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CRITICAL THINKINGMuseum Displays a Brain as a Critical Thinking Machine.What is critical thinking?Critical thinking can be defined as thought processes that are “deeper” than memorization and recall of information. Thinking critically, is to think deeply; to not only know the facts, but take the additional step of going beyond the facts to do something with them. Critical thinking involves: reflecting on the information received ?moving away from “surface” memorization and toward deeper levels of learning ?a shift away from viewing learning as the receiving of information from teacher or text to transformation of received information into a different form by the learner ?incorporates evaluation ?To combat the prevalent student misconception that critical thinking means being “being critical,” some use the term “deep thinking” skills. ?Essays are a written form of critical thinking: Definition, Compare/Contrast/ Exemplification (Explaining), Cause and Effect, Classification and Division, Research. The Argumentative Essay is perhaps the most concrete form of organized critical thinking. So, before organizing critical thinking on a topic an understanding of how to think critically is importantThinking about thinking is called meta-cognition. It really is what differentiates us from the lower primates, in my opinion.QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:1. Is it worse to fail at something or never attempt it in the first place?2. If you could choose just one thing to change about the world, what would it be?3. To what extent do you shape your own destiny, and how much is down to fate?4. Does nature shape our personalities more than nurture?5. Should people care more about doing the right thing, or doing things right?6. What one piece of advice would you offer to a newborn infant?7. Where is the line between insanity and creativity?8. What is true happiness?9. What things hold you back from doing the things that you really want to?10. What makes you, you?11. What is the truth?12. What is reality?13. Do you make your own decisions, or let others make them for you?14. What makes a good friend?15. Why do people fear losing things that they do not even have yet?16. Who defines good and evil?17. What is the difference between living and being alive?18. Is a “wrong” act okay if nobody ever knows about it?19. Who decides what morality is?20. How do you know that your experience of consciousness is the same as other people’s experience of consciousness?21. What is true strength?22. What is true love?23. Is a family still relevant in the modern world?24. What role does honour play in today’s society?25. If money cannot buy happiness, can you ever be truly happy with no money?26. How do you know your perceptions are real?27. How much control do you have over your life?28. What is freedom?29. Isn’t one person’s terrorist another person’s freedom fighter?30. What happens after we die?31. What defines you?32. What do people strive for after enlightenment?33. Do we have a soul?34. What is intelligence?35. How should people live their lives?36. If lying is wrong, are white lies okay?37. Is trust more important than love?38. Is it easier to love or be loved?39. Is it better to love and lose or never to love?40. Do aliens exist?41. The structure of DNA appears to be intelligently designed, what are the implications?42. If everything evolved from amoebas, how does the world still have amoebas?43. Is life all a dream?44. When does consciousness begin?45. What are numbers?46. Can we have happiness without sadness?47. How did the universe begin?48. Is there a supreme power?49. What is education?50. What will happen at the end of the world?51. Is there a reason to life?52. Where does the soul live?53. Is it more important to be liked or respected?54. Does sound happen if nothing is present to hear it?55. What is infinity?56. Where does the universe end?57. Does observation alter an event?58. Does the Law of Attraction exist?59. How does gravity work?60. Where were people before they were born?61. What is beauty?62. Where do thoughts come from?63. Is mind or matter more real?64. What is time?65. How can people believe in truths without evidence?Ways and Means for Critical ThinkingAssignment: Complete the following in a word document sent via email to your instructor. What is true happiness?Comprehension—understanding and converting information into a form that is personally meaningful—makes sense to you.define happiness; define true.What would be an example of true happiness?Create a visual for true happiness. Application—to apply abstract principles to concrete, practical situations. How could you put your idea of true happiness into a actionAnalysis—to break down information into its common parts in order to determine a relationship among the parts and the wholeWhat are the most important ideas or elements of true happiness?(Prioritize)What assumptions or biases underlie within true happiness?(Deconstruction)What parts of true happiness is similar to/different than just having fun? (Compare/Contrast)Synthesis—to connect the pieces of information to form a larger more coherent pattern. How can the idea of ________ be combined with _________to create a more complete or comprehensive understanding of true happiness.Evaluation—to judge the validity(truth), morality(ethics), or aesthetic(artistic) values of idea or data from general premises and principles.If this general _________were true, then it would logically follow that_______.What particular actions or practices would be consistent with this general ________________?Induction—to infer generalizations from examples. The ability to transfer knowledge and apply a concept from one context to a different context. (math to real life)What are the broader implications of true happiness? Adduction—to make a case for argument or position by accumulated supporting evidence in the form of logical arguments (rational thinking) and/or research evidence. What research evidence supports your theory for true happiness?What proof exists for true happiness?What are the logical arguments for true happiness?Refutation—to make a case against an argument by accumulating contradictory evidence in the form of logical thinking(rational) or research findings (empirical).What are the logical evidence against true happiness?Balanced Thinking-- to carefully consider arguments/evidence for and against a position or viewpoint. ?What are the strengths/advantages and weaknesses/disadvantages of _____________? ?Multiple Perspective-Taking: to view an issue from a variety of viewpoints, standpoints, or positions in order to gain a more comprehensive and holistic understanding. ?How would people from different ethnic or racial groups view this ________? ?How would people from different socioeconomic backgrounds be affected by ________? ?How would people who differ in age or gender react to _________? ?Causal Reasoning: to identify cause-effect relationships between different ideas or actions. How would you explain why ___________ occurred? ?What is responsible for _____________? ?How would _____________ affect or influence ___________? ?Ethical Reasoning: to identify what is morally right/ wrong or good/bad about particular ideas, attitudes, or practices. What does ____________say about a person’s values? ?What are the moral implications of _____________? ?Are the expressed or professed convictions of _______________ consistent with actual ?commitments and observable actions?Creative Thinking: to generate imaginative ideas, unique perspectives, innovative strategies, or novel (alternative) approaches to traditional practices. (Note: Although critical and creative thinking are often seen as separate cognitive skills, the latter is included because it does involve thought processes that are deeper or higher than memorization.) ?What might be a metaphor or analogy for ___________? ?What could be invented to _______________? ?What might happen if ______________? (hypothetical reasoning) ?Assignment: Review the following on Argumentation and the Review of the Argumentative Essay. Apply it by writing a thesis, intro, one body paragraph, one counterargument, conclusion, and a Works Cited page. Email it to you instructor. Let’s Review ARGUMENTATIONArgumentation is the appeal to reason (Logos).Persuasive essays can be argumentative but they can also appeal to ethos, pathos, and logos. However, usually persuasion appeals to pathos. Ethos is an appeal to ethics, and it is a means of convincing someone of the character or credibility of the persuader."Our expertise in roofing contracting is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers who have come to expect nothing but the best."Pathos is an appeal to emotion, and is a way of convincing an audience of an argument by creating an emotional response."If we don’t move soon, we’re all going to die! Can’t you see how dangerous it would be to stay?"Logos is an appeal to logic, and is a way of persuading an audience by reason."Research compiled by analysts from NASA, as well as organizations from five other nations with space programs, suggests that a moon colony is viable with international support."Steps for ArgumentationTopic: A topic that must be debatable. You, the writer, must take a stand or position. You state a proposition that at least some people will object to.Thesis—You will “argue” your position in the form of a thesis. For example: Education is the best way to address the problem of increased drug use among teenagers. Anti-thesis—A way to develop a counter-argument or an opposite position to see if it is “debatable.”For example: Education is not the best way to address the problem of increased drug use among teenagers because…Gathering and Documenting Evidence—All points in your paper must be supported because if they are not, your reader will dismiss them as irrelevant and unclear, or even outlandishly opinionated. Kinds of EvidenceFacts: statements or statistics that most people agree are true and that can be verified independentlyOpinions are the interpretation of the facts in the form of commentary/elaboration in SUPPORT of your positionCriteria for EvidenceRelevant: should support your thesis and be pertinent to your argumentDon’t be so into your evidence that you digress and lose sight of your argumentFor example: A student arguing for mandatory HIV testing for all health care workers, illustrated this point through a discussion of the bubonic plague in fourteenth century Europe. Although interesting, the example was not relevant. To show its relevance the student would have to link his discussion to his assertions about AIDS comparing it to the spread of the bubonic plague in the 14th century. Representative—represent the full range of opinions and not just one side. For example, in an essay arguing against the use of animals in medical experimentation, you would not just use information provided by animal rights activist. You would also use information supplied by medical researcher, pharmaceutical companies, and perhaps medical ethicists. Typical—not aberrant or unusualFor example, Suppose you are writing an essay in support of building a trash-to-steam plant in your city. To support your thesis, you present the example of Baltimore, which has a successful trash-to-steam program. As you consider your evidence, ask yourself if Baltimore’s experience with trash-to-steam is typical. Did other cities have less success? Take a close look at the opinions that disagree with the position you plan to take. If you understand your opposition, you can refute it effectively when you write your paper. Sufficient—enough facts, opinion, and examples to support your claims. At least two points as per the formulaIt stands to reason that you would use fewer examples in a two-page paper than in a ten-page research assignment. Similarly, an audience that is favorably disposed to your thesis might need only one or two examples to be convinced, whereas a skeptical or hostile audience would need many Documentation of Evidence—reputable print/electroinic resources to support your claims.Whenever you use such evidence in your paper, you have to document it by providing the source of the information. If you don’t document your sources, your readers are likely to dismiss your evidence, thinking that it may be inaccurate, unreliable, or simply false. Documentation gives readers the ability to evaluate the sources you cite and to consult them if they wish. When you document sources, you establish credibility by showing readers that you are honest and have nothing to hide. Documentation also helps you avoid plagiarism — presenting the ideas or words of others as if they were your own. Dealing with the OppositionRefutation—opposing the anti-thesis argument by showing that they are unsound, unfair, or weak. This will make your case strongerYou will present evidence to show the weakness of your opponent’s points.When an opponent’s argument is so compelling that it cannot be easily dismissed, you should concede its strength (admit that it is valid). By acknowledging that a point is well taken, you reinforce the impression that you are a fair-minded person. After conceding the strength of the opposing argument, try to identify its limitations and then move your argument to more solid ground. (Often an opponent’s strong point addresses only one facet of a multifaceted problem.) Types of ArgumentsRogerian—after Carl Rogers—writing without assuming an adversarial relationshipWith this approach, now known as Rogerian argument, you enter into a cooperative relationship with opponents. Instead of aggressively refuting opposing arguments, you emphasize points of agreement and try to find common ground. You thus collaborate to find mutually satisfying solutions. By adopting a conciliatory attitude, you demonstrate your respect for opposing viewpoints and your willingness to compromise and work toward a position that both you and those who Begin by summarizing opposing viewpoints. Carefully consider the position of those who disagree with you. What are their legitimate concerns? If you were in their place, how would you react? Present opposing viewpoints accurately and fairly. Demonstrate your respect for the ideas of those who disagree with you. Concede the strength of a compelling opposing argument. Acknowledge the concerns you and your opposition share. Point out to reader show they will benefit from the position you are defining. Present the evidence that supports your viewpoint. Deductive and Inductive ArgumentsDeductive—proceeds from the general premise to a specific conclusionThe basic form of a deductive argument is a syllogism. A syllogism consists of a major premise, which is a general statement; a minor premise, which is a related but more specific statement; and a conclusion, which is drawn from those premises. Consider the following example. Major premise: All Olympic runners are fast.Minor premise: Jesse Owens was an Olympic runnerConclusion: Therefore, Jesse Owens was fast. Inductive—moving from specific examples or fact to a general conclusionFirst, you decide on a question to be answered—the hypothesisThen, you gather the evience that is relevant to the questions and that may be important to finding the answerFinally, you move from your evidence to your conclusion by making an inference—a statement about the unknown based on the known—that answers the question and takes the evidence into account.For example: Question: How did that living-room window get broken?Evidence: There is a baseball on the living room floor. The baseball was not there this morning. Some children were playing baseball this afternoon They were playing in the vacant lot across from the window. They stopped playing a little while ago They aren’t in the vacant lot now.Conclusion: One of the children hit or threw the ball through the window; then, they all ran away. Other forms: Toulmin Logic, (pgs. 536-537)What NOT to do: (pgs. 537-540)Fallacies, Begging the Question, Argument from Analogy, Personal Attack, Sweeping Generalization, False Dilemma, Equivocation, Red Herring, You Also, Appleal to Doubful Authority, Misleading Statistics. Post Hoc, Non Sequitur.STRUCTURING AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYThesis—must have a subject and opinion with two to three prongs of focus using words from your thesis. IntroductionCompelling lead-inBackground informationThesis at the end1st Body ParagraphTopic sentence addressing the first prong of your argumentPOINT 1 OF PROVING YOUR ARGUMENTConcrete Detail of the first prong Facts, statistics from reputable resources (in-text citation)Commentary----explaining the concrete detailElaboration—connecting the concrete detail and the commentary to the topic sentence AND the THESIS. Transitional sentence to the second point. II.POINT 2 OF PROVING YOUR ARGUMENTConcrete Detail of the first prong Facts, statistics from reputable resources(in-text citation)Commentary----explaining the concrete detailElaboration—connecting the concrete detail and the commentary to the topic sentence AND the THESIS. Concluding/transitional sentence to the second prong of your argument2nd Body ParagraphTopic sentence addressing the second prong of your argument using words from your thesis. POINT 1 OF PROVING YOUR ARGUMENTConcrete Detail of the first prong Facts, statistics from reputable resources (in-text citation)Commentary----explaining the concrete detailElaboration—connecting the concrete detail and the commentary to the topic sentence AND the THESIS. Transitional sentence to the second point. II.POINT 2 OF PROVING YOUR ARGUMENT Concrete Detail of the first prong Facts, statistics from reputable resources (in-text citation)Commentary----explaining the concrete detailElaboration—connecting the concrete detail and the commentary to the topic sentence AND the THESIS. Concluding/transitional sentence to the COUNTER-ARGUMENT OF YOUR ESSAY. 3rd Body Paragraph--The Counter-ArgumentPoint 1 of the Counter-ArgumentTopic sentence stating the counter-argument. For example: Some people view…however, ..Concrete detail disproving or refuting the anti-thesisFact or statistics disproving the anti-thesis (in-text citation)Commentary—explaining the concrete detail in relationship to your topic sentence’s focus of the second contrast in your topic sentenceElaboration—on how this relates to proving your argument.Transitional sentence to the second upcoming point. Point 2 of the Counter-ArgumentTopic sentence stating the counter-argument. For example: Some people view…however, ..Concrete detail disproving or refuting the anti-thesis (in-text citation)Fact or statistics disproving the anti-thesisCommentary—explaining the concrete detail in relationship to your topic sentence’s focus of the second contrast in your topic sentence. (This will be more than one sentence)Elaboration—on how this relates to proving your argument. (This is more than one sentence.)Transition to the Conclusion of your essay. Concluding ParagraphTopic sentenceRestating your thesis without using the exact wordsExplain the significance of your argument without restating your argumentative points.No new informationEnd with a strong closing statement. Works CitedTitle centeredDouble spacedAlphabeticalMLA Format. The FormulaThesis: S+O+P (subject + opinion + prongs)Body Paragraphs: TS+CD+CM(x2)+EL(x2)+TS x 2 (topic sentence + concrete detail + commentary two sentence+ elaboration two sentences + transitional sentence two times)Counter Argument: ATS+DS+CD+CM+EL +TS x 2 (Anti-thesis sentence + disproving sentence+ concrete detail +commentary two sentence +elaboration two sentence two timesConclusion: RTD + SA+SCS (restate thesis differently + significance of your argument +strong closing statement. The ThesisSubjectTrue happinessOpinionis inner tranquility achieved Prong (2-3)by practicing the Golden Rule and living mindfully. EXAMPLESTopic SentencesTrue happiness is through compassion often realized by the Golden Rule which is treating others as you would want to be treated.Another way to achieve true happiness is being able to focus on the actual experience of the moment. Concrete DetailThe Dalai Lama, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in , states that “The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes. Cultivating a close, warm-hearted feeling for others automatically puts the mind at ease. This helps remove whatever fears or insecurities we may have and gives us the strength to cope with any obstacles we encounter. It is the ultimate source of success in life.” (Dalai Lama)Commentary and ElaborationIt seems what the Dalai Lama means is that by caring for another, we care for ourselves and thereby create a sense of peace to be successful in confronting our fears and insecurities. If we do unto others as we would like to have done to us, we are practicing compassion ultimately for ourself. If you love yourself, then you are not so concerned about uncertainties. A simple example is the following: If I smile at a stranger, and ultimately that stranger returns the smile, I forget for a nano-second of the atrocities that blanket the news headlines that day. I feel the warmth of connection and compassion in a simple act of smiling to someone because I would like someone to smile to me. This feeling of reciprocity from the actions of golden rule produces a sense of contentment and an expression of love that “ultimately, (is) the reason why love and compassion bring the greatest happiness (because it) is simply that our nature cherishes them above all else. The need for love lies at the very foundation of human existence” (“Compassion and the Individual”). It is seemingly this love that creates true happiness. Transitional Sentence to Second PointWhile compassion is at the root of the Golden Rule, the ethics of dignity is also at the core of practicing the Golden Rule for true happiness.The Counter ArgumentHowever, some would argue that the Golden Rule does not produce happiness but only a sense of obligation that once practiced produces the happiness. In other words, others may argue that the happiness is a product of our ego for ethically doing the righteous thing. The point that the opposition fails to recognize is the sense of true in true happiness as opposed to normal happiness. Yes, we pat ourselves on the back for doing the right thing, however, that righteous happiness is seemingly short lived. Dr. Mark Atkinson, states that “True Happiness is worlds apart from ‘normal’ happiness.?True happiness describes a?deep sense of inner well-being, peace and vitality?that is with you most of the time in most circumstances” (Atkinson). Seemingly, if you do something out of obligation, then you will be happy for fulfilling your duty; however, if you do something out of love or compassion, you connect with the source of happiness—loving others as you love yourself. For example, if you smile at someone because you are told it will make you happy, perhaps your happiness is only in response to the prescription of happiness: do unto other so you can feel good about yourself. Whereas, truly smiling at someone because deep down you would like someone to smile for you, instead of the duty of smiling, connects with the real outcome of the action—love shared. Yet, someone might still argue that that love is produced only from obligation and not true happiness. (transitional sentence to the next point)Concluding Topic SentenceBy observing the Golden Rule and recognizing the value of each and every occurrence in our lives attentively, authentic contentment is realized. This is the basis for true happiness. Happiness is the core of every human’s desire. It is the force for working for tomorrow. It is the catalyst for building relationships. It is the foundation of humanity. So, forget about all the many self-help books, the admonitions of teachers and parents, and the quest for the holy grail of success, true happiness is simply personified with an unassuming act of thinking how you would want to be respected and respect others in that way. . ................
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