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V A R N A F R E E U N I V E R S I T YGLOBALIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTLECTURER: DR. PETROS KOSMAS Which are the Characteristics of a Post-Industrial Society?If a society becomes "post-industrial" it passes through, or dodges, a phase of society predominated by a manufacturing-based economy and moves on to a structure of society based on the provision of information, innovation, finance, and services This term was coined by the US sociologist Daniel Bell in his 1974 book “The Coming Of Post-Industrial Society” and described by him as a society characterized by the “centrality” of theoretical knowledge as the source of innovation and policy formation for the society.As the term has been used, a few common themes (not limited to those below) have begun to emerge.The economy undergoes a transition from the production of goods to the provision of services.Knowledge becomes a valued form of capital (e.g., the knowledge produced through the Human Genome Project).Producing ideas is the main way to grow the economy.Through processes of globalization and automation, the value and importance to the economy of blue-collar, unionized work, including manual labor (e.g., assembly-line work) decline, and those of professional workers (e.g. scientists, creative-industry professionals, and IT professionals) grow in value and prevalence.Behavioral and information sciences and technologies are developed and implemented. (e.g. behavioral economics, information architecture, cybernetics, game theory and information theory).Analyse the 3 basics stands Characteristics in the sociology of work and industry The Marxian strand Characteristics of the Post-Industrial SocietyMarx’s analytical work has been a major input to sociological thinking providing an analysis of the key characteristics of capitalist societies and of the tendency of the class-based nature and the contradictions of capitalism to bring about its eventual collapse.In contemporary industrial sociology a focus on the labour processes at the heart of capitalist functioning has produced important debates, theoretical refinements and empirical studies of work activities and organisational processes.The Durkheim/systems strand in the sociology of work and industryEmile Durkheim (1858-1917) was one of the creators of the discipline of sociology and his thinking emphasises the structural and ‘communal’ aspects of societies and their division of labour.Consistent with Durkheim’s approach are the mid-twentieth century ‘Human Relations’ and ‘systems-thinking’ industrial sociologies and the late 20th century advocacy of ‘strong’ corporate cultures.The Weber/-interpretivist strand in the sociology of work and industryMax Weber (1864-1920) created some of the main foundations of modern sociology, attempting a balance between considerations of processes at a historical/ societal level and processes of interpretation and action at the individual level. He analysed the processes of rationalisation underlying modernisation and noted the unintended consequences of aspects of this, especially with regard to bureaucratisation.The interpretive emphasis in the Weberian tradition inspired the sociology of work tradition of analysing ‘orientations to work’ and is seen in more institutional-level analyses of social-construction-of-reality processes.The interactionist strand in the sociology of work and industryMembers of the Chicago School of sociology have made a distinctive contribution to the sociology of work and organisations, Theoretically, with the symbolic interactionist view of organisations as negotiated orders and, empirically, with their emphasis on field studies and detailed analyses of work and occupational activity, especially ‘dirty work’ activities.Which are the differences between Standard and non-standard employment?Standard employment Employment in which the contract between the employer and employee is understood to be one in which the employee is likely to stay with the employer over the long term at a particular location, putting in a working day and week which is normal for that industry and receiving regular pay and the protection of pension and sick pay benefits.Non-standard employment Employment in which contracts between employers and employees are short-term and unstable with the worker taking part-time, temporary and, sometimes, multiple jobs – the work sometimes being at home rather than in an organisationally located workplace and there being little by way of employment benefits.Which are three dimensions of how a particular type of work is understood and evaluated:Occupational identity: The broad understanding in a society of what activities occur within a particular occupation and what contribution that occupation makes to society. Occupational culture: A more developed version of the publicly available occupational identity which is used within the occupation to provide ideas, values, norms, procedures and artefacts to shape. Occupational activities and enable members to value the work that they do. Occupational ideology: an expression of an occupational identity devised by an occupational group, or by its spokespersons, to legitimate the pursuit of the group members' common occupationally-related interests. Sociologists have used 3 ranges of ways of characterising contemporary or emergent forms of social organisation. Analyse this ranges. Post-industrial society, in which the centrally important resource is knowledge, service work has largely replaced manufacturing employment and knowledge-based occupations play a privileged role,Post-Fordism - a pattern of industrial organisation and employment policy in which skilled and trusted labour is used continuously to develop and customise products for small markets, Postmodernity – in which activities across the globe are reshaped with trends towards both globalisation and more localised activity. A greater plurality of interest groups appears, ‘image’ and consumption play a key role in people’s consciousness with pleasure replacing the old emphasis on work as a virtue in its own right. Work organisations become much more decentralised and people’s experience within them changes. Analyse the Conceptual Definition of GlobalizationGlobalization?(or?globalisation) describes the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through a global network of communication, transportation, and trade. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology. However, globalization is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic, technological, sociocultural, political, and biological factors.?The term can also refer to the transnational circulation of ideas, languages, or popular culture?through acculturation.Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways. Analyse the political, economic and financial aspects.Political?- some use "globalization" to mean the creation of a world government which regulates the relationships among governments and guarantees the rights arising from social and economic globalization. Politically, the United States has enjoyed a position of power among the world powers, in part because of its strong and wealthy economy. With the influence of globalization and with the help of The United States’ own economy, the People's Republic of China has experienced some tremendous growth within the past decade. Among the political effects some scholars also name the transformation of sovereignty. In their opinion, 'globalization contributes to the change and reduction of nomenclature and scope of state sovereign powers, and besides it is a bilateral process: on the one hand, the factors are strengthening that fairly undermine the countries' sovereignty, on the other – most states voluntarily and deliberately limit the scope of their sovereignty'.Economic - realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and capital. The interconnectedness of these markets, however, meant that an economic collapse in one area could impact other areas. With globalization, companies can produce goods and services in the lowest cost location. This may cause jobs to be moved to locations that have the lowest wages, least worker protection and lowest health benefits. For Industrial activities this may cause production to move to areas with the least pollution regulations or worker safety regulations.Financial - emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for borrowers. By the early part of the 21st century more than $1.5 trillion in national currencies were traded daily to support the expanded levels of trade and investment. As these worldwide structures grew more quickly than any transnational regulatory regime, the instability of the global financial infrastructure dramatically increased, as evidenced by the Financial Crisis of 2007 – to date.Which is the process European Integration?European integration?is the process of political, legal, economic?(and in some cases social and cultural) integration?of states wholly or partially in Europe. In the present day, European integration has primarily come about through the EU?and the Council of Europe. Integration may conflict with national sovereignty and cultural identity by?eurosceptics. Which are the main concept of Sustainable development and the main sections of the 40 chapters in the Agenda 21?In 1987, the?United Nations?released the Brundland Report, which defines sustainable development as “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Agenda 21?is an action plan of the?United Nations related to?SD?and was an outcome of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janerio, Brazil, in 1992. There are 40 chapters in the Agenda 21, divided into four main sections.Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions which deals with combating poverty, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, change population and sustainable settlementSection II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development Includes atmospheric protection, combating?deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), and control of pollution.Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups Includes the roles of children and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and workers.Section IV: Means of Implementation Implementation?includes science,?technology transfer,?education, international institutions and financial mechanisms.Which are the practice and the forms of a Cultural Imperialism?Cultural imperialism?is the practice of promoting a more powerful culture over a least known or desirable culture. It is usually the case that the former belongs to a large, economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter belongs to a smaller, less powerful one. Forms of Cultural ImperialismIn the stronger variants of the term,?world domination?(in a cultural sense) is the explicit goal of the nation-states or corporations that export the culture.The term is usually used in a pejorative sense, usually in conjunction with a call to reject foreign influence. It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products.The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as consumerism). David Rothkopf on dealing with cultural dominance argued that "Multicultural societies, be they nations, federations, or other conglomerations of closely interrelated states, discern those aspects of culture that do not threaten union, stability, or prosperity (such as food, holidays, rituals, and music) and allow them to flourish. But they counteract or eradicate the more subversive elements of culture (exclusionary aspects of religion, language, and political/ideological beliefs). History shows that bridging cultural gaps successfully and serving as a home to diverse peoples requires certain social structures, laws, and institutions that transcend culture. Furthermore, the history of a number of ongoing experiments in?multiculturalism, such as in the?EU,?India,?South Africa Canada?and the US, suggests that workable, if not perfected, integrative models exist. Each is built on the idea that tolerance is crucial to social well-being, and each at times has been threatened by both intolerance and a heightened emphasis on cultural distinctions. The greater public good warrants eliminating those cultural characteristics that promote conflict or prevent harmony, even as less-divisive, more personally observed cultural distinctions are celebrated and preserved." Analyse Rothkopf’s statement12. How we can reduce Poverty today?1) Capital, infrastructure and technologyInvestments in?human capital, in the form of health, is needed for?economic development. Nations do not necessarily need wealth to gain health.Cheap?water filters and promoting?hand washing?are some of the most cost effective health interventions and can cut?deaths.?Knowledge on the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions can be elusive but educational measures to disseminate what works are available, such as the disease control priorities project. UN economists argue that good infrastructure, such as roads and information networks, helps market reforms to work. It was the technology of the steam engine that originally began the dramatic decreases in poverty levels. Twelve years of education, that is completing secondary school, protects 80 per cent of young people against poverty. 2) AidAid in its simplest form is a basic income grant, a form of social security?periodically providing citizens with?money. Researchers say it is more efficient to support the?families?and?extended families?that care for the vast?majority?of orphans with simple allocations of cash than supporting orphanages, who get most of the aid. Another form of aid is microloans, made famous by the?Grammeen Bank, where small amounts of money are loaned to farmers or villages, mostly women, who can then obtain physical capital to increase their economic rewards.? 3) Empowering WomenEmpowering?women?has helped some countries increase and sustain economic development.?When given more?rights?and opportunities women begin to receive more education, thus increasing the overall?human capital?of the country; When given more influence women seem to act more responsibly in helping people in the family or village; and when better educated and more in control of their lives, women are more successful in bringing down rapid population growth because they have more say in?family planning.Which are the Systemic Tools of International Relations?Diplomacy?is the practice of communication and?negotiation?between representatives of states. To some extent, all other tools of international relations can be considered the failure of diplomacy. Keeping in mind, the use of other tools are part of the communication and negotiation inherent within diplomacy. Sanctions, force, and adjusting trade regulations, while not typically considered part of diplomacy, are actually valuable tools in the interest of leverage and placement in negotiations.Sanctions?are usually a first resort after the failure of diplomacy, and are one of the main tools used to enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or economic sanctions and involve the cutting of ties and imposition of barriers to communication or trade.War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ultimate tool of international relations. A widely accepted definition is that given by Clausewitz, with war being "the continuation of politics by other means". There is a growing study into 'new wars' involving actors other than states. The?mobilization of international shame?can also be thought of as a tool of International Relations. This is attempting to alter states' actions through 'naming and shaming' at the international level. This is mostly done by the large human rights NGOs such as Amnesty InternationalAnalyse Lee's laws of ImmigrationMany political or economic emigrants move together with their families toward new regions or new countries where they hope to find peace or job opportunities not available to them in their original location. Motives to migrate can be either incentives attracting people away, known as pull factors, or circumstances encouraging a person to leave, known as push factors. When the opportunity cost?is lower, the immigration rates tend to be higher Push factors refer primarily to the motive for emigration?from the country of origin. In the case of economic migration (usually labour migration), differentials in wage rates?are prominent. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in one’s native country, he or she may choose to migrate as long as the costs are not too high. Poor individuals from less developed countries?can?have far higher standards of living in developed countries than in their originating countries. The cost of emigration, which includes both the explicit costs, the ticket price, and the implicit cost, lost work time and loss of community ties, also play a major role in the pull of emigrants away from their native country.? The main push factors are:Not enough jobsFew opportunitiesPrimitive conditionsDesertificationFamine or droughtPolitical fear or persecutionSlavery or forced laborPoor medical careLoss of wealthNatural disastersDeath threatsLack of political or religious freedomPollutionPoor housingLandlord/tenant issuesBullyingDiscriminationPoor chances of marryingCondemned Housing (Radon Gas etc.)War/Civil WarEscape from?poverty?(personal or for relatives staying behind) is a traditional push factor. The main pull factors are:? Immigrants may be prompted by the desire to escape civil war or?repression?in the country of origin.?Better opportunities for acquiring farms for self and children Cheap purchase of farmland Instant wealth More job opportunities Higher pay Prepaid travel (from relatives) Better welfare programmes Better schools Join friends and relatives who have already moved Build a new nation Build religious community Political freedomDouglas Massey argues that a bifurcating labor market in developed nations creates a?structural demand?for unskilled immigrant labor to fill undesirable jobs that native-born citizens do not take,?regardless of wages. Analyse Massey’s argument.This theory states that?postindustrial?economies have a widening gap between well-paying, white-collar jobs that require ever higher levels of education and "human capital", which native-born citizens and legal immigrants can qualify to take, and bottom-tier jobs that are stigmatized and require no education. These "underclass" jobs include harvesting crops, unskilled labor in landscaping and construction, house-cleaning, and maid and busboy work in hotels and restaurants, all of which have a disproportionate number of illegal workers. The structural demand theory posits that simple willingness to work undesirable jobs, rather than for unusually low wages, is what gives illegal immigrants their employment.Structural demand theory argues that cases like this show that there is no direct competition between unskilled illegal immigrants and native-born workers. This is the concept that illegal immigrants "take jobs that no one else wants". Massey argues that this has certain implications for policy, as it may refute claims that illegal immigrants are "lowering wages" or stealing jobs from native-born workers. ................
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