ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY | Science of the human body
Chapter 12 Blood
| Blood composition: |
|Blood, a type of__connective_ tissue, is a complex mixture of what three things? Cells, fluid, and chemicals |
|functions: What are the functions of blood? Transports substances and maintains a stable environment |
| Blood Cells: |
|The blood includes what three types of cells? Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets |
|Blood Volume and Composition |
|A blood ____hematocrit____ is normally _45___% cells and _____55___% plasma. |
| RBC = erythrocyte: |
|Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are biconcave disks that contain one-third oxygen-carrying _hemoglobin__ by |
|volume. |
|When oxygen combines with hemoglobin bright red__oxyhemoglobin_____ results. |
|Deoxygenated blood (__deoxyhemoglobin_______________) is darker. |
|Red blood cells discard their _ nucleus___ during development and so cannot reproduce or produce |
|proteins. |
| RBC counts: |
|What is a typical RBC count for males? 4.6 to 6.2 million/mm3 For females? 4.2 – 5.4 million/mm3 |
| RBC production: |
|In the embryo and fetus, red blood cell production occurs in the yolk sac, _liver____, and spleen; |
|after birth, it occurs in the red ___bone marrow_____________ _________________________. |
|The average life span of a red blood cell is ___120 days_____________________. |
|Control: The total number of red blood cells remains relatively constant due to a __negative___ |
|feedback mechanism utilizing the hormone _erythropoietin__which is released from the kidneys |
|and liver in response to the detection of low __oxygen____ levels. |
| |
|Dietary Factors Affecting Red Blood Cell Production |
|Vitamins _B12___ and __folic_ acid are needed for DNA synthesis, so they are necessary for the |
|reproduction of all body cells, especially in hematopoietic tissue. |
|____iron________ is needed for hemoglobin synthesis. |
|A deficiency in red blood cells or quantity of hemoglobin results in a disorder called __anemia___. |
|Destruction of Red Blood Cells |
|With age, red blood cells become increasingly fragile and are damaged by passing through __capillaries_. |
|Macrophages in the _liver__ and __spleen___ phagocytize damaged red blood cells. |
|Hemoglobin from the decomposed red blood cells is converted into ___heme___ and __globin_. |
|What happens to the heme and iron? Recycled back to be incorporated into new red blood cells |
| WBC = leukocyte: |
|WBC’s are formed from __hemocytoblasts_____ in response to hormones when needed. |
|Five types of white blood cells are in circulating blood and are distinguished by size, granular appearance of the |
|cytoplasm, shape of the nucleus, and staining characteristics. Name these five types of leukocytes. |
|Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes |
| What is the basic function of the white blood cells? Protection (by defending against disease) |
| WBC counts: |
|Normally a cubic milliliter of blood contains between _5,000___ & __10,000___ white blood cells. |
|A ___differential_________ white blood cell count can help pinpoint the nature of an illness, indicating |
|whether it is caused by bacteria or viruses. |
|This white blood cell count lists the percentages of the types of leukocytes in a blood sample. |
|_____leukocytosis______ occurs after an infection when excess numbers of leukocytes are present. |
|_____leukopenia_____ (too few WBC’s) occurs from a variety of conditions, including AIDS. |
| granulocytes: |
|Why is this group called granulocytes? Granules are observed in their cytoplasm when stained with certain stains |
| neutrophils: |
| |
|Neutrophils have _red__-staining fine cytoplasmic granules and a _multi-lobed nucleus; they comprise |
|what percentage of leukocytes? 54 to 62% |
| |
|What is their function? Phagocytize bacteria, fungi, and some viruses |
| |
|What does diapedesis mean? Squeezing between cells in blood vessel walls |
| eosinophils: |
|Eosinophils have coarse granules that stain deep , a _bi__-lobed nucleus, and make up only ___1 to 3___% of |
|circulating leukocytes |
|What are their functions? Moderate allergic reactions, defend against certain parasites |
| basophils: |
|Basophils have fewer granules that stain __deep blue__; they account for fewer than 1_% of leukocytes. |
| |
|Basophils produce chemicals, what are the functions of these chemicals? Increase blood flow to damaged tissues |
| |
|How do they help fight pathogens? Promote inflammation responses |
| agranulocytes: |
|Why are they called agranulocytes? They lack the characteristic cytoplasmic granules |
| monocytes: |
|Monocytes are the ___largest____ blood cells, have _oval_-shaped nuclei. What percentage of |
|circulating leukocytes do they comprise? 3% to 9% |
|What is the function of the monocytes? Phagocytize bacteria and cellular debris |
| lymphocytes: |
|Lymphocytes are long-lived, have a large, __spherical___ nucleus, and account for ___25 - 33_% of |
|circulating leukocytes. |
| |
|What is their function? Involved in immunity responses |
| platelets = thrombocytes: |
|Blood platelets are fragments of big cells called ___megakaryocytes_______. |
|Platelets help repair damaged blood vessels by adhering____ to their broken edges. |
|Normal counts vary from __130,000___ to __360,000___________ platelets per mm3. |
| Plasma |
|Plasma is the clear, straw-colored fluid portion of the blood. |
|Plasma is mostly ___water_____ but contains a variety of substances. |
|What are plasma’s functions? Transjport of nutrients and gases, regulates fluid and electrolyte balance, maintains acid base balance |
| Plasma proteins: The plasma proteins are the most abundant dissolved substances in the plasma. |
|Briefly describe the functions of the following plasma proteins. |
|albumin: maintain the correct osmotic pressure of the plasma |
| |
|globulin: transport of lipids and fat-soluble vitamins, some are a type of antibody |
| |
|clotting proteins: play an important role in blood clotting process |
| |
|hormones: Regulate and control physiological function |
| |
|Other Plasma Components: |
|Nutrients and Gases |
|What are the two most important blood gases? Oxygen and carbon dioxide |
|The plasma nutrients include amino acids, monosaccharides, nucleotides, and lipids. |
|Types of lipoproteins include HDL, LDL, VLDL, and chylomicrons. |
|Nonprotein Nitrogenous Substances generally include amino acids, urea, and uric acid. What are they from? |
|Plasma electrolytes are absorbed by the intestine or are by-products of cellular metabolism. They include |
|sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulfate ions. |
|Hemostasis: |
|Hemostasis refers to the ___stoppage of bleeding___________________________________ |
|Following injury to a vessel, three steps occur in hemostasis: blood vessel spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation |
| |
|trauma ----> Cutting a blood vessel causes the muscle in its walls to contract in a reflex, or engage in |
|_vasospasm_______ This reflex lasts only a few minutes, but it lasts long enough to initiate the second and |
|third steps of hemostasis. |
|spasm of injured vessel ----> platelet plug ----> Platelets stick to the exposed edges of __damaged__ blood vessels, |
|forming a _net___ with spiny processes protruding from their membranes. A platelet plug is most effective |
|on a small vessel. |
|Platelets release a factor leading to the third step of hemostasis. |
| |
|Coagulation: |
|Blood coagulation is the most effective means of hemostasis. It is very complex and uses clotting factors. |
|Damaged tissues release a chemical called tissue __thromboplastin__, which activates the first in a series of |
|factors leading to the production of _prothrombin__ activator. |
|This activator converts inactive _prothrombin___ in the plasma into __thrombin_______. This in turn, |
|catalyzes a reaction that converts soluble _fibrinogen_ into netlike __fibrin_____ causing the blood |
|cells to catch in the net. |
|Once a blood clot forms, it promotes still more clotting through __positive__ feedback system. |
|What happens after the clot forms? Fibroblasts produce fibers throughout the clot |
|A clot that forms abnormally in a vessel is a ___thrombus_____; if it dislodges, it is an _embolus_____________. |
| |
|What is hemophilia? Abnormal bleeding because blood fails to clot normally |
| |
|Blood Groups and Transfusions |
|After mixed success with transfusions, scientists determined that blood was of different types and only certain |
|combinations were compatible. |
|Clumping of red blood cells following transfusion is called __agglutination________________________. |
|This clumping is due to the interaction of proteins on the surfaces of red blood cells called __antigens__ with |
|certain proteins called _antibodies___ carried in the plasma. |
| |
|blood types: A, B, AB, O: |
|What is an antigen? Special proteins found on the surface of cells |
|What is an antibody? Special protein in the blood plasm that interact with specific antigen |
|type A has what type of antigens and antibodies? |
|Has A type antigens and anti-B antibodies |
|type B has ….. B-type antigens and anti-A antibodies |
| |
|type AB has …. Both A-type and B-type antigens and neither type of antibodies |
| |
|Type O has …. Neither type of antigen but both types of blood antibodies |
| |
| |
|RH Blood Types |
|The Rh factor was named after the __rhesus______ monkey. |
|If the Rh factor surface protein is present on red blood cells, the blood is Rh __positive_______; if not, it |
|is Rh __negative______. |
|There are no corresponding antibodies in the plasma unless a person with Rh-negative blood is transfused with Rh- |
|positive blood; the person will then develop antibodies for the Rh factor. |
|____erythroblastosis fetalis______ develops in Rh-positive fetuses of Rh-negative mothers but can now |
|be prevented. |
| |
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