Chapter8 LogarithmsandExponentials: log x

Chapter 8

Logarithms and Exponentials: log x and ex

These two functions are ones with which you already have some familiarity. Both are introduced in many high school curricula, as they have widespread applications in both the scientific and financial worlds. In fact, as recently as 50 years ago, many high school mathematics curricula included considerable study of "Tables of the Logarithm Function" ("log tables"), because this was prior to the invention of the hand-held calculator. During the Great Depression of the 1930's, many out-of-work mathematicians and scientists were employed as "calculators" or "computers" to develop these tables by hand, laboriously using difference equations, entry by entry! Here, we are going to use our knowledge of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Inverse Function Theorem to develop the properties of the Logarithm Function and Exponential Function. Of course, we don't need tables of these functions any more because it is possible to buy a hand-held electronic calculator for as little as $10.00, which will compute any value of these functions to 10 decimal places or more!

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CHAPTER 8. LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS: LOG X AND EX

8.1 The Logarithm Function

Define log(x) (which we shall be thinking of as the natural logarithm) by the following:

Definition 8.1

x1 log(x) = dt for x > 0.

1t

Theorem 8.1 log x is defined for all x > 0. It is everywhere differentiable, hence continuous,

and is a 1-1 function. The Range of log x is (-, ).

Proof: Note that for x > 0, log x is well-defined, because 1/t is continuous on the interval [1, x] (if x > 1) or [x, 1] (if 0 < x < 1). Since continuous functions on closed, bounded intervals are integrable, the integral of 1/t over [1, x] or over [x, 1] is well-defined and finite. Next, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus in Chapter 6,

d log x = 1/x > 0,

dx so log x is increasing (Why?).

We postpone the proof of the statement about the Range of log x until a bit later.

Theorem 8.2 (Laws of Logarithms) (from which we shall subsequently derive the famous "Laws of Exponents"): For all positive x, y,

1.

log xy = log x + log y

2.

log 1/x = - log x

3.

log xr = r log x for rational r.

x

4.

log = log x - log y.

y

Proof: To prove (1), fix y and compute

d

1d

1 1d

log xy =

(xy) = y = = log x.

dx

xy dx

xy x dx

Then log xy and log x have the same derivative, from which it follows by the Corollary to

the Mean Value Theorem that these two functions differ by a constant:

log xy = log x + c.

8.1. THE LOGARITHM FUNCTION

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To evaluate c, let x = 1. Since log 1 = 0, (why?) c = log y, which proves (1). To prove (2), we use the same idea:

d 1 1d log =

1 = 1 (-1/x2) = - 1 = - d log x,

dx x 1/x dx x 1/x

x dx

from which it follows (why?) that

log 1 = - log x + c. x

Again, to evaluate c, let x = 1, and observe that c = 0, which proves (2).

To prove (3),

d dx

log

xr

=

1 xr

d xr dx

=

1 xr

rxr-1

=

r x

=

d r

dx

log x.

It follows that

log xr = r log x + c,

and letting x = 1, we observe c = 0, which proves (3). (Why did we need to require r to be rational? Why didn't this prove the theorem for all real r?)1

(4) Follows from (1) and (2).

Theorem 8.3 (Postponed Theorem) Range(log x) = (-, ).

Proof: First observe that 1/2 < log 2 < 1. This follows from the fact that 1/2 < 1/t < 1 on

(1, 2), so

1 21

21

2

= dt < dt < 1dt = 1.

2 12

1t

1

Now observe that since log x is monotone increasing in x, to compute limx0+ log x it suffices2 to compute the limit along a subsequence of x's of our choice, and we choose

xn = 1/2n, n = 1, 2, ... .

1

lim log x = lim log

= lim -n log 2 = -.

x0+

n

2n

n

1Because the corollary after Chain Rule only proved differentiation for rational exponents. After we

develop properties of the Exponential Function we will be able to extend (3) to arbitrary real numbers r. 2See Exercise 1.

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CHAPTER 8. LOGARITHMS AND EXPONENTIALS: LOG X AND EX

Similarly,

lim log x = lim log 2n = lim n log 2 = +.

x

n

n

Exercise 1 a. Prove: if f is monotonic, then limxa+ f (x) exists if and only if limn f (a+ 1/2n) exists, and if either of these limits exists,

lim f (x) = lim f (a + 1/2n).

xa+

n

b. What if f is not monotonic? Construct a counter-example: find a continuous function f on (0, 1) such that limn f (1/2n) exists, but limx0+ f (x) does not.

Exercise 2 a. Evaluate

f (x)

b. Evaluate

dx.

f (x)

2x 1 + x2 dx.

8.2 The Exponential Function

Definition of the Exponential Function We define the Exponential Function exp(x) as the inverse of the Logarithm:

Definition 8.2

y = exp(x) if and only if x = log y.

From this definition, we can see that exp is defined for all real x since Domain(exp) = Range(log) = (-, ). Since Range(exp)=Domain(log)= (0, +), it follows that exp(x) > 0 for all x.

Since exp is the inverse of log, it follows that

exp(log x) = x for all x > 0

and log(exp(x)) = x for all x.

8.2. THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

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Further, note that since log x is continuous on (0, ) and strictly increasing, it follows (from an exercise near the end of Chapter 6) that exp(x) is continuous and strictly increasing.

Let e = exp(1), and note that for r rational,

log(er) = r log e = r log(exp(1)) = r = log(exp(r)).

But log x is a 1-1 function, so log(er) = log(exp(r)) = er = exp(r),

for all rational r. Further, since exp(x) is continuous, it makes sense to extend the definition of ex to

ex = exp(x)

for all x. Note that before this, we did not have a meaning for, e.g.,

e 2.

We can now also define ab for any a > 0 : Whatever ab is, it must obey the Law of Logarithms,

log(ab) = b log a. But exp and log are inverses, so

ab = exp(log ab) = elog ab = eb log a,

which we take to be our definition of ab :

Definition 8.3 ab = eb log a, for all a > 0 and all real b.

Example 1

2

2

=

e 2 log 2

=

2

e2

log 2.

Exercise 3 Prove there is only one continuous function, up to multiplicative constant, that obeys the Laws of Logarithms, by showing the following:

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