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Unit 5 – 1750 to 1900"Scramble for Africa" - Sudden wave of conquests in Africa by European powers in the 1800s and 1900s; Britain obtained most of eastern Africa, France most of northwestern Africa; other countries (Germany, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain) acquired lesser amounts"Separate spheres" - Nineteenth-century idea in Western societies that men and women, especially of the middle class, should have different roles in society: women as wives, mothers, and homemakers; men as breadwinners and participants in business and politics"White man's burden" - The idea that it is the responsibility of people of European descent to take care of people of other races due to their perceived superior culture, technology, government, etc.19th Amendment - Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1920) extended the right to vote to women in federal or state electionsAbolitionists - Men and women who agitated for a complete end to slavery; their pressure ended the British transatlantic slave trade in 1808 and slavery in British colonies in 1834; in the US, the activities of these people were one factor leading to the Civil WarAdam Smith - Scottish political economist and philosopher. His Wealth of Nations (1776) laid the foundations of classical free-market economic theory, government should not interfere with economics. Advocates Laissez Faire and founder of "invisible hand"Afrikaners - South Africans descended from Dutch and French settlers of the 17th century; their Great Trek founded new settler colonies in the 19th century; though a minority of South Africans, they held political power after 1910, imposing a system of racial segregation called apartheid after 1949Balance of Power - The policy in international relations by which, beginning in the 18th century, the major European states acted together to prevent any one of them from becoming too powerfulBastille Day - A large armory and state prison in the center of Paris that a mob of sans-culottes sacked on July 14, 1789, giving the masses arms for insurrection. had little practical consequence, but it was an enormous symbolic act against the ancien régime, inspired the revolutionaries, and is still celebrated today as the French holiday.Berlin Conference - (1884-1885) Conference that German chancellor Otto von Bismarck called to set rules for the partition of Africa; led to the creation of the Congo Free State under King Leopold II of BelgiumBessemer Process - An industrial process for making steel using a Bessemer converter to blast air through through molten iron and thus burning the excess carbon and impuritiesBoxer Rebellion - Also known as The Boxer Uprising, this was the popular peasant uprising in China (supported nationally), that blamed foreign people and institutions for the loss of the traditional Chinese way of life. "Boxers" were traditionally skilled fighters that attacked Westerners, beginning with Christian missionariesBusiness cycles - The periodic rises and falls that occur in all economies over timeCapitalism - The economic system of large financial institutions - banks, stock exchanges, investment companies - that first developed in early modern EuropeCecil Rhodes - (1853-1902) British entrepreneur and politician involved in the expansion of the British Empire from South Africa into Central Africa; the colonies of Souther Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and Nother Rhodesia (now Zambia) were named after himChaka of the Zulu - Leader of Zulu people, Around 1816 used highly disciplined warriors and good military organization to create a large centralized state. The Zulu land became part of British-controlled land in 1887.Charles Darwin - English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)Chinese Revolution - Revolution sparked when Nationalists overthrow the Qing Dynasty. These nationalists then clash with the communists resulting in a civil war (Long March). With the dynasties now overthrown China's government was significantly reformedColonialism - Policy by which a nation administers a foreign territory and develops its resources for the benefit of the greater powerCommittee of Public Safety - The leaders under Robespierre who organized the defenses of France, conducted foreign policy, and centralized authority during the period 1792-1795Congress of Vienna - (1814-1815) Meeting of representatives of European monarchs called to reestablish the old order after the defeat of Napoleon BonaparteCrimea - A Ukrainian peninsula between the Black Sea and the Sea of AzovCrimean War - (1853-1856) Conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires fought primarily in the Crimean Peninsula; to prevent Russian expansion, Britain and France sent troops to support the OttomansDependency Theory - A model of economic and social development that explains global inequality in terms of the historical exploitation of poor nations by rich onesDictatorship - A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator (not restricted by a constitution or laws or opposition etc.)Emancipation Act of 1861 - Alexander II's reform, together with a related reform in 1861, amounted to the liquidation of serf dependence previously suffered by peasants of the Russian EmpireEstates-General - France's traditional national assembly with representatives of the three estates, or classes, in French society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners; the calling of this group in 1789 led to the French RevolutionEthiopia - Only African state to successfully resist European attempts to colonizeExtraterritoriality - The right of foreign residents in a country to live under the laws of their native country and disregard the laws of the host country; in the 19th century and early 20th century, European and American nationals living in certain areas of Chinese and Ottoman cities were granted this rightFranco-Prussian War - 1870-71, war between France and Prussia; seen as German victory; seen as a struggle of Darwinism; led to Prussia being the most powerful European nation. Instigated by Bismarck; France seen as the aggressor.French Revolution - The revolution that began in 1789, overthrew the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and the system of aristocratic privileges, and ended with Napoleon's overthrow of the Directory and seizure of power in 1799Germany - The spread of nationalism led to the unification of this central European nation, following the Franco-Prussian War in 1871Haitian Revolution - Toussaint l'Ouverture led this uprising, which in 1790 resulted in the successful overthrow of French colonial rule on this Caribbean island. This revolution set up the first black government in the Western Hemisphere and the world's second democratic republic (after the US). The US was reluctant to give full support to this republic led by former slavesImperialism - A policy in which a strong nation seeks to dominate other countries poitically, socially, and economicallyImpressionism - A school of late 19th century French painters who pictured appearances by strokes of unmixed colors to give the impression of reflected lightIndian National Congress - A movement and political party founded in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in government; its membership was middle class, and its demands were modest until WWI; led after 1920 by Mohandas L. Gandhi, it appealed increasingly to the poor, and it organized mass protests demanding self-government and independenceIndustrial Revolution - The transformation of the economy, the environment, and living conditions, occurring first in England in the 18th century, that resulted from the use of steam engines, the mechanization of manufacturing in factories, and innovations in transportation and communicationJacobins - Radical republicans during the French Revolution; were led by Maximilien Robespierre from 1793-1794Janissaries - Christian boys, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826.Jose San Martin - South American general and statesman, born in Argentina: leader in winning independence for Argentina, Peru, and Chile; protector of PeruKaiser Wilhelm I - The King of Prussia who chose Otto Van Bismark to be his Prime Minister. He was eventually crowned Kaiser of Prussia and GermanyKarl Marx - (1818-1883) German journalist and philosopher; founder of a branch of socialism named after him; known for his two book: The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (Vols. I-III, 1867-1894)Klemons Metternich - The Austrian foreign minister from 1809 to 1848, he was a strong conservative who greatly opposed both liberalism and nationalism in the vast Austrian empire. He represented Austria at the Congress of ViennaLabor unions - An organization of workers in a particular industry or trade; created to defend the interests of members through strikes or negotiations with employersLaissez-faire - The idea that government should refrain from interfering in economic affairs; classic exposition of its principles is seen in Adam Smith's Wealth of NationsLiberalism - A political ideology that emphasizes the civil rights of the citizens, representative government, and the protection of private property; derived from the Enlightenment, was especially popular among the property-owning classes of Europe and North AmericaLiberia - A West African nation founded in 1822 by the American Colonization Society to serve as a homeland for free blacks to settleLouis XVI - King of France (1774-1792). In 1789 he summoned the Estates-General, but he did not grant the reforms that were demanded and revolution followed; he and his queen, Marie Antoinette, were executed in 1793.Marxism - The economic and political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that hold that human actions and institutions are economically determined and that class struggle is needed to create historical change and that capitalism will untimately be supersededMatthew Perry - A navy commander who, on July 8, 1853, became the first foreigner to break through the barriers that kept Japan isolated from the rest of the world for 250 yearsMaximilien Robespierre - (1758-1794) Young provincial lawyer who led the most radical phases of the French Revolution; his execution ended the reign of terrorMeiji Restoration - The political program that followed the destruction of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868, in which a collection of young leaders set Japan on the path of centralization, industrialization, and imperialismMexican Revolution - This revolution was characterized by several socialist, liberal, anarchist and agrarianist movements, led by Fransico Madero, 1810 to 1823. They fought for independence from Spain and for social justice; they wanted equal rights for Indians, mestizosMiguel Hildago - (1753-1811) Mexican priest who led the first stage of the Mexican independence war in 1810; was captured and executed in 1811Monopoly - Complete control of a product or business by one person or groupMost favored nation status - A clause in a commercial treaty that awards to any later signatories all the privileges previously granted to the original signatoriesMuhammad Ali - (1769-1849) Leader of Egyptian modernization in the early 19th century; ruled Egypt as an Ottoman governor but had imperial ambitions; his descendants ruled Egypt until overthrown in 1952Napoleon Bonaparte - (1769-1821) General who overthrew the French Directory in 1799 and became emperor of the French in 1804; failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814; returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exileNational Assembly - French Revolutionary assembly (1789-1791). Called first as the Estates General, the three estates came together and demanded radical change. It passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789Nationalism - The doctrine that nations should act independently (rather than collectively) to attain their goalsNatural selection - A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environmentOpen Door Policy - A policy, proposed by the United States in 1899, under which all nations would have equal opportunities to trade in ChinaOpium War - (1839-1842) War between Britain and the Qing Empire that was, in the British view, occasioned by the Qing government's refusal to permit the importation of opium into its territories; the victorious British imposed the one-sided Treaty of NankingOtto von Bismarck - (1815-1898) Chancellor (prime minister) of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany; was a conservative nationalist, led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire in 1871Panama Canal - Ship canal cut across an Isthmus by United States Army engineers; opened in 1914 and greatly shortened the sea voyage between the east and west coasts of North AmericaPedro - Joao's son, remained in Brazil to rule and did not return to Portugal to be educated, declared himself emperor of Brazil after they became independentPedro II - Son of Pedro who became ruler of Brazil in 1831 when his father abdicated the throne to him; reformed Brazilian economy into a major exporter of coffee; abolished slavery in 1888; last monarch of Brazil as the land owners were enraged by the abolition of slavery and revolted in 1889 making Brazil into a republicRacism - Discriminatory or abusive behavior towards members of another raceReign of Terror - A period during the French Revolution in which Robespierre led government, executed thousands of political figures and ordinary citizensRevolutions of 1848 - Democratic and nationalist revolutions that swept across Europe; the monarchy in France was overthrown; in Germany, Austria, Italy, and Hungary, the revolutions failedRusso-Japanese War - A 1904-1905 conflict between Russia and Japan, sparked by the two countries' efforts to dominate Manchuria and KoreaSepoy Rebellion - The revolt of Indian soldiers in 1857 against certain practices that violated religious customs; also known as the Sepoy MutinySierra Leone - Founded in 1787 as the first colony for freed slaves by a British antislavery group. Remained a British colony for 150 yearsSimón Bolivar - (1783-1830) The most important military leader in the struggle for independence in South America; born in Venezuela, led military forces there and in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and BoliviaSino-Japanese War - (1894-95) War fought between China and Japan. After Korea was opened to Japanese trade in 1876, it rapidly became an arena for rivalry between the expanding Japanese state and neighbouring ChinaSlave Trade Act of 1807 - Act for the abolition of the slave trade in the British EmpireSocial Darwinism - The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansionSocialism - A political ideology that originated in Europe in the 1830s; Followers advocated government protection of workers from exploitation by property owners and government ownership of industries; this ideology led to the founding of labor parties throughout Europe in the second half of the 19th centurySpanish American War - (1898) War fought between the US and Spain in Cuba and the Philippines. It lasted less than 3 months and resulted in Cuba's independence as well as the US annexing Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.Sphere of Influence - The area surrounding a settlement which is influenced by it in economic, political and social terms.Suez Canal - Ship canal dug across an isthmus in Egypt; designed by Ferdinand de Lesseps; opened to shipping in 1869; shortened the sea voyage between Europe and Asia; held strategic importance in the British conquest of Egypt in 1882Taiping Rebellion - (1851-1864) The most destructive civil war before the 20th century; a Christian-inspired rural rebellion that threatened to topple the Qing EmpireTanzimat reforms - "Restructuring" reforms by the 19th century Ottoman rulers, intended to move civil law away from the control of religious elites and make the military and the bureaucracy more efficientThe Ashanti - West Africa sovereign state of people of Ashanti, Ghana. The Ashantis (or Asantefo) are of Akan origin, and are a powerful, militaristic and highly disciplined people of West Africa inhabiting an area known as 'Akanland'. Their military power, which came from effective strategy and an early adoption of European firearmsThe Enclosure Act - Passed by English Parliament; made it so all agricultural lands had to be enclosed and if it could not be afforded then the lands had to be soldThe Enlightenment - A philosophical belief system in 18th century Europe that claimed that one could reform society by discovering rational laws that governed social behavior and were just as scientific as the laws of physicsToussain L'Ouverture - (1743-1803) Leader of the Haitian Revolution; freed the slaves and gained effective independence for Haiti despite military interventions by the British and FrenchTransportation Revolution - Term referring to a series of nineteenth century transportation innovations-turnpikes, steamboats, canals and railroads-that linked local and regional markets, creating a national economyTreaty of Nanking - (1842) The treaty that concluded the Opium War; awarded Britain a large indemnity from the Qing Empire, denied the Qing government tariff control over some of its own borders, opened additional ports of residence to Britons, and ceded the island of Hong Kong to BritainTreaty of Nerchinsk - China/Russia, A treaty between China and Russia. It helped these countries establish trade with each other and establishes the Amur River as the official border between China and RussiaU.S. Independence Revolution - United States revolts against British colonialism and the monarchyUnification of Germany - 1871, unified under Bismarck uses spirit of nationalism provoked by the Napoleonic wars; nationalist based on language and religion and culture (not civic nationalism like the French); what we get is "the worship of the state"; state not just agency that regulates relationships but a spiritual corporation; nationalism was an integrative force; Bismarck able to use reactionary nationalism to create modern nation-state; Huge German power in the center of Europe cause imbalance of power; threatened the systemUnification of Italy - In 1830s, nationalist leader, Giuseppe Mazzini, founded Young Italy whose goal was to constitute Italy as one free independent, republican nation. In 1860, ally of Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi recruited volunteers and won control of Sicily. Next, Garibaldi turned Naples and Sicily over to Victor Emmanuel.Victor Emmanuel II - King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia. Eventually became first king of a united Italy. Led the north in Italian unification and united with Garibaldi's south in 1861. Drove the pope into the Vatican city, and eventually made Rome the capital of ItalyVictorian Age - The reign of Queen Victoria of Great Britain (r.1837-1901); also used to describe late 19th century society, with its rigid moral standards and sharply differentiated roles for men and women and for middle-class and working-class peopleWomen's suffrage movement - International Movement of the 1880's, that sought to challenge the legal, political, and economic disabilities towards European and American women. This is historically significant because the women eventually gained the right to vote and the right to hold a job. The extension of enlightenment ideas onto womenZulu Kingdom - A people of modern South Africa whom King Shaka united in 1818Unit 6 – 1900 to PresentAdolf Hitler - Nazi leader of fascist Germany from 1933 to his suicide in 1945; created a strongly centralized state in Germany; eliminated all rivals; launched Germany on aggressive foreign policy leading to World War II; responsible for attempted genocide of European Jews.African National Congress - Black political organization within South Africa; pressed for end to policies of apartheid; sought open democracy leading to black majority rule; until the 1990s declared illegal in South Africa.Afrikaner National Party - Emerged as the majority party in the all-white South African legislature after 1948; advocated complete independence from Britain; favored a rigid system of racial segregation called apartheid.Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn - Russian author critical of the Soviet regime but also of western materialism; published trilogy on the Siberian prison camps, The Gulag Archipelago.Alexander Kerensky - Liberal revolutionary leader during the early stages of the Russian Revolution of 1917; sought development of parliamentary rule, religious freedom.Alfred Dreyfus - French officer and Jew who was falsely accused of spying for Germany in the late 19th century; his mistreatment spurred Herzl and other Zionists to increase their call for a Jewish homeland.Alliance for Progress - Begun in 1961 by the United States to develop Latin America as an alternative to radical political solutions; enjoyed only limited success; failure of development programs led to renewal of direct intervention.Anwar Sadat - Successor to Gamal Abdul Nasser as ruler of Egypt; acted to dismantle costly state programs; accepted peace treaty with Israel in 1973; opened Egypt to investment by Western nations.Apartheid - Policy of strict racial segregation imposed in South Africa to permit the continued dominance of whites politically and economically.Archduke Ferdinand - Heir apparent to the Austro-Hungarian throne whose assassination in Sarajevo set in motion the events that started World War I.Armenian Genocide - Assault carried out by mainly Turkish military forces against Armenian population in Anatolia in 1915; over a million Armenians perished and thousands fled to Russia and the Middle East.Ataturk - Also known as Mustafa Kemal; leader of Turkish republic formed in 1923; reformed Turkish nation using Western models.Atlantic Charter of 1941 - World War II alliance agreement between the United States and Britain; included a clause that recognized the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live; indicated sympathy for decolonization.Augusto Sandino - Led a guerrilla resistance movement against U.S. occupation forces in Nicaragua; assassinated by Nicaraguan National Guard in 1934; became national hero and symbol of resistance to U.S. influence in Central America.Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini - Religious ruler of Iran following revolution of 1979 to expel the Pahlavi shah of Iran; emphasized religious purification; tried to eliminate Western influences and establish purely Islamic government.Balfour Declaration - British minister Lord Balfour's promise of support for the establishment of Jewish settlement in Palestine issued in 1917.Banana Republics - Term given to governments supported or created by the United States in Central America; believed to be either corrupt or subservient to U.S. interests.Bangladesh - Founded as an independent nation in 1972; formerly East PakistanBattle of Britain - The 1940 Nazi air offensive including saturation bombing of London and other British cities, countered by British innovative air tactics and radar tracking of Germany assault aircraft.Battle of the Bulge - Hitler's last-ditch effort to repel the invading Allied armies in the winter of 1944-1945.Benazir Bhutto - Twice prime minister of Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s; first ran for office to avenge her father's execution by the military clique then in power.Benito Mussolini - Italian fascist leader after World War I; created first fascist government (1922 - 1943) based on aggressive foreign policy and new national glories.Berlin Wall - Built in 1961 to halt the flow of immigration from East Berlin to West Berlin; immigration was in response to lack of consumer goods and close Soviet control of economy and politics; torn down at end of cold war in 1991.Blitzkrieg - German term for lightning warfare; involved rapid movement of troops, tanks, and mechanized carriers; resulted in early German victories over Belgium, Holland, and France in World War II.Boris Yeltsin - Began to move up the ladder of the Communist party in Soviet Union in 1968, becoming First Secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee in 1985; initially a loyal backer of Gorbachev but increasingly criticized him for slow pace of reform; stood up to a coup attempt in 1991 but then managed to displace Gorbachev; in his position as president of the Russian republic, sponsored several subsequent constitutional provisions and weathered battles with opponents in parliament.Chiang Kai-shek - A military officer who succeeded Sun Yat-sen as the leader of the Guomindang or Nationalist party in China in the mid-1920s; became the most powerful leader in China in the early 1930s, but his Nationalist forces were defeated and driven from China by the Communists after World War II.Cold War - The State of relations between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies between the end of World War II and 1990; based on creation of political spheres of influence and a nuclear arms race rather than actual warfare.Collectivization - Creation of large, state-run farms rather than individual holdings; allowed more efficient control over peasants, though often lowered food production; part of Stalin's economic and political planning; often adopted in other communist intern - International office of communism under USSR dominance established to encourage the formation of Communist parties in Europe and munist Party of Vietnam - Originally a wing of nationalist movement; became primary nationalist party after decline of VNQDD in 1929; led in late 1920s by Nguyen Ai Quoc, alias Ho Chi Minh.Convention Peoples Party (CPP) - Political party established by Kwame Nkrumah in opposition to British control of colonial legislature in Gold Coast.Corazon Aquino - First president of the Philippines in the post-Marcos era of the 1980s; Aquino, whose husband was assassinated by thugs in the pay of the Marcos regime, was one of the key leaders in the popular movement that toppled the dictator.Corporatism - Political ideology that emphasized the organic nature of society and made the state a mediator, adjusting the interests of different social groups; appealed to conservative groups in European and Latin American societies and to the military.Cubist Movement - 20th century art style; best represented by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso; rendered familiar objects as geometrical shapes.Cultural Revolution - Movement initiated in 1965 by Mao Zedong to restore his dominance over pragmatists; used mobs to ridicule Mao's political rivals; campaign was called off in 1968.David Lloyd George - British prime minister at Versailles who attempted to mediate between Wilson's "peace without victory" stand and Clemenceau's, but with only partial success.Deng Xiaoping - One of the more pragmatic, least ideological of the major Communist leaders of China; joined the party as a young man in the 1920s, survived the legendary Long March and persecution during the Cultural Revolution of the 1970s, and emerged as China's most influential leader in the early 1980s.Diego Rivera - Mexican artist of the period after the Mexican Revolution; famous for murals painted on walls of public buildings; mixed romantic images of the Indian past with Christian symbols and Marxist ideology.Dien Bien Phu - Most significant victory of the Viet Minh over French colonial forces in 1954; gave the Viet Minh control of northern Vietnam.movement.Eastern Bloc - Nations favorable to the Soviet Union in eastern Europe during the cold war - particularly Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and East Germany.Eastern Front - War zone that ran from the Baltic to the Balkans where Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the Balkan nations fought.Emiliano Zapata - Mexican revolutionary and military commander of peasant guerrilla movement after 1910 centered in Morelos; succeeded along with Pancho Villa in removing Diaz from power; also participated in campaigns hat removed Madero and Huerta; demanded sweeping land reform.Ernesto "Che" Guevara - Argentine revolutionary; aided Fidel Castro in overthrow of Fulgencio Batista regime in Cuba; died while directing guerrilla movement in Bolivia in 1967.European Union - Began as European Economic Community (or Common Market), an alliance of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, to create a single economic entity across national boundaries in 1958; later joined by Britain, Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Austria, Finland, and other nations for further European economic integration.F. W. de Klerk - White South Africa prime minister in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Working with Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress, de Klerk successfully dismantled the apartheid system and opened the way for a democratically elected government that represented all South Africans.Fascism - Political philosophy that became predominant in Italy and then Germany during the 1920s and 1930s; attacked weaknesses of democracy, corruption of capitalism; promised vigorous foreign and military programs undertook state control of the economy to reduce social friction.Fidel Castro - Cuban revolutionary; overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1958; initiated series of socialist reforms; came to depend almost exclusively on Soviet Untion.Five - Year Plans - Stalin's plans to hasten industrialization of USSR; constructed massive factories in metallurgy, mining, and electric power; led to massive state-planned industrialization at cost of availability of consumer products.Francisco Madero - Moderate democratic reformer in Mexico; proposed moderate reforms in 1910; arrested by Porfirio Diaz; initiated revolution against Diaz when released from prison; temporarily gained power, but removed and assassinated in 1913.Free Officers Movement - Military nationalist movement in Egypt founded in the 1930s; often allied with the Muslim Brotherhood; led coup to seize Egyptian government from khedive in July 1952.Fulgencio Batista - Dictator of Cuba from 1934 to 1944; returned to presidency in 1952; ousted from government by revolution led by Fidel Castro.Gallipoli - Australian soldiers in support of the British were decimated by Turkish and German soldiers at this battle near the Dardanelles.Gamal Abdul Nasser - Took power in Egypt following a military coup in 1952; enacted land reforms and used state resources to reduce unemployment; ousted Britain from the Suez Canal zone in 1956.Gang of Four - Jiang Qing and four political allies who attempted to seize control of Communist government in China from the pragmatists; arrested and sentences to life imprisonment in 1976 following Mao Zedong's death.Georges Clemeceau - French premier at Versailles peace conference who insisted on punishing Germany after the war; one of the Big Four.Gestapo - Secret police in Nazi Germany, known for brutal tactics.Getúlio Vargas - Elected president of Brazil in 1929; launched centralized political program by imposing federal administrators over state governments; held off coups by communists in 1935 and fascists in 1937; imposed a new constitution based on Mussolini's Italy; leaned to communists after 1949; committed suicide in 1954.Glasnost - Policy of openness or political liberation in Soviet Union put forward by Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980sGlobalization - The increasing interconnectedness of all parts of the world, particularly in communication and commerce but also in culture and politics.Good Neighbor Policy - Established by Franklin D. Roosevelt for dealing with Latin America in 1933; intended to halt direct intervention in Latin American politics.Great Depression - International economic crisis following the First World War; began with collapse of American stock market in 1929; actual causes included collapse of agricultural prices in 1920s; included collapse of banking houses in the United States and western Europe, massive unemployment; contradicted optimistic assumptions of 19th century.Great Leap Forward - Economic policy of Mao Zedong introduced in 1958; proposed industrialization of small-scale projects integrated into peasant communes; led to economic disaster; ended in 1960.Green Movement - Political parties, especially in Europe, focusing on environmental issues and control over economic growth.Green Revolution - Introduction of improved seed strains, fertilizers, and irrigation as a means of producing higher yields in crops such as rice, wheat, and corn; particularly important in the densely populated countries of Asia.Guomindang - Nationalist party founded by Sun Yat-sen in 1919; drew support from local warlords and Chinese criminal underworld; initially forged alliance with Communists in 1924; dominated by Chiang Kai-shek after 1925.Haganah - Zionist military force engaged in violent resistance to British presence in Palestine in the 1940s.Harry Truman - American president from 1945 to 1952; less eager for smooth relations with the Soviet Union than Franklin Roosevelt; authorized use of atomic bomb during World War II; architect of American diplomacy that initiated the cold war.Ho Chi Minh - Also known as Nguyen Ai Quoc; led Vietnamese Communist party in struggle for liberation from French and U.S. dominance and to unify north and south Vietnam.Holocaust - Term for Hitler's attempted genocide of European Jews during World War II; resulted in deaths of 6 million Jews.Homelands - Under apartheid, areas in South Africa designated for ethnolinguistic groups within the black African population; such areas tend to be overpopulated and poverty-stricken.Hong Kong - British colony on Chinese mainland; major commercial center; agreement reached between Britain and People's Republic of China returned colony to China in 1997.Hosni Mubarak - President of Egypt since 1982; succeeding Anwar Sadat and continuing his policies of cooperation with the West.Hussein - Sherif of Mecca from 1908 to 1917; used British promise of independence to convince Arabs to support Britain against the Turks in World War I; angered by Britain's failure to keep promise; died 1931.Hyundai - Example of huge industrial groups that wield great power in modern South Korea; virtually governed Korea's southeastern coast; vertical economic organization with ships, supertankers, factories, schools, and housing units.Indira Gandhi - Daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru (no relation to Mahatma Gandhi); installed as a figurehead prime minister by the Congress party bosses in 1966; a strong-willed and astute politician, she soon became the central figure in India politics, a position she maintained through the 1970s and passed on to her sons.Iron Curtain - Phrase coined by Winston Churchill to describe the division between free and communist societies taking shape in Europe after 1946.Jawaharlal Nehru - One of Gandhi's disciples; governed India after independence (1947); committed to program of social reform and economic development; preserved civil rights and democracy.Jiang Qing - Wife of Mao Zedong; one of Gang of Four; opposed pragmatists and supported Cultural Revolution of 1965; arrested and imprisoned for life in 1976.Jomo Kenyatta - Leader of the nonviolent nationalist party in Kenya; organized the Kenya Africa Union (KAU); failed to win concessions because of resistance of white settlers; came to power only after suppression of the Land Freedom Army, or Mau Mau.Jose Clemente Orozco - Mexican muralist of the period after the Mexican Revolution; like Rivera's, his work featured romantic images of the Indian past with Christian symbols and Marxist ideology.Joseph Stalin - Successor to Lenin as head of the USSR; strongly nationalist view of communism; represented anti-Western strain of Russian tradition; crushed opposition to his rule; established series of five-year plans to replace New Economic Policy; fostered agricultural collectivization; led USSR through World War II; furthered cold war with western Europe and the United States; died 1953.Juan D. Perón - Military leader in Argentina who became dominant political figure after military coup in 1943; used position as Minister of Labor to appeal to working groups and the poor; became president in 1946; forced into exile in 1955; returned and won presidency in 1973.Juan José Arevalo - Elected president of Guatemala in 1944; began series of socialist reforms including land reform; nationalist program directed against foreign-owned companies such as United Fruit Company.Kenya African Union (KAU) - Leading nationalist party in Kenya; adopted nonviolent approach to ending British control in the 1950s.Korean War - Fought from 1950 to 1953; North supported by USSR and later People's Republic of China; South supported by United States and small international United Nations force; ended in stalemate and continued division of Korea.Land Freedom Army - Radical organization for independence in Kenya; frustrated by failure of nonviolent means, initiated campaign of terror in 1952; referred to by British as the Mau Mau.Lázaro Cárdenas - President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940; responsible for redistribution of land, primarily to create ejidos, or communal farms; also began program of primary and rural education.League of Nations - International diplomatic and peace organization created with the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I; one of the chief goals of President Woodrow Wilson of the United States in the peace negotiations; the United States was never a member.Lee Kuan Yew - Ruler of Singapore from independence in 1959 through three decades; established tightly controlled authoritarian government; ruled through People's Action party to suppress political diversity.Leon Pinsker - European Zionist who believed that Jewish assimilation into Christian European nations was impossible; argued for return to Middle Eastern Holy Land.Liberal Democratic Party - Monopolized Japanese government from its formation in 1955 into the 1990s; largely responsible for the economic reconstruction of Japan.Liberation Theology - Combined Catholic theology and socialist principles in effort to bring about improved conditions for the poor in Latin America in 20th century.Liu Shaoqui - Chinese Communist pragmatist; with Deng Xiaoping, came to power after Mao; determined to restore state direction and market incentives at local level.Long March - Communist escape from Hunan province during civil war with Guomindang in 1934; center of Communist power moved to Shaanxi province; firmly established Mao Zedong as head of the Communist Party in China.Lord Cromer - British High Commissioner of Egypt at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries; implemented many, but apparently not enough, social and economic reforms.Mandates - Governments entrusted to European nations in the Middle East in the aftermath of World War I; Britain occupied mandates in Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Palestine after 1922.Mao Zedong - Communist leader in revolutionary China; advocated rural reform and role of peasantry in Nationalist revolution; influenced by Li Dazhao; led Communist reaction against Guomindang purges in 1920s, culminating in Long March of 1934; seized control of all of mainland China by 1949; initiated Great Leap Forward in 1958.Marcus Garvey - African American political leader; had a major impact on emerging African nationalist leaders in the 1920s and 1930s.Marshall Plan - Program for substantial loans initiated by the United States in 1947; designed to aid Western nations in rebuilding from the war's devastation; vehicle for American economic dominance.Mass Line - Economic policy of Mao Zedong; led to formation of agricultural cooperatives in 1955; cooperatives became farming collectives in 1956.May Fourth Movement - Resistance to Japanese encroachments in China began on this date in 1919; spawned movement of intellectuals aimed at transforming China into a liberal democracy; rejected Confucianism.Mexican Constitution of 1917 - Promised land reform, limited foreign ownership of key resources, guaranteed the rights of workers, and placed restrictions on clerical education; marked the formal end of the Mexican Revolution.Mexican Revolution - Fought over a period of almost ten years from 1910; resulted in ouster of Porfirio Diaz from power; opposition forces led by Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata.Midway Island - World War II Pacific battle; United States and Japanese forces fought to a standoff.Mikhail Gorbachev - USSR ruler after 1985; renewed attacks on Stalinism; urged reduction in nuclear armament; proclaimed policies of glasnost and perestroika.Mohandas Gandhi - Successful leader of the Indian nationalist movement who combined religious, social, and political know-how into a massive nonviolent campaign.Muhammad Ali Jinnah - Muslim nationalist in India; originally a member of the Nationalist Congress party; became leader of Muslim League; traded Muslim support for British during World War II for promises of a separate Muslim state after the war; first president of Pakistan.Multinational Corporations - Powerful companies, mainly from the West or Pacific Rim, with production as well as distribution operations in many different countries. Multinationals surged in the decades after World War II.Muslim Brotherhood - Egyptian nationalist movement founded by Hasan al-Banna in 1928; committed to fundamentalist movement in Islam; fostered strikes and urban riots against the khedival government.Muslim League - Founded in 1906 to better support demands of Muslims for separate electorates and legislative seats in Hindu-dominated India; represented division within Indian nationalist movement.National Congress Party - Grew out of regional associations of Western-educated Indians; originally centered in cities of Bombay, Poona, Calcutta, and Madras; became political party in 1885; focus of nationalist movement in India; governed through most of postcolonial period.National Liberation Front (FLN) - Radical nationalist movement in Algeria; launched sustained guerrilla war against France in the 1950s; success of attacks led to independence of Algeria in 1958.National Socialist (Nazi) - Also known as the Nazi party; led by Adolf Hitler in Germany; picked up political support during the economic chaos of the Great Depression; advocated authoritarian state under a single leader, aggressive foreign policy to reverse humiliation of the Versailles treaty; took power in Germany in 1933.Negritude - Literary movement in France that argued precolonial African societies were superior in many ways to European colonial societies in Africa; writers included L.S. Senghor, Leon Damas, and Aime Cesaire.Nelson Mandela - Long-imprisoned leader of the African National Congress party; worked with ANC leadership and F. W. de Klerk's supporters to dismantle the apartheid system from the mid-1980s onward; in 1994, became the first black prime minister of South Africa after the ANC won the first genuinely democratic elections in the country's history.Neocolonial Economy - Industrialized nations' continued dominance of the world economy; ability of the industrialized nations to maintain economic colonialism without political colonialism.New Deal - President Franklin Roosevelt's precursor of the modern welfare state (1933 - 1939); programs to combat economic depression enacted a number of social insurance measures and used government spending to stimulate the economy; increased power of the state and the state's intervention in United States social and economic life.New Economic Policy - Initiated by Lenin in 1921; state continued to set basic economic policies, but efforts were now combined with individual initiative; policy allowed food production to recover.New Feminism - New wave of women's rights agitation dating from 1949; emphasized more literal equality that would play down domestic roles and qualities for women; promoted specific reforms and redefinition of what it meant to be female.Ngo Dinh Diem - Political leader of South Vietnam; established as president with United States support in the 1950s; opposed Communist government of North Vietnam; overthrown by military coup supported by United States.Nikita Khrushchev - Stalin's successor as head of USSR; attacked Stalinism in 1956 for concentration of power and arbitrary dictatorship; failure of Siberian development program and antagonism of Stalinists led to downfall.North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) - Agreement that created an essentially free trade zone among Mexico, Canada, and the United States, in hopes of encouraging economic growth in all three nations; after difficult negotiations, went into effect January 1, 1994.North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) - Created in 1949 under United States leadership to group most of the western European powers plus Canada in a defensive alliance against possible Soviet aggression.Pacific Rim - Region including Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan; typified by rapid growth rates, expanding exports, and industrialization; either Chinese or strongly influenced by Confucian values; considerable reliance on government planning and direction, limitations on dissent and instability.Pan-African - Organization that brought together intellectuals and political leaders from areas of Africa and African diaspora before and after World War I.Pancho Villa - Mexican revolutionary and military commander in northern Mexico during the Mexican Revolution; succeeded in removing Diaz from power, as well as Madero and Huerte.Party of the Institutionalized Revolution (PRI) - Party of the Institutionalized Revolution; dominant political party in Mexico; developed during the 1920s and 1930s; incorporated labor, peasant, military, and middle-class sectors; controlled other political organizations in Mexico.Pearl Harbor - American naval base in Hawaii; attack by Japanese on this facility in December 1941 crippled American fleet in the Pacific and caused entry of United States into World War II.People's Democratic Republic of Korea - Northern half of Korea dominated by USSR; long headed by Kim Il-Sung; attacked south in 1950 and initiated Korean War; retained independence as a communist state after the war.People's Liberation Army - Chinese Communist army; administered much of country under People's Republic of China.People's Republic of China - Communist government of mainland China; proclaimed in 1949 following military success of Mao Zedong over forces of Chiang Kai-shek and the Guomindang.Perestroika - Policy of Mikhail Gorbachev calling for economic restructuring in the USSR in the late 1980s; more leeway for private ownership and decentralized control in industry and agriculture.Persian Gulf War - 1991 war led by United States and various European and Middle Eastern allies, against Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. The war led to Iraqi withdrawal and a long confrontation with Iraq about armaments and political regime.Politburo - Executive committee of the Soviet Communist party; 20 membersPopular Front - Combination of socialist and communist political parties in France; won election in 1936; unable to take strong measures of social reform because of continuing strength of conservatives; fell from power in 1938.Porfirio Diaz - One of Juarez's generals; elected president of Mexico in 1876; dominated Mexican politics for 35 years; imposed strong central government.Potsdam Conference - Meeting among leaders of the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union just before the end of World War II in 1945; Allies agreed upon Soviet domination in eastern Europe; Germany and Austria to be divided among victorious allies.Pragmatists - Chinese Communist politicians such as Zhou Enlai, Deng Ziaoping, and Liu Shaoqui; determined to restore state direction and market incentives at the local level; opposed Great Leap Forward.Primary Products - Food or industrial crops for which there is a high demand in industrialized economies; prices of such products tend to fluctuate widely; typically the primary exports of Third World economies.Quit India Movement - Mass civil disobedience campaign that began in the summer of 1942 to end British control of India.Red Army - Military organization constructed under leadership of Leon Trotsky, Bolshevik follower of Lenin; made use of people of humble background.Red Guard - Student brigades utilized by Mao Zedong and his political allies during the Cultural Revolution to discredit Mao's political enemies.Religious Revivalism - An approach to religious belief and practice that stresses the literal interpretation of texts sacred to the religion in question and the application of their precepts to all aspects of social life; increasingly associated with revivalist movements in a number of world religions, including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Hinduism.Republic of Korea - Southern half of Korea sponsored by United States following World War II; headed by nationalist Syngman Rhee; developed parliamentary institutions but maintained authoritarian government; defended by UN forces during Korean War; underwent industrialization and economic emergence after 1950s.Salvador Allende - President of Chile; nationalized industries and banks; sponsored peasant and worker expropriations of lands and foreign-owned factories; overthrown in 1973 by revolt of Chilean military with the support of the United States.Sandinista Party - Nicaraguan socialist movement named after Augusto Sandino; successfully carried out a socialist revolution in Nicaragua during the 1980s.Sarajevo - Administrative center of the Bosnian province of Austrian Empire; assassination there of Archduke Ferdinand in 1914 started World War I.Satyagraha - "Truth force," a term used by Gandhi to describe peaceful boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, and mass demonstrations to promote Indian independence.Secret Army Organization (OAS) - Organization of French settlers in Algeria; led guerrilla war following independence during the 1960s; assaults directed against Arabs, Berbers, and French who advocated independence.Self-Determination - Wilson called for national independence from colonial rule before Versailles; this encouraged colonial subjects in Asia and Africa until they discovered Wilson intended his rhetoric only for Europe.Socialist Realism - Attempt within the USSR to relate formal culture to the masses in order to avoid the adoption of western European cultural forms; begun under Joseph Stalin; fundamental method of Soviet fiction, art, and literary criticism.Solidarity - Polish labor movement formed in 1970s under Lech Walesa; challenged USSR-dominated government of Poland.Spanish Civil War - War pitting authoritarian and military leaders in Spain against republicans and leftists between 1936 and 1939; Germany and Italy supported the royalists; the Soviet Union supported the republicans; led to victory of the royalist forces.Steve Biko - An organizer of Black Consciousness movement in South Africa, in opposition to apartheid; murdered while in police custody.Supreme Soviet - Parliament of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; elected by universal suffrage; actually controlled by Communist party; served to ratify party decisions.Syndicalism - Economic and political system based on the organization of labor; imported in Latin America from European political movements; militant force in Latin American politics.Taiwan - Island off Chinese mainland; became refuge for Nationalist Chinese regime under Chiang Kai-shek as Republic of China in 1948; successfully retained independence with aid of United States; rapidly industrialized after 1950s.Technocrat - New type of bureaucrat; intensely trained in engineering or economics and devoted to the power of national planning; came to fore in offices of governments during World War II.Tehran Conference - Meeting among leaders of the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union in 1943; agreed to the opening of a new front in France.Theodor Herzl - Prominent journalist who led the cause of Zionism in the late 19th century.Third World - Also known as developing nations; nations outside the capitalist industrial nations of the first world and the industrialized communist nations of the second world; generally less economically powerful, but with varied economies.Total War - Warfare of the 20th century; vast resources and emotional commitments of belligerent nations were marshaled to support military effort; resulted from impact of industrialization on the military effort reflecting technological innovation and organizational capacity.Totalitarian State - A new kind of government in the 20th century that exercised massive, direct control over virtually all the activities of its subjects; existed in Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union.Tsar Nicholas II - Tsar of Russia (1894 - 1917); forcefully suppressed political opposition and resisted constitutional government; deposed by revolution in 1917.Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - Federal system of socialist republics established in 1923 in various ethnic regions of Russia; firmly controlled by Communist party; diminished nationalists protest under Bolsheviks; dissolved 1991.United Fruit Company - Most important foreign economic concern in Guatemala during the 20th century; attempted land reform aimed at United Fruit caused U.S. intervention in Guatemalan politics leading to ouster of reform government in 1954.United Nations (UN) - International organization formed in the aftermath of World War II; included all of the victorious Allies; its primary mission was to provide a forum for negotiating disputes.Vichy - French collaborationist government established in 1940 in southern France following defeat of French armies by the Germans.Victoriano Huerta - Attempted to reestablish centralized dictatorship in Mexico following the removal of Madero in 1913; forced from power in 1914 by Villa and Zapata.Viet Cong - Name given by Diem regime to communist guerrilla movement in southern Vietnam; reorganized with northern Vietnamese assistance as the National Liberation Front in 1958.Viet Minh - Communist-dominated Vietnamese nationalist movement; operated out of base in southern China during World War II; employed guerrilla tactics similar to the Maoists in China.Vietnamese Nationalist Party - Also known as the Vietnamese Quoc Dan Dong or VNQDD; active in 1920s as revolutionary force committed to violent overthrow of French colonialism.Vo Nguyen Giap - Chief military commander of the Viet Minh; architect of the Vietnamese victory over the French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.W. E. B. Du Bois - African American political leader; had a major impact on emerging African nationalist leaders in the 1920s and 1930s.Wafd Party - Egyptian nationalist party that emerged after an Egyptian delegation was refused a hearing at the Versailles treaty negotiations following World War I; led by Sa'd Zaghlul; negotiations eventually led to limited Egyptian independence beginning in 1922.Warsaw Pact - Alliance organized by Soviet Union with its eastern European satellites to balance formation of NATO by Western powers in 1949.Welfare State - New activism of the western European state in economic policy and welfare issues after World War II; introduced programs to reduce the impact of economic inequality; typically included medical programs and economic planning.Western Front - Front established in World War I; generally along line from Belgium to Switzerland; featured trench warfare and horrendous casualties for all sides in the conflict.Winston Churchill - British prime minister during World War II; responsible for British resistance to German air assaults.World Zionist Organization - Formed by Herzl and other prominent European Jewish leaders to promote Jewish migration to Palestine in advance of the creation of a Zionist state in Palestine.Yalta Conference - Meeting among leaders of the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union in 1945; agreed to Soviet entry into the Pacific war in return for possessions in Manchuria, organization of the United Nations; disputed the division of political organization in the eastern European states to be reestablished after the war.Yuan Shikai - Warlord in northern China after fall of Qing dynasty; hoped to seize imperial throne; president of China after 1912; resigned in the face of Japanese invasion in 1916.Zapatistas - Guerrilla movement named in honor of Emiliano Zapata; originated in 1994 in Mexico's southern state of Chiapas; government responded with a combination of repression and negotiation.Zhou Enlai - After Mao Zedong, the most important leader of the Communist party in China from the 1930s until his death in 1976; premier of China from 1954; notable as perhaps the most cosmopolitan and moderate of the inner circle of Communist leaders.Zionists - Supporters of Jewish nationalism, especially a creation of a Jewish state in Palestine. ................
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