Adam and Eve – Eve was created as a ‘helpmate’ and was the temptress who led to the fall of mankind. ? Aristotle’s view of women as ‘misbegotten males’ influences Aquinas and through him the church Have feminist theologians made an impact on belief and practice in Christianity? ? Since the 1970s many Protestant churches have ordained women ? In 2014 Pope Francis said that he would consider women as deacons (one of 3 leadership roles in the church) ? Church of Sweden recently announced it was moving to gender-neutral language for God ? Women’s movements exist within the Catholic and Orthodox churches ? Some churches have feminist discussion groups, support women’s refuges and/or other feminist causes as part of commitment to bringing social justice ? See arguments above that women are still not equal ? Most Christians still belong to denominations that don’t ordain women ? Vatican II promised equality in the Catholic church, but this hasn’t worked for women ? FemThe has had little or no impact on conservative and evangelical churches – no female leadership and a literalist approach to scripture (particularly around leadership and marriage roles) ? Male language and imagery still dominant in most churches 3D Historical – challenges from secularisationChurch of EnglandThe ‘established’ state church in EnglandFaith schoolA school associated with a particular religious tradition. In England and Wales known as ‘schools with a religious character’SecularisationThe process of society moving away from religion.Separating religion and state functions, so that religious bodies have no privileged influence over the state (e.g. in matters of law, politics etc)A decline in individual/private religious belief and practiceSecularismThe belief that secularisation is good for societyPrivatisation The movement from public to private expression of religion. The idea that religion is something to keep to oneselfSecularism Concepts G. Holyoake: ‘Secularism is not an argument against Christianity; it is one independent of it.’It encourages free thought and allows you to keep an open mind.Is Britain a Christian country?England & Scotland have established Churches The Queen is both head of state and also supreme governor of the Church of England.26 bishops sit in the House of LordsAbout 1/3 of schools in England have a Christian character. E.g. In 2015 there were 15,000 Christian primary schools and 3000 secondariesBBC has a duty to broadcast religious programming e.g. Songs of Praise and Thought for the Day (non-religious voices are excluded)Church buildings are still prominent in nearly every city, town and villageMost funerals still happen in religious buildings“The most significant events in people's lives…tend to happen in a church,” - ReesIn the 2011 census 59% of residents of England and Wales described themselves as Christian when asked "What is your religion?" ‘Cultural Christianity’ still impacts many e.g.- Richard Dawkins has described himself as a "cultural Christian" who liked "singing carols along with everybody else". According to YouGov 56% of Britons say that 'Britain IS a Christian country' compared to a third (33%) who say that it isn’tMajor holidays stem from the Christian religion such as Christmas and EasterNational anthem has religious connotations - “God save the queen”Christian leaders play a visible role in public lifeBritish Social Attitudes survey 2013 showed that 50.6% said they had no religion, compared to 41.7% ChristianChurch attendance figures are dropping – Church of England data shows it has halved since 1968 (from 1.6m each Sunday to 800,000)Churches have been closed and converted into commercial spaces, homes, temples and mosquesWoodhead’s research shows that most parents don’t choose faith schools for reasons of ethical values (23%) or exposure to faith (5%) but for academic standards (77%) and location (58%)Laws relating to abortion, same-sex marriage, the teaching of homosexuality and adoption have changed in spite of vocal opposition from religious groups.British social attitudes survey 2013 shows that for every convert made by the Church of England, they lose 12 membersThere are growing numbers of humanist funerals and Humanists UK are campaigning for equal rights for Humanist marriages60% of marriages in the UK are now civil ceremonies, not religiousAlthough in the 2011 census 59% described themselves as Christian this was down from 72% in 2001.In a 2006 Ipsos MORI poll, "religious groups and leaders" topped the list of domestic groups that people said had too much influence over politiciansleft1727200ExamplesNotesPrayer2015 Cinema ban for Church ad promoting prayer. Digital Cinema Media policy forbids promoting religionA Christian nurse (Caroline Petrie) was suspended from her job and faced the sack for offering to pray for an elderly patient's recovery from illness. Accused of failing to demonstrate a "personal and professional commitment to equality and diversity". Equality and Human Rights Commission clarified that the ad was not against any laws. The patient said they were uncomfortable being prayed for, and asked Petrie to stop promoting her religion. Petrie denied she had done this. She was later reinstatedWearing religious symbolsBritish Airways worker Nadia Eweida was suspended for not covering up her crucifix at work Nurse, Shirley Chaplin, was told not to wear a crucifix at work as it might be unsafe and/or spread disease Both cases were taken to the European Court of Human Rights as examples of religious discrimination.Eweida won her case, Chaplin lost UK government argued that wearing a cross was not a religious requirement, unlike a turban or hijab (which are allowed by law)ECHR supported the right to wear a crucifix where there was no evidence of harm to others. Same-sex partnerships and marriageGary McFarlane - marriage counsellor for Relate - dismissed for saying he might object to giving advice to gay couplesLilian Ladele - marriage registrar in Islington - disciplined after refusing to conduct civil partnershipsHazelmary and Peter Bull owned a B&B - refused to let a gay couple share a roomAshers Bakery in N. Ireland refused to make a cake with a slogan supporting gay marriageMcFarlane and Ladele lost their cases at the ECHR who ruled their actions were discriminatory and against equal rights legislationThe Bulls and Ashers were found to have acted unlawfully and were made to pay damages to those they discriminated against01123955826760-635Parents should have the right to educate their children according to their religionThe proportion of state funded faith schools has increased gradually over time from 35% of primaries and 16% of secondaries in January 2000Faith schools tend to be among the best performing UK state schools in academic termsFaith schools perform better on average than non-faith schools. For instance in 2016 the average Attainment 8 score in mainstream state-funded faith schools was 52.2 compared to 50.5 at non-faith schoolsFaith schools allow diversity and freedom of choice in educationFaith schools must deliver the same curriculum as non-faith schools, with the exception of RE which can be delivered in line with the school’s religious traditionThe values & ethos of religious schools encourage inclusivity, tolerance , love & justiceHumanists UK and the National Secular Society argue that faith schools encourage a divided, rather than an inclusive societyFaith schools create a segregated futureFaith schools might ignore the aims of inclusive Religious Education - some evidence that some faith schools do not give good coverage of other religions and non-religious worldviewsSome faith schools have taught creationism and intelligent design as scientific theories – against the National curriculumPSHE in faith schools can be seen as not inclusive if it reflects traditional attitudes towards issues of sexuality, choice and genderWoodhead’s research shows that most parents don’t choose faith schools for reasons of ethical values (23%) or exposure to faith (5%) but for academic standards (77%) and location (58%)Although church attendance is down, there seems to be an upsurge in commitment. Fewer people attend, but they do so with more convictionChurch still has a visible role in fighting for social justice – e.g. St Paul’s allied with the Occupy movement, Archbishop of Canterbury spoke out against government austerity policySeveral examples of Christianity as progressive and modern – e.g. Street Pastors movement, 20,000 volunteers who are active in cities on Friday and Saturday eveningsArweck and Beckford – religion continues to be popular in many different forms e.g. Growth of the Charismatic movement in the UK, and immigration with a strong Christian trend means that new forms of Christianity are thriving‘Nones’ often include those who believe in God, but not in organised religion (58% see themselves as religious or spiritual, according to Woodhead)Church has attempted to promote itself publicly – e.g. cinema ad case. Many people spoke in their favour, including David CameronLegal challenges through the Christian Legal Centre have supported Christians who have claimed discrimination Many churches promote themselves publicly as respectful of religious liberty and of reasonable restrictions on it. Christian churches are increasingly working positively with those of different faiths, or no faith. E.g. Love your neighbour campaign in Birmingham. Devised by a Humanist, supported and financed by the Church of England Woodhead ‘Britain has not become a secular country’These responses are the ‘last gasps’ of a dying religionChurch continues to decline (see evidence above)Significant increase of ‘nones’ – people who do not belong to any religionGrowth in numbers of visitors to cathedrals could be down to tourists, and pilgrims from other countries rather than UK ChristiansHumanists UK say that many religious social programs are discriminatory or attempts to evangeliseHumanists UK have raised concerns about the growth of faith schools and have a full-time campaigner against them. Accord UK are a campaigning body which includes people of faith who campaign against faith schooling and for a secularist societyThe social needs that used to met by the church are now being met elsewhere – e.g. humanist weddings, social apps that allow people to meetMore people are choosing to get married and buried away from the churchWoodhead – ‘Britain emerges as religious and secular’Bruce ‘with around 80% of the population showing no interest in any form of religion, it seems entirely sensible to describe the UK as a largely secular country’3E Historical - challenges from scienceRichard Dawkins BackgroundRichard Dawkins sees religion as a harmful force in modern society. He believes that religious claims, when they are treated like any other claim, are found not only to be false but also lead to violence. Dawkins has many reasons for this view; one of these has to do with the Christian ‘God of the gaps’ approach which uses God as an explanation when we reach the limits of our own knowledge. Dawkins shows how this thinking is faulty in terms of Christian attempts (such as that of William Paley) to show God, rather than chaos, is responsible for the intricate design we see in the world. Dawkins believes that we simply don’t need to choose between chaos and God; natural selection explains exactly why there is design in the world. Natural Selection has the advantage of not having to explain intricate design by posting an even more intricate and complex being (God) as the course The relationship between religion and science and the Boeing 747 exampleOne of the most interesting facts about life is the incredible complexity of the natural world. Dawkins says that when faced with something that is incredibly complex, humans have tended to turn to God for an answer – God created these. For the idea that an eye or a wing could have somehow come about by chance is impossibleWilliam Paley attempted to justify this kind of religious answer – teleological argument (watch theory and thinking there is a designer God) But Dawkins refers to a contemporary example of this religious argument: to consider that a tornado could blow through a scrapyard and somehow randomly throw together a fully functioning Boeing 747 aircraft would be absurd according to this way of arguing Saying that God designed complex things is no answer at all because God would have to be at least as complex as the thing ‘he’ designed. Religious believers explain a highly improbable thing in terms of a more highly improbable thing. This means that God is the ‘ultimate Boeing 747’ It does no good insisting, as some theologians do, that God is simple because a God who could know everything that was happening, listens to everyone's prayers, sustains the world and designs biological complex forms of life would have to be very complicated. To say that God designed the world just begs the question – who designed God? Natural Selection is the alternative that we must embrace The problems with the ‘God hypothesis’ of design in the natural worldWe are not faced between chance and God. Natural selection explains how there can be the appearance of design and complex, seemingly improbable things from small and relatively simple causes. Natural selection is the process whereby an organism that is better adapted to the environment tends to survive and produce offspring. Those traits that helped the organism survive are passed down to the next generations so that over a long period of time there are huge and complex developments. Natural Selection explains our complex world. It does explain why there is life in the universe and how life came onto the planet. Instead of turning to a God hypothesis (we don’t understand so it must be God’s doing), natural selection should inspire us to find an explanation ‘get better science’ This is linked to the Anthropic Principle in Philosophy - Anthropic means “relating to human beings or their existence.” Principle means “law.” The Anthropic Principle is the Law of Human Existence. It is well known that our existence in this universe depends on numerous cosmological constants and parameters whose numerical values must fall within a very narrow range of values. If even a single variable were off, even slightly, we would not exist. The extreme improbability that so many variables would align so auspiciously in our favour merely by chance has led some scientists and philosophers to propose instead that it was God who providentially engineered the universe to suit our specific needs. This is the Anthropic Principle: that the universe appears to have been fine-tuned for our existence.According to Dawkins, religion does not offer any reasonable answers to questions about life because it has been flawed from its very beginning. His theory is that religion (defined as belief in God) originated as a misfiring in the brain of an otherwise useful activity – He uses the example of a moths navigation system – its guided towards warmth and light. However it can also guide to death in a flame This creates a God of gaps argument Dawkins questions the God hypothesis, the idea that God can be involved to explain a gap in our knowledge. He notes that theologians have tried to explain the gaps by involving God‘Get better science’ One contemporary example he gives is of those who describe themselves as ‘intelligent design theorists’. - They point to complex features of biology which they think cannot be argued to be the process of Natural Selection. They look towards William Paley and the watch theory and find that the answer is God Dawkins shows how each of these proposals have failed - The problem with the God of Gaps argument is that as our knowledge decreases then God becomes increasingly Dawkins believes that Darwin’s evolution explains the complexity of the natural world whereas gap theologians pin their remaining hopes on God As we ‘get better science’ Dawkins believes God will disappear Dawkins believes science can fill the gap in the following ways:Through explanation – By understanding natural selection and scientific ideas that can explain the existence of life in the universe, we no longer need religion Through exhortation – Religion used to exhort us to live a moral life, however it is easy to prove that you can be good without God (Dawkins cites the hate mail he often receives from Christians here)Through consolation – One can find many examples of atheists who are not consoled by religion but by discovering new ways of thinking about the worldThrough inspiration – You do not need religion to be inspired. Gazing at the stars for example is an endless source of inspirationThe wall behind religion and scienceBecause religion provides only unreasonable and answers to our deepest questions and science only proceeds on evidence, Dawkins finds it hard to imagine that any real scientist can be a religious believer. He thinks that any scientists who speak positively about Christianity are not really Christians, either they are afraid of sharing their real beliefs or they confuse cultural values about beauty and goodnessThe McGrath’s BackgroundThe theologian Alistair McGrath and his wife Joanna Collicutt McGrath, a specialist neuropsychologist, couldn’t disagree with Dawkins more.They believe that he has been unscientific in his picture of religion as mistaken and violent.The McGraths note the number of eminent scientists who also have faith and how the influence of religion in the world has often (but not always) been positive. They also note that institutional atheism such as that found under Soviet/communist rule has been a source of violence. They actually agree with Dawkins that the ‘God of the Gaps’ approach to theology is misguided, but believe that most Christians view God not as an explanation for what they do not know, but as the ever present ground of their being Some of the McGrath’s arguments against Dawkins It is significant that so many thoughtful human beings become Christians in their adults years. This is not what we would expect if belief in God was like belief in Santa Claus or the Tooth Fairy. They note that the change of thinking of Antony Flew who wrote ‘There is a God: how the world’s most notorious atheist changed his mind’ when he was in his 80’s. In fact, one of the greatest weaknesses of atheism is the persistence of the belief in God, when there is supposedly no God in which to believe ‘Religion is not a brain virus’ If religion were really a ‘virus of the mind’ with a biological foundation, then one would expect that there would be some scientific evidence to back up his theory. The McGraths note that Dawkins provided no evidence. The idea that religion reflects a deficient psychology which makes faulty assumptions about the natural world and tends to irrational behaviour is yet another assertion presented by Dawkins. This is Polemic, an aggressive verbal or written attack and is more designed reassure atheists whose faith is faltering than to engage fairly or rigorously with religious believers There are limits in science - Evidence is lacking for many of Dawkins’ views in ‘The God delusion’. He has reinvented religious belief according to his own negative views In response to the God of Gaps argument, the McGrath's point out that this approach only represents a small portion of Christians and stems from the 18th and 19th centuries. The majority of theologians, according to the McGraths, have viewed the reality of God as intimately and actively involved in all of life. In fact, say the McGrath's, it is not the gaps in our knowledge that require an explanation but the notion that we live in an intelligible and explainable universe. Why do we take the idea that we live in such a universe for granted? They point to the Philosopher Richard Swinburne who argues that the best explanation for the fact of the intelligibility of the universe is that it has been created by an intelligent being A surprise and disappointment that a fine scientist such as Dawkins mischaracterises religion as evil and violent and the Mcgrath’s believe that Dawkins must care more for the eradication of religion than he does about truth Dawkins ignores several positive key factors: The prophetic critique of religion = Religion is capable of self critique; this is proved by the prophets of Israel who criticised religious practices when they involved social oppression and transgressed the spirit of the law The inclusive ministry of Jesus = Dawkins characterises Jesus as having an in – group mentality, but this ignores the admonition to love one’s enemy, the anti-nationalist tone of the parable of the Good Samaritan, including tax collectors and prostitutes (who has been rejected by the religion of day) in his movement, and having open dialogue with Gentiles The capacity of religion to transcend and transform human conflicts = Some of the biblical passages that Dawkins condemns appear alongside passages that encourage compassion, welcoming the stranger, hospitality, forgiving debt, prohibiting slavery and forbidding infant sacrifice The danger of an absence of religion = Without religion, society can turn ideas into idols and commit violence against people who reject those ideas. The McGraths cite the excessive violence that accompanied the French Revolution The fact that religion is more than belief = Dawkins reduces religion to dogmatic beliefs and ignores the fact that religion has many dimensions. The faith of believers often goes beyond intellectual assent to the kinds of propositions that Dawkins attacksCan you be a religious scientist?YOU CANNOT BE A RELIGIOUS SCIENTISTYOU CAN BE A RELIGIOUS SCIENTISTBecause religion provides only unreasonable and answers to our deepest questions and science only proceeds on evidence, Dawkins finds it hard to imagine that any real scientist can be a religious believer. He thinks that any scientists who speak positively about Christianity are not really Christians, either they are afraid of sharing their real beliefs or they confuse cultural values about beauty and goodnessRichard Dawkins sees religion as a harmful force in modern society. He believes that religious claims, when they are treated like any other claim, are found not only to be false but also lead to violence.Dawkins presents the ‘God of the gaps’ approach which uses God as an explanation when we reach the limits of our own knowledge. Dawkins shows how this thinking is faulty in terms of Christian attempts (such as that of William Paley) to show God, rather than chaos, is responsible for the intricate design we see in the world. Dawkins believes that we simply don’t need to choose between chaos and God; natural selection explains exactly why there is design in the world. Natural Selection has the advantage of not having to explain intricate design by posting an even more intricate and complex being (God) as the courseAccording to Dawkins, religion does not offer any reasonable answers to questions about life because it has been flawed from its very beginning. His theory is that religion (defined as belief in God) originated as a misfiring in the brain of an otherwise useful activityAccording to Dawkins, religion does not offer any reasonable answers to questions about life because it has been flawed from its very beginning. His theory is that religion (defined as belief in God) originated as a misfiring in the brain of an otherwise useful activity (moth to the flame)Dawkins uses the concept of ‘memes’, an element of culture that is passed on from one person to another by imitation or non-genetic means. There are many elements of culture (memes) that include God and have added appeal because they are associated with other memes. These memes can be manipulated by religious leaders in ways that give rise to varieties of religious belief. Therefore, we inherit culturally all kinds of beliefs and values that includes belief in God Dawkins – that is moderately weak. You are still left with the fact that you don’t need God. Your God would have to be even more complex to illuminate your path and forgive your sins. I would be happier if you said you believed in a God that had evolvedDawkins believes it’s like saying that the eye didn’t come into existence and has just always been there When you look at the statements from Newton and Einstein carefully it could be argued that religious feeling has little or nothing to do with traditional belief in God. Dawkins accuses scientists of making positive statements about religion in order to receive awards from religious bodies or because they genuinely confuse culturally Christian attitudes and traditional Christian belief. If scientists were to sit and think about this position, very few would say anything to affirm belief in a supernatural creator The theologian Alistair McGrath and his wife Joanna Collicutt McGrath, a specialist neuropsychologist, couldn’t disagree with Dawkins more. They believe that he has been unscientific in his picture of religion as mistaken and violent. The McGraths say it’s a surprise and disappointment that a fine scientist such as Dawkins mischaracterises religion as evil and violent and it shows that Dawkins must care more for the eradication of religion than he does about truth. He fails to see the positives of the prophetic critique of religion, the inclusive ministry of Jesus, the capacity of religion to transcend and transform human conflicts, the danger of an absence of religion and the fact that religion is more than just a belief. Why does Dawkins ignore the fact that institionalised atheism, such as practiced by the Soviet authorities from 1918 to 1941 led to incredible violenceEven when it seems religion is behind violent acts such as 9/11, there are studies to show religious belief is not sufficient to cause these acts The McGraths note the number of eminent scientists who also have faith and how the influence of religion in the world has often (but not always) been positive. They also note that institutional atheism such as that found under Soviet/communist rule has been a source of violence. They actually agree with Dawkins that the ‘God of the Gaps’ approach to theology is misguided, but believe that most Christians view God not as an explanation for what they do not know, but as the ever present ground of their being. The God that Dawkins says he does not believe in is a God that most Christians don’t believe in – very childish view (comparisons with tooth fairy and Santa) The McGrath's point out that this approach only represents a small portion of Christians and stems from the 18th and 19th centuries. The majority of theologians, according to the McGraths, have viewed the reality of God as intimately and actively involved in all of life In fact, say the McGrath's, it is not the gaps in our knowledge that require an explanation but the notion that we live in an intelligible and explainable universe. It is significant that so many thoughtful human beings become e Christians in their adult years. This is not what we would expect if belief in God was like belief in Santa Claus or the Tooth Fairy. Antony Flew who wrote ‘There is a God: how the world’s most notorious atheist changed his mind’ when he was in his 80’s. In fact, one of the greatest weaknesses of atheism is the persistence of the belief in God, when there is supposedly no God in which to believe. In fact, say the McGrath's, it is not the gaps in our knowledge that require an explanation but the notion that we live in an intelligible and explainable universe. The McGrath’s are both scientists and believe that science is only part of the picture, there is a need to tell the full picture. Science is not the ultimate significance. It tells us something of what’s important but only at one level. Religion gives us that extra layer of significance that science doesn’t want to bring in McGrath quotes C.S Lewis ‘I believe in Christianity as I believe the sun has risen. Not because I see it but because I see everything else by it’ – God makes sense of the natural order and believing in God illuminates everything else McGrath said he believed in God for a number of reasons and one was because it gives him a way of making sense about things. He doesn’t think that God came into existence and believes he’s always been thereThey believe that evidence is lacking for many of Dawkins’ views in ‘The God delusion’ He has reinvented religious belief according to his own negative views Einstein is another example of a scientist with religious belief and believed the two can work well together ‘religion without science in handicapped, science without religion in blind’ Isaac Newton said the intricate and uniqueness of the thumb shows we evidence of a designer 3F Historical - challenges from pluralism and diversity within a traditionReligious tolerance = accepting that other religions have a right to exist and practiceReligious pluralism= the observation that there are many religions. OR the view that all religions reflect divine truthPluralistic universalism = all religions offer salvation Inclusivism= the view that while only one religion has the complete truth, other religions may have partial truthExclusivism–only one religion is true and only those who accept it will be savedCan a Christian be a pluralist?See arguments in support of pluralismSee arguments against exclusivism and inclusivismSee arguments against RahnerSee arguments against pluralismSee arguments for exclusivism and inclusivismSee arguments against HickDoes the Bible support exclusivism?See Bible passages in support of exclusivismExclusivism is the traditional view of Catholic and Protestant churches, suggests there must be a strong Biblical basisSee Bible passages in support of inclusivismSee arguments from inclusivism and pluralism against the exclusivist interpretationTheme 4. Religious practices that shape religious identity 4A Religious identity through diversity in baptismTip There are many examples of believers baptism and in fact baptism on you tube. You would be well advised to look at them Key point: Baptism joins your story to Jesus’ death and resurrection. Links can be made to atonement and predestinationAugustine on Baptism – Remember your work from Determinism on Theme 4 ethics Augustine follows Paul’s description of Baptism in the book of Romans: Adam brought sin into the world though his disobedience. Sin brings about death – both literal and spiritual. Jesus came into the world without sin and he died; however he was sinless and his death resulted in the new life of resurrection Rooting the meaning of baptism in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ is not new to Augustine and is a meaning shared by Christians worldwide. Augustine says that the reason there are so many sins is that we have inherited Sin from Adam’s original disobedience. So, there are 2 kinds of sin – sin (singular) inherited from Adam’s original disobedience and sins (plural) that result from this sin, manifesting in the many sins described in the Bible. Augustine calls this inherited Sin ‘Original Sin’. Original Sin is transmitted biologically through the entire human race. Mainstream Jewish belief rejects this idea and Augustine encountered resistance to this from other theologians in his day (Pelagians argued that we are all like Adam, born with free choice). Augustine finds proof for the belief in Original Sin in the Bible: Exodus 20.5 and Deuteronomy 5.9 speak about God punishing subsequent generations for the sins of their parents and Psalm 51.5 says, ‘Indeed, I was born guilty, a sinner when my mother conceived me.’ Augustine’s view on Original Sin prevailed in the Christian church. Baptism, Augustine believes, deals with Original Sin. It ‘wipes the slate clean’ as it were. It does not mean that we will not commit sins, but it is the first step we take away from Sin. Sin is present in the infant and it needs to be washed away by the waters of baptism in order to avoid damnation.LINKS – REMEMBER WHAT PELAGUIS SAID IN RESPONSE TO AUGUSTINE FROM THEME 4 ETHICS Ulrich Zwingli Disagrees with AugustineUlrich Zwingli (1484-1531) was a Swiss reformer; he was ordained to the catholic priesthood and served as a parish priest and an army chaplain. If one says that baptism, for example, is a means to grace and necessary to salvation, then one calls into question the sovereignty of God. God is free to save people.Furthermore, the Bible suggests that some who were baptized were not saved and some who were saved were not baptized. Certainly this is further proof that the soul cannot be affected by what is bodily. He came to the opinion that Scripture was the sole source of truth. He therefore rejected the authority of the papacy and became a leading reformer. Zwingli accepted the traditional definition of ‘sacrament’ (the sign of holy reality) but he separated the sign from the thing it signified – the sacrament does not cause the thing that it signifies. It merely witnesses to it. The sacraments are important because:They are instituted by Christ, (he received one and celebrated another)They testify to actual historical eventsThey symbolize important thingsThey are an aid to faith – because they appeal to the senses the senses can lead us astray but the sacraments assist us in getting back to the contemplation of faith. They act as an oath for Christian unity, a way for Christians to show that they are united.The Rise of AnabaptismThe reformation focus on the Bible led some reformers to observe that baptism in the New Testament were for those who had already come to faith. Anabaptism became popular. This term means ‘baptism again’. Specifically, those who were baptized as infants should be baptized again in order to conform with the practice of the New Testament. Another term for this ‘believer’s baptism’. This is a rejection of infant baptism.Zwingli Rejects AnabaptismIt is likely that infant baptism was practiced since households were baptized (Acts 16) Infant baptism replaced circumcision as a sign of the covenant prior to faith (Colossians 2:11-12). All Israelite male children were circumcised, therefore children are baptised. Matthew 19:13-14 says that no one should forbid children to come to Christ. If you insist on believer’s baptism, you are questioning the sovereignty of God.Children can have the Spirit of god working in their life – John the Baptist is reported to have lept in his mother’s womb when Mary appeared with Christ in hers. Jesus did not re-baptize the disciples; the disciples who had been baptized by John were not re-baptized later on after the Spirit was given to the churchKarl Barth Favors Believer’s BaptismKarl Barth rebelled against a theology which said that humans could act as mediators of God’s Grace – God is God’s own mediator. Infant baptism is an attempt at the church to develop its own power and authority rather than God’s.God brings grace to human’s through Jesus – humans cannot mediate, give, provide or ensure that God’s Grace will reach anyone – even in the most elaborate or spiritual of acts in the church. God brings it about. Therefore Baptism is a human act (not a divine act). A sacrament is, after all, the giving of a sign – that sign is the humanity of God in Jesus. Baptism is not a sacrament. In fact, one of Barth’s themes is critiquing the church ‘in excess’ that is the church often seeks to claim more power and authority for itself than it has – one of the ways it does this is to try to become the mediator of God’s grace – to dispense God’s salvation. However, it was never given this right. Adult Baptism makes more sense to Barthes - Baptism is an ethical act through which a believer shows what God has done in their life. It therefore makes much more sense for only adult baptism to be practiced rather than infant baptism since it is about demonstrating what god has done by his Spirt rather than looking forward to what god is going to do; ‘For these [children in the church], too, the Christian life will and can begin only on the basis of their own liberation by God, their own decision. It’s beginning ... cannot be made for them by others through the fact that, without being asked about their own decision, they received baptism’.Karl Barth4B Religious identity through diversity in Eucharist‘Eucharist’ –Greek for ‘thanksgiving’Aka Holy Communion, Lord’s Supper and MassMost important Christian sacramentJesus shared a last meal (The Last Supper) with his disciplesHe took ordinary bread and wine and shared them Said of the bread ‘this is my body’ and of the wine ‘this is my blood’Of both he said ‘do this in remembrance of me’‘For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes’Similarities between Christian traditionsAll Christian traditions take bread and wine to remember Jesus and give thanksAll believe that Jesus is present with them somehow (though they disagree on what that means)Just as human bodies need physical sustenance, so human souls need spiritual sustenanceEucharist is a physical re-enactment of the Last SupperIt is also;A meal that has the real presence of JesusA source of grace to which all believers are invitedA memorial to Jesus’ last hours on earthA celebration of the resurrectionA symbol of God's loveA fellowship, or communion between Christians and between them and God4C Religious identity through diversity in festivalsChristmas Advent in the western Church We think of Christmas as a time of feasting, singing and celebration.However, Christmas is preceded by a period of preparation called ‘Advent’ which means ‘coming’. In other words, Christians prepare for the coming of Jesus in a time of reflection.In the early church this was sometimes a period of Christian instruction which led to baptism. There are 2 ‘comings’ that are focused on in this season: The second member of the trinity coming to be incarnated and the coming of Jesus at the end of the world. The technical name for this 2nd coming is the Greek term ‘Parousia’ this means ‘being present’)The lighting of Candles on an advent wreath (candle 1: hope, candle 2: prophets, candle 3: joy (rose coloured), Candle 4: angel candle to remember for annunciation; Center candle(5): the Christ candle lit on Christmas Eve service. The decorating of the church in blue or purple (blue symbolizing hope and purple, reality – on the third Sunday a rose colour may be used – this is Gaudete Sunday (Latin for ‘rejoice’) The singing of hymns (i.e. ‘O Come, O Come, Emmanuel’)Readings that speak of preparation for the coming of the Messiah and the coming of the end of all things (i.e. Matthew 25.1-13) This is a somber, reflective time for many ChristiansAdvent in the Eastern Church The Eastern church has a similar season to Advent called the Nativity FastThis lasts for 40 days right up to the evening of the Nativity (on the 6th of January) and the liturgical color is red or gold. The fasting includes not eating red meat, poultry, egg and dairy products, fish, oil and wine. Unlike the western church, the Nativity Fast is not the beginning of the church yearAlso, unlike the west, there is no focus on the Parousia, or second coming of Christ.During the Nativity fast there is a focus on the Hebrew prophets who prophesied incarnation.Two Sundays before is the ‘Sunday of the Forefathers’, a remembrance of the ancestors of the church before and after the giving of the Law to Moses One Sunday prior to the Nativity is the Sunday of the Holy Fathers, commemorating all of the righteous men and women who pleased God from the creation of the world through to Joseph, the husband of Mary (Jesus’ mother). The day before Christmas involves a strict fast called the Paramony (‘preparation’) - no solid food should be eaten until the first star appears in the evening sky. Christmas in the western Church Many Christians will gather for carol services and nativity plays; churches may be decorated with a nativity crib and, sometimes a Christmas tree with decorations of Christian symbols. Some churches hold a ‘Christingle’ (Scandinavian word meaning ‘light of Christ’) service with hymns and readings focused on the nativity. The ‘Christingle’ is a decorated orange:The orange represents the worldThe red ribbon (or tape) symbolises the love and blood of ChristThe sweets and dried fruit represent all of God’s creationsThe lit candle represents Jesus’s light in the world, bringing hope to people living in darknessIn Wales there has been a tradition known as the Plygain – from the Latin pulli cantio = ‘cock crow’. This was a singing service for men between 3 and 6 am on Christmas morning prior to the Eucharist; today Plygain can be any time rom 21 December to 13 Jan and includes female voices.Some churches will have three Eucharist’s, the first just after midnight, early on Christmas day, one at dawn and one during the day.Some Christians see this as reflecting three births, the eternal birth of Jesus in the Godhead, the birth of Jesus on earth and the birth of the church.Christmas also has a heavily consumerist side which appears to be growing in the west.Christmas in the Eastern Church There are many similarities – between eastern and western Christmas celebrations, including strong family and social activities, beliefs about the incarnation and a festive mood.Similar, too, are many readings from the prophets and the gospels about the coming of Jesus – especially Isaiah 7:14 and all of the Gospel nativity readings.As the western church has a period of reflection on the coming of Jesus (Advent), followed by the joy of Christmas, the Eastern church has a period of fasting and reflection also followed by the joy of the Nativity. These services are designed to reflect those held on good Friday - since the incarnation of Jesus is what made it possible for us to be saved through the crucifixion and resurrection: 1. The Hours – psalms, hymns and readings for each hour re. the joy and power of the birth of Jesus 2. Vespers – 8 biblical readings hosing Christ as the fulfillment of prophesy3. the long liturgy of St. Basil the Great – in the past catechumens (learners) were baptized and integrated into the church in this service. 4. The Vigil which begins with the great compline (last service of the church day)5. Matins, a service of morning prayer – for the first time the words’ Christ is born’ are sung; veneration of nativity icon Icons are of great importance to orthodox Christians – these are described as “windows into the Kingdom of God” they are used in both public worship spaces and in the homes.Icons are seen as a from of prayer (they are prepared with prayer and fasting) and as a means of prayer icons are venerated with candles and lamps burnt before them. the worshiper kisses the icon, making the sign of the cross and may kneel or prostrate before it. Many depict Christ and his mother Mary. Usually on Christmas Eve observant orthodox Christians fast to late evening until the first star appears. Then they set the table ready for Christmas supper. After the divine liturgy on Christmas day in many Eastern Orthodox culture many walk in procession to seas, rivers, and lakes – for an outdoor ceremony to bless the water. Some take water to their houses to bless them and then there is feasting. Usually on Christmas Eve observant orthodox Christians fast to late evening until the first star appears. Then they set the table ready for Christmas supper. After the divine liturgy on Christmas day in many Eastern Orthodox culture many walk in procession to seas, rivers, and lakes – for an outdoor ceremony to bless the water. Some take water to their houses to bless them and then there is feasting. It is about incarnation - ’Today the virgin gives birth to the Transcendent One, and on the earth offers a cave to the Unapproachable One! Angels, with shepherds, glorify him! The wise men journey with the star! Since for our sake the Eternal God is born as a little child. (An Orthodox Hymn)EASTER Lent in the Western ChurchLent is a season of reflection for 40 days prior to Easter. As Jesus had a period of 40 days in the wilderness prior to his public ministry (Mt. 4:1-11), Christians take this time as a spiritual development. Lent for the Western church begins on Ash Wednesday. Ash Wednesday is so named because ashes created from the palm branches used on the previous Sunday (Palm Sunday) are placed on the forehead of recipients in the shape of a cross, as a reminder of mortality; people are asked to repent of their sins. During Lent many Christians fast (literally or figuratively) so that they develop their spiritual discipline. This may include giving up certain luxuries. Flowers are removed, religious symbols may be covered and the liturgical colour of the season is purple (see Mark 15:17 where the soldiers mock Jesus by making him wear purple, the colour of royaltyThe 4th Sunday (halfway point in the season) is called Laetare (Latin for rejoice); as on Gaudate Sunday in Advent, priests can wear rose coloured vestments. This is a day of a relaxation of normal Lenten fasting – Easter is finally in view. It has also become known in many churches as Mothering Sunday (which has its origin in the 16th century celebration of mother church).The 5th Sunday is Passion Sunday, marking the beginning of a 2-week period known as Passiontide (ending with holy Saturday). In the Roman Catholic and many Anglo-Catholic churches this is when all crucifixes and images are veiled. The 6th Sunday is Palm Sunday, the beginning of Holy Week, the final week of lent immediately before Easter. It commemorates Jesus entry in Jerusalem during which people laid palm branches down before him to indicate his high statusThursday of holy week is called Maundy Thursday, a time of remembering the last supper of Jesus with the disciples. The term Maundy is from the Latin, ‘commandment’; this is a time when Christians remember Jesus commandment to serve one another in the washing of the feet (John 13) Good Friday follows, Christians remember the crucifixion, death and burial of Jesus. This is the Christian ‘Day of Atonement’ (see Theme 2.C.)Generally, Good Friday includes a solemn and quiet service where the events leading up to the death of Jesus are remembered.In the Roman Catholic church (and many other churches) there is no Eucharist and a special service called ‘stations of the cross’ may be used – congregants remember scenes or images of Jesus last hours. Sometimes this involves looking at images or walking around the church (or church yard) to gaze at art, drawings or sculptures that display these moments Many Anglican Churches have a tradition of having a ‘Three Hours Devotion’ service, a sequence of meditations and musicLutherans often have a tenebrae (Latin for darkness) service on good Friday – a candlelit service in which the passion narratives are read.On Saturday night before Easter, Churches may have a vigil. A vigil is a period of staying awake, to keep watch and prayer) Lent in the Eastern ChurchIn the Eastern Church Easter is preceded by the most important period of fasting of the church year, called Great Lent or Great Fast.Great Lent itself is preceded by 3 weeks of preparation and, like the west, is followed by holy week. Lent does not start on Ash Wednesday but on ‘Clean Monday’ This is ‘Clean week’ which is about the spiritual cleansing of Christians On the Sunday night prior to Clean Monday there is a special service which involves asking forgiveness so that Christians can begin the Lenten season with a clean conscience. There is strict fasting this first week.The second week commemorates St Gregory Palamas a great saint of the Orthodox Church. The third Sunday is the midpoint of the Great Fast; there is a special service where the cross is revered; on an all night vigil, it is brought out by a priest to the center of the church. The 4th week continues this veneration.The Saturday of the 5th week is dedicated to the theotokos (the mother of God) and is known as Akathist Saturday (Greek for not sitting) because a hymn is sung to Mary with everyone standing. Great Lent ends with vespers on the Friday of the 6th week, followed by Lazarus Sunday which recalls the resuscitation of Lazarus as foreshadowing the resurrection of Jesus. Holy and Great Monday: the Patriarch Joseph as a prototype of Christ; Jesus cursing the fig tree. ?Holy and Great Tuesday: the Parables of the Ten Virgins & Talents ?Holy and Great Wednesday: the anointing of Jesus. ?Holy and Great Thursday: Eastern Christians gather to celebrate the founding of the EucharistHoly and Great Friday - This is a day of strict fasting with services held in the morning, afternoon and evening. These are solemn services that remember the sinful behaviour that Jesus had to endure. The evening service focuses on Mary’s pain and lament over the death of her son. In the gospel story, Jesus is removed from the cross and wrapped in a cloth. by Joseph of Aramathea. In Eastern Orthodox churches, This cloth (epitaphios)?on which an image of Jesus is painted, is carried around the church and placed in a tomb. The tomb is then sprinkled with rose water and fresh rose petals.Holy and Great Saturday - This is another day of strict fasting to remember Jesus’ burial and descent into Hell. There is an interesting shift from sorrow to Hope as in the morning the liturgical colour is black but changes to white just before the gospel reading. The priest sprinkles the church with fresh bay leaves to symbolize Jesus' victory over death. However, the church only announces the good news of the Easter message in the Paschal vigil.Easter in the Western ChurchA vigil may be held after nightfall on Holy Saturday or before dawn on Easter Sunday. When a paschal candle symbolising the resurrection of Jesus is lit. Statue’s and images that may have been veiled during lent are unveiledEaster day in the Western Church is a joyous occasion which celebrates Christ’s resurrection. In stark contrast to the solemnity of Lent the liturgical colour is white, often with gold and churches are decorated with brightly decorated white and yellow flowers. The music is joyful and there is a use of church bellsEaster in the Eastern ChurchLate in the evening of the Saturday before Easter Sunday, the congregants gather for the ‘Midnight office’ – this is the last service in Lent. The epitaphios is placed on the altar where it will remain until the feast of the ascension. At the end of the Office, all of the candles and lights are extinguished and everyone waits in silence until the stroke of midnight – the resurrection is announced then. This is followed by a candle lighting ceremony – the priest lights a single candle, and then passing this light onto his assistants, who in turn light candles of everyone in the congregation. Everyone then processes around the congregation saying: ‘At thy resurrection O Christ our Saviour, the angels in heaven sing, enable us who are on earth, to glorify thee in purity of heart’. The procession halts in front of the closed doors of the church where the priest makes the sign of the cross – church bells and percussion instruments are sounded. Another easter Service begins.Pashcal eggs and baskets of food may be blessed by the priest and there may be an agape feast.It is also customary to crack open hard-boiled eggs, dyed red to symbolise the blood of Christ, to celebrate the opening of Jesus’ tomb. ?4D Religious identity through unification4E Religious identity through religious experiencePRIOR TO READING THIS RECAP THE PENTECOSTAL MOVEMENT IN THEME 3B If you have seen churches where people spontaneously lift their hands in the air and sway as soft rock music is played by a worship band at the front of the Church, at the end of the songs some people engage in a kind of gentle ‘babbling’, a language which makes no sense but which is called ‘tongues’. During the Eucharist, the priest might encourage people who want healing to come forward for a ‘laying on of hands’ and prayers that ask the spirit of God to bring about healing immediately and After the service there may be an invitation to attend a prayer meeting focused on learning about the power of the spirit in the believers life – IT IS LIKELY THAT YOU HAVE DISCOVERED THE CHARISMATIC MOVEMENT! What does ‘Charismatic’ mean?Charismatic comes from the Greek word charismata meaning ‘gifts of grace’This is the word the Apostle Paul uses to refer to special qualities that Christians receive through the holy spirit There are several lists of these spiritual gifts in the NT - the lists don’t necessarily agree with each other and it does not seem that Paul and others were trying to present a standardised list but drawing attention to the many different ways that Christian believers could express God’s graceNew Testament passages that mention spiritual gifts Romans 12: 6 – 81 Corinthians 12: 8 - 111 Corinthians 12:28Ephesians 4:111 Peter 4:11Prophecy Serving Teaching Exhorting Giving LeadershipCompassionWord of wisdom Word of knowledge Faith Healing Miracles Prophecy Discernment of spirits Tongues Interpretation of tongues Apostles Prophets Teachers Deeds of powerHealing Serving LeadershipTongues Apostles Prophets Evangelists Pastors TeachersSpeaking for God Serving Main beliefs and implications for Christian practice in the experience of believers and Christian communitiesThose in the Charismatic movement believe that Christians outside of their movement can have a much fuller experience of the Holy Spirit. Through speaking in tongues This is when a person is speaking in a language either human or divine that is unknown to the speaker. This is known as xenolalia. This is a language that is not consciously learnt. Most Pentecostal and Charismatic churches see tongues as a divine prayer language that leads to to making a incomprehensible babbling kind of noise whilst simultaneously feeling closer to GodThrough prophecyWe normally associate the term prophecy with some foretelling of the future. However, in the Bible a prophet is someone who conveys the word of God in a direct way. Sometimes this has to do with foretelling the future but often it has to do with speaking a message that will bring a greater loyalty to God, increased morality of a more worshipful attitude. This is the same for the contact of the charismatic movement. It is the message that inspires confidence and obedience amongst believersThrough healingIn Mark 16 when Jesus gave the commandment to the disciples to spread the Gospel across the world, he said that a number of signs would accompany their work and one of these signs was healing’[they will lay their hands on the sick and they will recover’ (Mark 16:18). Therefore, when charismatic Christians are gathered they can expect the spirit of God to move to heal believers. Healing it not necessary physical but also emotional Through inspiration in worshipCharismatic services are marked by a mood of joyful expectation as to what the spirit of God might do. Worshippers generally feel free to move their bodies, swaying with music, raising hands in the air, clapping, dancing etc. Many charismatic churches project lyrics on the screens so that worshippers do not have to use books. Times of prayer can include spontaneous singing and there can be gentle singing during the Eucharist Philosophical challenges to charismatic experience What is one of the appeals of the charismatic movement? offers an experience of God to Christians who may have only possessed an intellectual relationship with ChristianityIn contrast to ‘mere knowledge about God’ what do Charismatic believers claim to have?A direct experience of God’s presence through a variety of experiences ‘gifts of experience’What criteria have the charismatic church set to judge every experience?Christian churches do not accept every claim of a charismatic experience as true so have set out some criteria to judge experiences. Although they vary from denomination to denomination, which factors do they usually include?Do the messages come from charismatic experiences (such as prophecy) conform to the teaching of the Bible?Does the experience produce spiritual fruits such as love, joy and peace?Is the message or experience supportive of the direction set by the leaders of the congregation?Do the experiences affirm that Jesus is Lord, to be esteemed as God and followed?What does the fact that Churches have tests for charismatic experiences imply?Sometimes they do not see the experiences coming from God at all, but perhaps from another spiritual force or generated by one’s own egoWhat much wider question can be asked?Is it possible that none of these experiences come from God? SO CAN WE VERIFY THEM? An ideal link here is to the work that you have done in philosophy and ethics about language as well as religious experiences arguments Verification of charismatic experiences We need proof before we believe in something On the surface Charismatic experiences do seem to provide proof as the movement seems to point to empirical evidence (millions of people who have had the experience resulting in healing, speaking in tongues etc.) so does this count as evidence?A J Ayer said all knowledge outside formally true statements must be able to be verified through sense experience. So can we verify them?Acts 2 seems to provide such verifiable evidence as the disciples spoke in tongues in a language they had not learnt but we have to remember that this comes from ancient religious texts so cannot be verified. Furthermore, the language of tongues seems nonsense Therefore there is no way in proving that these experiences come from God Claims for healingAnother difficult case to verify for Ayer Faith healing occurs when someone lays their hands on someone and that person has a dramatic improvement in their health The difficulties:-The symptoms may come and go naturally - When followed up the patients are just the same or worse off - Placebo effect - Adrenaline causes the pain to lessen- Maybe they were not as ill as they thought - Medicine could have worked - No scientific evidence Natural explanationsWe know that cultural context plays a role on religious experience so when someone in a geographical area of Christianity has an experience they are more likely to have one related to Jesus than Krishna Psychological explanations – In a world full of anxiety of neediness we are more open to the experiences (Freud would say it is an illusion based on our need for a father figure)Sociologists – Nature and society are chaotic and need rules to survive and religion is societies way of stating how important these rules are ‘God wants us to live this way can be society wants us to live this way’ DurkheimExperiences of those in the charismatic movement could be projections onto the universe of our human needs, problems and longings Justifying the experiences A number of arguments could be put forward to defend themThese people are not at all crazy – The sheer number of people who have them mean that a broad cross section of society is involved. Claiming that these people are all psychologically deficient is not proven scientifically You can say that the brain is involved without originating it to the brain - Those with charismatic experiences could say that although the brain plays a significant role in interpreting the experiences the experience is caused outside the brain – The fact that these experiences happen in different cultures could be seen as supporting John Hick’s view that there is one divine reality ‘refracted’ by different cultures These experiences are part of a cumulative case for God – Think back to the religious experience cumulative argument – many people’s experiences together provide more evidence 4F Religious identity through responses to poverty and injusticeThe basis (political, ethical and religious) of South American liberation theology with reference to Guiterrez and BoffIntroductionLiberation theology is a radical movement that originated in South America in the 1950s. The movement is encapsulated in Leonardo Boff's statement that “we can be followers of Jesus and true Christians only by making common cause with the poor and working out the gospel of liberation.”This theology is most commonly associated with Gustavo Guiterrez a Roman Catholic priest from Peru. Guiterrez lived in the slums of Lima and viewed Jesus Christ as the liberator from political and spiritual oppression.– for him, true ‘liberation’ encompasses political and social liberation (i.e. the elimination of the causes of injustice and poverty); the freeing of the poor, oppressed, and marginalised from “those things that limit their capacity to develop themselves freely and in dignity. Political Liberation theologians had become increasingly critical of forms of economic development that trapped the poor in poverty and governments that used force and violence to maintain social order. The church had also often colluded with this oppression. Why are people poor? Liberation theologians argue that there are political explanations which maintain the status quo of capitalistic oppression. i)) poor because of laziness or ignorance ii) economic or social backwardness so reforms might help.Liberation theologians view poverty instead as the logical outcome of cheap labour and goods required as part of the capitalistic enterprise and only a dramatic change in the system can lead to a better life for the poor. Liberation theology is intensely critical of capitalism and affirmative of socialism and communist movements and ideas especially as capitalist development models have been perceived as only helping the rich. Another reason for its development was that some radical priests became involved in politics and trade unions; they aligned themselves with violent revolutionary movements; some showed their solidarity with the poor by moving from religious houses into poverty stricken areas.Ethical The main reason for the development of liberation theology is the concern of the suffering caused by poverty and economic explotation. Which was reflected in the Vatican documents Guiterrez identified 3 types of povertyMaterial poverty condemned in the Bible. It contradicts the message that all humans are made in the image of God. Spiritual poverty – being ready to do God’s will. Confusion over spiritual and material has caused some to think that poor people are more spiritual than others (Blessed are the poor.) This confusion serves the interest of the rich. Guiterrez saw this interpretation to mean that Jesus was to liberate and promote justice so that the poor had a reason to be blessed as their poverty was about to end.Voluntary poverty - Choosing to be poor so as to identify with the poor. Example of Christ (kenosis) – emptying of Christs divinity in the incarnation) Example of the early Church in Acts. Offering its goods to everyone’s welfare Gutiérrez popularized the phrase "preferential option for the poor" meaning that the poor must be prioritised in the commitment to social justicePracticeOne of the most radical aspects of liberation theology was the social organization, or reorganization, of church practice through the model of Christian base communities. Liberation theology strove to be a bottom-up movement in practice, with biblical interpretation and liturgical practice designed by lay practitioners themselves, rather than by the orthodox Church hierarchy. Base communities were small gatherings, usually outside of churches, in which the Bible could be discussed, and Mass could be said. They were especially active in rural parts of Latin America where parish priests were not always available, as they placed a high value on lay participation. In May 2007, it was estimated that 80,000 base communities existed in Brazil.Religious basis of Latin America theologyLiberation theologians are inspired by many passages which reveal for them that God desires all people to be liberated from structures that cause oppression.“The God of Exodus is the God of history and of political liberation more than he is the God of nature.” (Gutierrez)Jesus first sermon in Luke ‘he has sent me to bring good news to the poor..” Acts 2:43-47 church community who practice a form of communism ;sell possessions and distribute to all”LT is based on the idea that the poor should take the example of Jesus and use it to bring about a just society. The role Jesus as social liberator. 3 aspects of Jesus’ life i) relationships with zealots (Jewish group committed to violent revolt against the Romans) ii) critical attitudes towards religious leaders, iii) Jesus’ death at the hands of political authority The emphasis is on the reinterpretation of biblical texts (particularly the gospels) to demonstrate Jesus’ particular concerns for the poor – as well as being poor himself, the gospels portray Jesus as defending the poor and outcast.Gutiérrez emphasized practice (or, more technically, "praxis") over doctrine (orthodoxy). Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), however, criticized liberation theology for elevating orthopraxis to the level of orthodoxy. In this context, sacred text interpretation is understood as "praxis". Liberation theology seeks to interpret the actions of the Catholic Church and the teachings of Jesus Christ from the perspective of the poor and disadvantaged. By approaching theology "from the perspective of the poor", they can turn the poor who are "the object of church teaching to the subject of church action" Roman Catholic responses to South American liberation theology Terms such as the “preferential option for the poor” and even “liberation” were quickly adopted by the Roman Catholic Church to describe their work, which implies a positive response to the basis of liberation theology.Supported at 1968 Medellin bishops’ conference and at Puebla 1979. Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) praised liberation theology’s focus on justice, emphasis on Christian responsibilities towards the oppressed, and its rejection of violence. Criticisms i) Deluded to think that economic change can bring salvation. Spiritual solutions are needed.ii) Marxism is an atheistic ideology. It denies the truth of Christian theologyii) Marxism makes everyone an enemy outside the fight. Encourages violenceiv) Bible only interpreted politically and not spiritually.Pope John Paul II responded negatively to liberation theology in the 1980s, criticising it for having become highly politicised.Although the Roman Catholic Church values social justice, Pope John Paul II asserted that some of these secular goals can make the church into a secular political/cultural institution and rob the Christian faith of its power to free all human beings from sin.Pope Francis spoken out against greed materialism an capitalistic excesses yet was a harsh critic of liberation theology instead devoted himself to acts of charity and sought to prevent priests from involvement. On September 11, 2013, Pope Francis hosted Gutiérrez in his residence, leading some to comment that this was a sign of warming relations between the hierarchy and liberation theologians.The extent to which political and ethical foundations of liberation theology are more important than religious AgreeAlternative viewsThe predominance of orthopraxis over orthodoxy in his thought proves a Marxist influence.It has sold out spiritually to purchase a system to replace the Kingdom of God which can be considered as idolatry.Liberation theology views social justice as the main aim of the church, which can be understood as a partly secular goalLiberation theologians have politicised the Bible passages (Ratzinger) Exodus has a theological theme of God people becoming close to god that has been missed. Associated with two RC priests reflects for them the attitude of Jesus ChristLiberation theology seeks to interpret the actions of the Catholic Church and the teachings of Jesus Christ from the perspective of the poor and disadvantaged.Religion includes an ethical and political dimension this is not easily separable.Marxism is seldom mentioned in books on liberation theology. Boff says they should adopt some Marxist ideas nut inly within a ‘broader Christian vision of Marxism’The extent to which liberation theology offers a cultural challenge to the Roman Catholic church AgreeAlternative viewsHas criticised the Church on grounds of ecclesio-centrism, clericalism, overtly spiritual theology.Rejected by Vatican viewed as a dangerous influence that can lead Church away from true calling Base communities challenge hierarchical structures of RC as they meet without priestsVatican II had focus on those suffering from poverty without reference to LT. Pope Benedict used the term liberation theologyNot all challenged. Accepted by bishops of Latin America. Many LTs still serve as priests.Uses classical RCC sources. Not inherently against the RCC. ................
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