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A New Home for Hate:Extremism on the InternetBryan M. TorresSubmitted to Faculty in the Sociology and Anthropology Department University of La Verne in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofBachelor of Science in AnthropologyAdvisor: Kimberly Martin, Ph.D.May, 2014AbstractRacism and extremist group ideology falls into the area of deviant behavior and deviant beliefs. When the rhetoric of this ideology becomes discriminatory in nature and creates oppressionist behavior, as seen with racist hate groups, it is important to study it as an element of society. Technology, specifically the internet has played a role in propagating and creating an online haven for such ideology to thrive in. The internet helps facilitate group communication, expression, and recruitment making action as a group more efficient. Furthermore, the internet allows the dissemination of norms, mores, and education about ideology in a far more efficient manner. This study applied Edwin Sutherland’s Theory of Differential Association concerning learning deviant behavior to twenty-five online communities and websites. Also, elements of recruitment and proselytization were examined. Aspects of culture, symbolism, and language were explored as well. Finally elements of socio-political ideology were examined. With a conclusion that Differential Association is applicable to online extremist hate groups.The InternetThe Internet, or the World Wide Web as it can also be known, has become a part of common knowledge within most of the global society. The internet is a resource that facilitates the globalization of communication through fast and efficient electronic transmission. The novel idea that, electronically, the entire world can be connected has become a basic element of globalization. However, the elements of the internet that create this global network of information, tool, and resource all have definitions that contribute to the whole. General knowledge of the internet allows for the assumption of a definition of the term website. However, there are many subcategories of website that make up the internet. One category of this is the Blogosphere. In recent years Social Networking Sites have also become one cornerstone of the internet. Another element that makes up the internet is forums and chat rooms. Yet another category is that of image and message boards. Each of these online mediums allows individuals to interact with a wide variety of the global population whom they would never have encountered in person.The BlogosphereThe Blogosphere is the name given to the portion of the internet made up of weblogs, abbreviated to blogs. A blog, according to Rosenbloom (2004), is a self published online journal. The blog is a medium of expression on the internet that allows a member of society to create information and to be published. This information will be viewed by others. In the context of this paper the term “user” refers to the person operating the personal computer. This could be the blogger, the viewer, or the reader. Rosenbloom draws a clear picture of the blogosphere. User-created content can be disseminated with only the requirement of a computer, internet access, and an opinion. These author-published web journals, or blogs, allow media censors and corporate interests to be bypassed. Blood (2004) discussed the creation of weblog communities in the early days of the Blogosphere. Blood defines weblog, or blog, as a journal that is posted online for others to read. According to Blood, the weblog community worked hard to create reliable and interesting blogger created content, using blog software, the programming that is used to create the online world. Nardi et. al. (2004) describes the blogosphere as being created by everyday people using this medium, the blogosphere itself, to communicate and express their specific interests and ideologies. The blogosphere is made up of blogs of all topics. Kurubacak (2008) describes blogs as journals that have specific themes, and cover the latest news, trends, views, and philosophical reflections. According to Kurubacak (2008:406), as of 2007, “twelve million American adults maintain blogs; more than 147 million Americans use the internet.” While Kurubacak describes the blogosphere as having a potential to initiate social change for the positive through expression of progress through socio-cultural strategies, Kurubacak also notes that there is covert racism in the blogosphere.The blogosphere is in many ways un-moderated and un-censored. Censorship and moderation are central to enforcing societal norms online. The lack of moderation and censorship within certain online communities can allow the dissemination of extremist ideology that violates traditional cultural norms. Dissemination of all ideals can be achieved through the creation and publication of user generated content. Because of this, the blogosphere and weblogs have advantages that normal publication venues do not; a way for extremist ideology that in many ways is unpopular or outside of cultural norms to be disseminated to everyone who has access to the internet. Kurubacak conducted a qualitative study using a catalog of blogs from . Kurubacak’s population was made up of 102 individuals contacted through email. Kurubacak (2008) found that three forms of Racism exist within blogs, these being: 1) Open racism expressing freedom of thought and speech, 2) violent racism, promoting acts of violence to create fear and persuasion, and 3) covert racism, or racism that is performed without the realization of the racist nature of the material. Chau and Xu (2007) conducted a study that used data mining, the use of software to collect data, to conduct a case study on hate groups in blogs. Chau and Xu focused on the instances of hate activity against Blacks. The population of the study was limited to the blog hosting site . Using terms specified as having consistency with hate content, Chau and Xu created a list of 28 hate groups and conducted a demographical analysis of visitors to the blogs within these groups. One finding of the study is that the membership of these groups is very much decentralized and lacks a hierarchical structure; however in spite of this, the social and political implications are profound. The growth of the internet has increased the popularity of these groups. This is one example of how the blogosphere has implications for social change and problems. The social content is produced by bloggers who subscribe to communities and become members of an explicit internet community. Bloggers within the online communities have the advantage of the internet when disseminating opinions or positions, all the while, proselytizing and bringing new members to a group founded upon a particular ideology. Through the blogosphere, the internet has become a home for political ideology to take root. Klein (2012) discusses the idea that the blogosphere presents the political concerns and opinions within the context of political ideology of the general public. The political blogosphere provides an outlet for unrestrained civic discourse; that allows fringe political ideology to make network connections with mainstream political ideals. Two examples that Klein provides, is that of Anti-Israel blogs that open up discourse to anti-Semitic sentiments and anti-immigration blogs that lead the way to anti-Hispanic sentiment. The guise of a mainstream political blog or news media blog provides a false veil of credibility.The Blogosphere is just one element of the internet’s resources used by society disseminate ideologies. As listed before, forums, chat, and image boards also present opinion and information in an openly available format. Moreover, this openly available network of ideology has the potential to create communities with similar cultural mores and ideas. Another element of the internet that more directly creates interpersonal connection through networks is social networking sites. The creation of social networks in recent years present an ever growing portion of the internet.Social Networking SitesIn recent years social networking sites have become one of the most prominently used types of websites on the internet. While a blog is a communication of one person’s opinions and positions to a group of readers, a social networking site, such as Facebook, creates a peer group online. Social networking sites provide a place, online, for individuals to connect with friends in a brief, and intermittent, yet continuous format. A major difference between blogs and social networking sites is that it builds upon a real world, not-online, peer framework. The purpose of social networking is to create interpersonal connections between individuals. Boyd and Ellison (2007) discuss the cultural context that social networking sites create surrounding shared interests, political views, or shared racial, sexual, religious, or nationality-based identities. Boyd and Nicole offer a working definition of social networking sites. Social networking sites are a web-based service that allows three things, the first being the construction of an online semi-public or public profile within a bound system. This bound system is created for the purpose of building an online persona within the social networking site. The second part is the creation of a list of members with whom information is shared. The third part is the ability to interact within this network of kindred individuals on a continuous basis. These three components contribute to the ability of the internet to host online communities. Part of this facilitation of community creation on the internet is to create pathways to communicate on the internet. Forums and Chat sites are central to this.Forums and ChatAnother type of website format present on the internet is composed of forums and chat websites. These communication mediums represent a micro element of the internet in its most basic form. Communication is central to expressing ideology and creating community on the web. Chat and forums are the most basic medium. Gifford (2006) describes chat rooms as a place, albeit virtual, that allows people to type each other messages in real-time or read others conversations in real time. Gifford conducted an ethnographic study of a chat room for trauma and abuse survivors. During her study Gifford noted that community exists even within just the basic element of chat, that basic element being conversation. This community is held together with rules and shared identity. Rules exist, however some chat is moderated by individuals, aptly labeled “mods”. Not all chats have moderators. The moderators are most often volunteers. These moderators are given power to apply sanctions by the host of the chat-site, the proprietor of the web domain. The sanctions vary from a forced disconnect from the site’s server, to a permanent ban of the individuals IP address, the address that identifies the person to the website.Gifford identified rules and norms for the website that the moderators used as guidelines for their duties. The rules apply responsibility to participants in the chat rooms. An age limit of eighteen years or older is one rule. Another is the responsibility of the participant to not take out anger or frustrations or be disrespectful to others within the chat room. Rules and norms differ from site to site.Gifford (2006) also discusses the two types of communities that can arise from chat sites. The first is a pre-existing physical community that adds an electronic resource as a communication tool. The second is a geographically dispersed virtual community formed out of common interests. Forums are much the same as Chat communities, in that they are a medium to provide communication between groups and individuals, except they do not operate in real time. Forums are discontinuous communication that is often exchange based, or taken in turns. Replies are posted in a semi-permanent setting. A forum is far easier to archive, as the postings remain part of the website. All the resources of the internet, including forums and chat communication mediums provide an invaluable tool to express ideology and to be exposed to new cultural elements within society. However, the internet is not a guaranteed resource for all members of society.Internet Access and DemographicsThe internet serves as an important tool and resource at a global level for families and households. Access to the internet provides convenient and sometimes necessary, indirect, access to income, education, and news or current events. Access to the internet has become much less expensive and far more convenient in recent years. However, there are still socio-economic barriers that prevent some households from readily accessing the internet and it’s many advantages. Socio-economic class is a heavy determining factor in access to the internet. Chaudhuri, Flamm, and Horrigan (2005) explored the different contributors to the likeliness of a household or individual having access to the internet. This study used two existing data sets collected in the form of surveys of US Households by the Pew Internet and American Life Project, collected over the phone. The study found that the more education and income a person had, the higher the likelihood of having ready access to the internet was. Another finding of this study was that ethnic demographics also play a part. African American’s and Hispanics are less likely to use the internet that other ethnic categories. Persons who are married are more likely to be able access the internet as well. The existence of a difficulty to access the internet with a demographic context contributes to a societal advantage for those who have access. Dissemination of cultural ideals as well as access to knowledge provides a benefit. This access also provides access to a freedom of expression.Freedom of Speech Since the advent of the internet, the idea of Freedom of Speech, within the context of the United States of America’s Constitution, has had to be reinterpreted both at a legislative level as well as at the level of the individual citizen. This idea of freedom of speech has expanded to freedom of information. The idea that access to information should be a right has become a part of recent discussions. Wicker and Santoso (2013) described internet access as being intertwined with the capability to participate in contemporary political process and dialogue. This freedom of expression is central to human rights. Wicker and Santoso assert that the internet takes expression far beyond other modes of communication due to the immense amount of information available at one’s own finger tips. Freedom of expression on the internet also applies to fringe ideologies that fall outside of societal norms. The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution protects freedom of political and religious expression. To what extent is this right protected? The case of Pastor Terry Jones is an example of inflammatory speech that is protected by the first amendment. Terry Jones sought to express his frustration with current events in The United States by burning a Quran publicly in the context of a religious sermon. Aaron G. Leibowitz (2013) noted that under current interpretation of the first amendment, protected inflammatory expression, like Terry Jones’ actions, may put others’ lives at risk; in this case soldiers serving overseas in Afghanistan. Terry Jones planned actions led to a socio-political reaction on the other side of the world that put United States soldiers at risk of reprisal. Terry Jones actions were globally known primarily because of the internet’s global transmission of his planned act. This speech is not only permitted but in many cases protected as well. The internet multiplies the effect that speech of this has with global reach. This is one example of how the internet, when combined with hate and extremist ideology can create social problems through global transmission without moderation and censorship.Hate and ExtremismOne area in which political ideology and freedom of speech have merged is on the internet. As a social institution and a piece of the United States Constitution, freedom of speech is an important element that allows United States citizens protection to express their opinions and ideologies. However, there are ethically gray areas, with regards to freedom of speech, especially when discussing racist, discriminatory, and inflammatory topics. The protection of political speech that ascribes to the agenda of racial superiority, purity, racial segregation, and other views that lay outside the norms of society are some of these gray areas. Other gray areas are political and religious views that are polarized from each other; Roe v. Wade for example. The internet as a modern element of society, multiplies the effect of this expression. Recent Historical ContextThe United States of America, much like any other nation or society has fringe elements that ascribe to ideologies outside of the norm. Some of this ideology represents racial ideology, fascist nationalism, and support of segregation. These elements of American Society became illicit and deviant with the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, during the 1960’s civil rights movement. However, even with the passing of several different acts, these fringe groups continue to operate under the guise of political and ideological free speech. One example of this is the organization known as the Ku Klux Klan.With the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 the United States Federal Government institutionalized programs to eliminate hate groups. Drabble (2008) describes a program called “COINTELPRO-White Hate” as the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s work to reduce the effectiveness of the Ku Klux Klan’s ability to operate. The FBI accomplished this by targeting leaders and parent groups, such as the United Klans of America, and using counter intelligence techniques to create fake communications, frame leaders as spies, and create fear among the rank and file members of the organizations. Drabble (2008) continues to chronicle the efforts of the federal government and their prosecution of members for terrorist acts, however also chronicled the difficulties of attaining convictions against the Ku Klux Klan members. One of the difficulties that the Federal Government had with prosecution was the cooperation of local law enforcement, in Alabama for example. An issue of this is that members of local law enforcement were often members of the extremist group in question. Prior to the civil rights movement, the Ku Klux Klan had a role in the creation of communities and racial movement and migration in the post World War Two southern United States. The Ku Klux Klan’s acts of terror and aggression manipulated interracial movements that opposed white supremacy in the southern states, such as Alabama. This was also affected by the voting power of the segregationists, those who condoned the old ways prior to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Drabble, 2008). The former legislation was the foundation that the Ku Klux Klan wanted to keep in place. Hate and Extremism in PoliticsThe Ku Klux Klan persisted through the governmental efforts to shut them down by shifting their ideological struggle to the political realm and the socialization and proselytization of their racial ideals. The Ku Klux Klan is a historical organization that in many ways sprouted new groups that exist in the political realm. One of these groups is the Nationalist Party of America. Dentice (2011) explores the Nationalist Party of America, it’s motivations, and it’s leader, Billy Roper, in detail. Billy Roper is an example of a public figure who strives to push fringe ideology very similar to the Ku Klux Klan’s ideology into legislation through political office. Roper seeks public office as a fiscal conservative who aspires to represent White American’s interests over those of minorities. Roper’s followers are often former Skin-heads, neo-Nazis, and Ku Klux Klan members. Roper Identifies himself as a White Nationalist. Billy Roper has positioned himself as a valid candidate that could use tea party inroads to gain election.These hate groups and communities seek political representation of their ideals. The Nationalist Party of America is a good example of this. Another example given by Dentice (2008) is the political successes of David Duke, a former Ku Klux Klan Grand Wizard that gained a seat in the Louisiana Legislature in 1990 and held the seat until 1992. He has run for many offices, including the office of the President of the United States. Dentice (2008) looks at the information age, the advent of the internet, as a window of opportunity for another situation like that of David Duke with federal level effects. The availability of the internet as a form of expression and proselytization is a large benefit to Roper. This is a medium that did not exist in a functional form during David Duke’s efforts to gain elected office. The creation of a constituency and voting base for Roper comes largely from the availability to reach and socialize individuals to his deviant and extremist ideology.Socialization and Institutionalization of DevianceThe Ku Klux Klan operates on a heavy foundation of socialization. Bates (2007) chronicles his interaction with the Ku Klux Klan, noting that children are extremely important to the community. Mothers and Fathers want to pass down their belief system to their children. In his observations, Bates found that children are protected aggressively and socialized to continue the race ideology of their parents. Another form of socialization within the Ku Klux Klan and other hate groups is that of gender socialization. According to Blee (1996) women most often separate themselves from politics and ideology within extremist racist communities. Their only political involvement is through men. Their boyfriend’s, husband’s, or father’s ideology is their ideology. Blee also discusses a contrasting effort on behalf of fringe hate ideological groups to diversify membership beyond the southern white male. Blee is creating an image that the women are socialized with the male ideologies and norms. The other part of the picture is that the female population within these groups is growing far more active. One problem that Blee points out is the lack of scholarly work concerning female activity within the racist and hate community. Socialization and the institutionalization of cultural ideals are central to the survival of ideologies within society. This is even further essential to fringe ideologies outside of society’s norms. The internet facilitates the socialization and institutionalization of these groups’ ideologies. Furthermore it assists in the propagation of these groups. Extremist and Hate Groups on the InternetThe internet as a societal tool allows for global expression and dissemination of ideology. This is as true for information and opinions concerning hobbies and news as it is for extremist and hate ideology. The internet allows hate groups and extremist groups to propagate and progress their group with members that they may never have had the opportunity to reach prior to the advent of the internet. For this reason the internet has become a haven for hate groups and extremism. Early Online Hate and ExtremismThe earliest recorded instance of the use of the internet to propagate a racist and extremist agenda within the United States was by a man named Louis Beam. Stern (2001) chronicled the recent history of the use of computer networks by Louis Beam to promote anti-government rhetoric prior to the popular arrival of the home personal computer. Louis Beam called for acts of sedition, including the assassination of progressive political leaders and FBI agents. In the 1980’s the use of computer networks was novelty due to personal computers still being extremely new to the market. This weakened the effect that Louis’ network had. Gerstenfeld, Grant, and Chiang (2003) chronicled the efforts of Tom Metzger, a white supremacist leader in the mid 1980’s, to create online bulletin boardsBy the 1990’s a few hundred online bulletin boards were in use by racist groups (Stern, 2001). This use evolved to the use of less secure newsgroups, also known as Usenet. The use of the internet by anti-government extremist groups continued to propagate up to the Oklahoma City Federal Building Bombing in 1995. Timothy McVeigh, the man convicted of the bombing was a follower of the Usenet groups and the online extremist ideologies. Following the Oklahoma City Bombing, society witnessed the founding of the first website dedicated to the extremist, nationalist, and racist ideologies. Don Black, a long-standing neo-Nazi, served prison time for a failed attempt at capturing the small island of Dominica to attempt to form a government that supported his ideology and agenda. During his prison time Black learned about computers and the internet. Don Black followed the example of David Duke, a friend of his, and made attempts to modernize the movement and make it more presentable to the public. From this Stormfront was founded (Stern, 2001). Meddaugh and Kay (2009) took a look at Stormfront from the perspective of identity and how identity is attributed to individuals in society through the discussion of the in group and out group in a rhetorical content analysis. The in group is the self, the oppressed white man who is threatened by ideological opponents. The out group, according to Meddaugh and Kay, can be described in four ways. The “other as tyrannical” looks at the out group as an oppressor, the federal government as a racial state. The “other as a manipulator” represents the fear of Jewish society as the puppet master. The “other as genocidal” represents the cooperative effort of Blacks and Jews to eliminate white culture and society. The “other as inferior” targets the African-American demographic as well as other non-white demographics. This rhetoric the Stormfront uses to represent the threat to their agenda is at the core of their ideologies. Through this fear and common ideologies, Stormfront created a strong virtual community. The first of its’ kind, the only predecessor being the weak network of bulletin boards and usenet, Stormfront set a precedent for online extremist groups to follow in community building.Hate and Extremism in Online CommunitiesThe creation of differing online communities with hate and extremist views, and in turn a like minded online society as a whole with hate and extremist views has been a huge benefit to persons who hold racist and extremist ideologies. The benefit created is the result of the negation of the factor of geographical location and the creation of a more efficient medium of expression and communication via the internet. The communities are made up of individuals whom without the internet would most likely never have met offline. The creation of communities is central to the survival of fringe ideology that functions outside the norms of society.Hate groups and extremist communities on the internet form out of similar ideology. This foundation upon similar ideology creates a bond between individuals that may never meet in real life. Brown (2009) explores the ideology of such online extremist groups by specifically exploring the construction of a Whiteness Ideology. Brown’s study examines three online websites using qualitative content analysis to take a look at ideology. These three sites were chosen through listings. The National Alliance, Stormfront, and Church of the Creator were examined by Brown, specifically using three criteria. The first criterion was that of words, clichés, and phrases that created exaggerated racial ascriptions, specifically towards Blacks. The second looked for racial stereotypes and labels that focused upon racial stereotypes. The third criterion was that of linking key linguistic devices to the creation of white supremacist discourse. Browns focus was a creation of hate speech that framed the Ideologies of these three communities. Brown’s conclusion found that this creation of the idea that Black’s opposed the Whiteness ideology, increasing the strength of the communities ideological connection.Ideology of Hate GroupsShared ideology is the glue the holds communities together. Online, ideology shapes the actions and expression of individuals beyond just meaningless interaction or banter that many websites propagate. Angie et al. (2011) explores the elements of ideology within online extremist and hate groups. Ideological groups are held together by similar beliefs and shared values. The population used in the case study was made up of a list of ideological groups that both were labeled violent and nonviolent, as well as ideological and non-ideological. Angie et al. used a Kruskal-Wallis test, stated as equivalent to an ANOVA, to measure the intercorrelations and differences between the website communities.Angie et al.’s measurements looked at the formation of values and identity within the online communities. These values form the framework for the ideology that in turn shapes the actions of the members. Angie asserts the creation of community through the expression of the individual. The individual, through expression of the shared ideology, becomes a stronger member of the online community. Their identity is affirmed as a member of the community. Furthermore, the creation of this identity as a member pressures the individual to ascribe to the moral norms of the community. The growth of the internet has allowed the growth and expansion of Ideological groups. Angie et al. (2011) concluded that there is an undeniable impact from the internet on group communication and membership.An example of shared ideology on the internet, within a hate group, is that of active self-defense. This ideology pertains to the idea that Whiteness is under attack by other races. Active Self Defense, according to Douglas et al. (2005), is the response to this idea that Whiteness is under attack. Douglas et al. conducted an investigative study on the tactics used by violent online racist communities for self enhancement. Douglas et al. used a population selected from The Hate Directory, an online database of hate groups and websites based upon violence. Douglas et al. found that this shared ideology of Active self-defense is one example of creativity. One form of creativity that propagates and assists in the survival of extremist ideology is the proselytization and globalization of extremist and racist ideology.Proselytization and Globalization of Extremist IdeologyHate groups have gained a significant benefit with the advent of the internet. The efficient cultural transmission of ideology through the internet has led to a global audience and recruitment pool. The internet has allowed individuals that never would have met or shared ideologies to come face to face, virtually. Perry and Ollson (2009) examined the globalization of cyberhate as a form of entrenching and facilitation of a global movement. Perry and Ollson assert this benefit by stating that the globalization of technology has assisted with the increase of online hate groups and cyberhate related activity on a global level. Gerstenfeld, Grant, and Chiang (2003) state, in their content analysis, that the internet is used for a variety of purposes by internet hate groups. Two of the primary purposes are communication between current members, and recruitment of new members. Gerstenfeld et al. conducted a qualitative content analysis of web content within extremist and hate groups online. Their population was determined through the use of and was made up of 157 websites. The criteria used was categorical in nature, the categories being: type of site (targeted demographic), external links and where they lead, content type including language and ideology, and membership type. Gerstenfeld et al. found that internet communities rely heavily on globalization to make prosecution and sanctions difficult for governments. These communities also rely on internet recruitment at both a domestic level and a globalized level. What aspects of these communities promote recruitment and growth? How can theory be applied to the proselytization of Extremist Ideology? Deviant behavior, especially within criminal elements of society is often looked at from the theoretical perspective of Differential Association.Edwin Sutherland and Differential AssociationEdwin Sutherland was a major deviance theorist who authored the Theory of Differential Association. Edwin Sutherland’s theoretical contributions to social science concerned the origins of criminally deviant behavior. Using a symbolic interactionism perspective, one of Sutherland’s approaches towards these social issues studied the interaction between individuals as well as membership in groups. From this perspective Edwin Sutherland created Differential Association Theory (Goodwin, 2013). During Professor Goodwin’s lectures, he detailed Differential Association Theory. Sutherland’s theory focused on deviance as a learned behavior within a group setting. Furthermore, this deviation from societal norms can lead to criminal behavior. This can occur with solo behavior as well as group behavior. Hochstetler, Copes, and De Lisi (2002) explore the theory of Differential Association within the context of learned behavior. Hochstetler et al. explain that pressures from cohorts within a deviant group can affect the social norms within said group and set an influential example.Hochstetler et al. (2002) studied the likelihood that a youth would commit a crime based upon data sets from the 1970’s-1980’s. Their focus was on whether crime was committed alone or in a group context. The study incorporated the responses of the participants regarding attitudes towards deviance, perceptions of friend’s attitudes towards deviance, and perceptions towards peer participation in the offenses. Hochstetler et al. found that all three of these elements were significant determinants. This look at Differential Association Theory shows us that membership in group behavior is affected by peer involvement. Does this extend to internet deviance?Conclusion and DiscussionThe internet has played the role of modernization and globalization of Socio-political Ideology. Deviant ideology has much farther reaching breadth with the advent of the internet carrying it. How does this affect the cultural elements of online hate groups and extremist communities?When looking at extremist and hate groups that exist on the internet how does a researcher approach examining the cultural elements of the community? Differential Association Theory as applied to deviance may explain some of the elements that contribute to the propagation of extremist ideology and racism on the internet. In conclusion the next logical step is to explore Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory in the context of online deviance. Specifically, research can be directed towards the creation of cultural elements in online extremist and racist communities.Research QuestionsR1: What elements of Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory are part of Extremist Hate group websites online?R2: In what ways do cultural elements such as symbolism, ideology, and language transfer to the internet?R3: How do Hate Groups and Extremist Groups proselytize to individuals who are not part of the community?R4:What socio-political elements are present in Extremist and Hate group communities on the Internet?MethodsPopulationThe population used for this research was made up of twenty-five websites that are categorized as having extremist or hate ideology. Initial methods for finding research subjects included names of organizations from the “Hate Map” from the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), which were then searched by using a Google search by name. This method proved difficult, as there was no definitive sample list. The SPLC Hate Map has repeated organizations as it is organized into and listed by States. Groups that overlapped are listed in many states. After initial methods were exhausted, snowballing from external web links within the researched groups was utilized. This allowed for similar ideological hate groups to be researched. One drawback could be that this would narrow the demographic. MeasuresThe research instrument utilized for this research was an open-ended survey with 4 sections. This survey conducted a qualitative content analysis of the 25 websites making up the population. The first section, Cultural Elements, evaluated the cultural aspects of each group. Measure 1)”Is there specific Jargon and language?” Elaborated with “Is it Derogatory and Explicit?” This evaluated the use of culture specific terminology as well as gave specific examples of “hate speech”. Measure 2) “Is Symbolism Apparent?” elaborated with “If so, what kind of symbolism?” and “Colors?” evaluates the existence of symbolism within each group. Measure 3) “Is there a membership to the group?” Evaluated with “Type? Paid? And Cost? Description:” evaluates the existence of an in group and membership to the group. Measure 4) “Does the group meet up offline, if observable?” evaluates the existence of the hate group outside of the Internet. The second section of the research instrument, Proselytization, evaluated the active or inactive state of recruitment through social and membership connections. Measure 5) “Is access limited by a membership?” Evaluated the level of restriction for non-member access to the website. Measure 6) “Is the number of members stated?” Evaluated the use of population numbers to recruit. Measure 7) “Does the site reach out to members of the out group? (I.e. Non Aryans)” evaluated the restrictions on interaction with outside communities and individuals and the level of strict membership of a group. Measure 8) “Are there weblinks to other groups with similar ideology and beliefs?” evaluated and provided examples of community links and macro communities. Measure 9) “Are there other extremist site advertised?” evaluated the placement of advertisements on the site including commercial advertisement.The third section of the research instrument, Socio-political elements, evaluated the connection groups had to political ideology. Measure 10) “Does the group label itself with a political view?(I.e. Libertarian, republican, nationalist, separatist, etc.)” evaluated the political identity of the group. Measure 11) “Does the group link to a political campaign /candidate pages?” evaluated the connection between the group and political campaign finance and support. Measure 12) “Does the group support/endorse candidates?” elaborated on previous measure. Measure 13) “Does the group claim to raise money for political efforts?” Elaborates on the previous two measures. Measure 14) “Does the group ‘ educate’ on policy, voting, and political efforts?” evaluated the group’s efforts to socialize and politically indoctrinate members. The final section of the research instrument, Sutherlands Differential Association, evaluates the application of Edwin Sutherlands theory to the groups. Measure 15) “Is there a list of norms? (platform, credo, etc.)” evaluated the groups governing and teaching of behavior and ideology to members. Measure 16) “Is there an ideological statement?” evaluated the groups specificity in ideology. This measure looked for a specific statement or phrase. Measure 17) “Are there education resources? Description? For free?” evaluated the aspect of teaching deviant ideology to members.There was also space for field notes concerning each area on the research instrument.ProceduresEach section of the research instrument was applied to the sample qualitatively and descriptively. Examples were provided for each measure when needed. Each website had a different structure or purpose. This made applying the measures different for different circumstances. The data collected was analyzed proportionally and comparatively. Data was qualitatively described. ResultsThe aforementioned research instrument was applied to twenty-five hate groups as indicated by the hate map at the Southern Poverty Law Center. The ideologies, symbolism, religious belief, and socio-political beliefs among other elements separate the demographic into several categories. DemographicsWithin the twenty five sample sites the demographic information for the different communities is limited as the study focused on the websites and communities and not specific individuals. The websites do not represent specific individuals with few exceptions, one being David Duke, as seen with European-American Unity and Rights Organization. Geographically, all but one site was hosted in the U.S., the exception being the Racial Volunteer Force being from the United Kingdom. Further geographic location is vague or not observable as the study was conducted on the internet and there being much overlap from state to state. Ideology also separated the sites categorically.The twenty-five website sample can be evaluated based upon ideology. However, there is too much overlap for there to be demographic categories. The ideological elements within the sample included white supremacism, anti-Semetic, anti-Islamic, racist, anti-multicultural, fundamentalist Christian, and homophobic.SymbolismThe first section of the research instrument concerned the visual representation of culture and symbolism, also including language on the different sites. Eight out of twenty-five, or 32%, of the web communities showed patriotic symbolism. The American Freedom Party () represented this with Eagle’s, the Liberty Bell, and the American Flag as part of the banner for the site. The Loyal White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan () displayed the American Flag alongside the Confederate Flag. The Nationalist Socialist Movement expressed this symbolism with swastikas that had red white and blue American Flag motif. Eight of the twenty-five site sample (32%) had religious symbolism present. The Creativity Movement (), stated as a non-theistic religion, displayed original symbolism for their world belief. This was described as the “Simulacrum Candidus” which represented the sanctity of the white race. The Creativity Alliance () used the same symbolism. Another example of this is the Aryan Nations (aryan-), which uses a sigil made up of a Shield, Crown, and Sword representing different aspects of Christianity and the White Races.Seven of the twenty-five sites (28%) displayed Nazi or German Nationalist symbolism. All of these seven sites displayed swastikas. Some other unique examples include The American Nazi Party () using actual Nazi Brown Shirt uniforms, the Racial Volunteer Force () displaying a Thunderbird grasping a three pointed Swastika (As opposed to the four pronged), and the Sadistic Souls MC () using the Nazi SS logo.Five of the twenty-five site samples (20%) displayed symbolism of ethnic heritage. The National Socialist Movement displayed Germanic and Celtic symbols. The National Vanguard used Futhark, an ancient Northern European rune script. Faith and Heritage’s primary display is a Celtic cross.Three of the twenty-five site sample (12%) had confederate symbolism. The League of the South (), Loyal White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (), and The Hammerskin Nation () all displayed the flag of the Confederacy. Language, Terminology, and JargonSixteen of the twenty-five websites (64%) used a set of jargon. This included racial or racist terminology, socio-political terminology, spiritual or biblical terminology, anti-Semitic or anti-Islamic, and biological or scientific jargon. Thirteen of the twenty-five websites (52%) used racial or racist terminology. This included derogatory terms used for outgroups, such as “Nigger”, “mudraces”, and so on; as well as terms used for the ingroup, Aryan for example. The Hammerskin Nation () used the word “Nigger” repeatedly. Stormfront () hosted the posting of racist derogatory statements from users. Stormfront was a forum based web service.Concerning anti-Semitic terminology or language, ten of the twenty-five (40%) websites used derogatory descriptive terms for the Jewish people. The National Socialist Freedom (nsfm.) Movement made references to a “Jewish Parasite” as well as the “Holocaust hoax”, The Creativity Alliance () referred to Jews as being a deadly enemy. Jewishfaces () a site created to “out” Jewish celebrities, made descriptive references to Jewish hair and Jewish noses. On both Aryan Nations (Aryan-) and the Aryan Kindred Church of Yahweh there are repeated statements that Jews are the children of Satan. One site (4%) posted anti-Islamic terminology in the form of criticism and warnings of Islamic takeover. used Islamic terms such as Sharia and Jihad in a negative context. Six of the twenty-five websites (24%) used spiritual or biblical terminology. Both the Creativity Movement () and the Creativity Alliance () use terminology and language consistent with their created religion. Members of the organizations are called “Creators”. Healthy living, according to the community’s norms, is called Salubrious. The use of Christian Scripture can be seen with the Westboro Baptist Church (), Aryan Nations, The Church of the Sons YHVH, and the Aryan Kindred Church of Yahweh.Sociopolitical terminology was present in five of the twenty-five websites (20%). The American Freedom Party expressed their ideology using terms such as big brother, and police state and expressed support of deregulation. The American Nationalist Union used terminology along the lines of political belief and identified itself as a third party. Two of the twenty five sites used genetic terminology in their argument for their belief system. The Creativity Alliance and The Creativity Movement both make use of terms such as alleles and natural superiority in explaining their belief in White Supremacy. The Racial Volunteer Force uses biological terms as Jargon concerning naming the elements of their organization. A cell of several white male operators is referred to as a Leukocyte, for example. Variable/ValuesN%Symbolism Patriotic832 Religious/Spiritual832 Nazi728 Ethnic Heritage520 Confederate312Language Set of Jargon1664 Racist Terminology 1352 Anti-Semitic1040 Biblical/Spiritual624 Anti-Islamic 14 Socio-political520MembershipOf the twenty-five sites sampled, nineteen or 76% had membership services. One or 4% had access to membership at one point but is no longer accessible. Five of the twenty-five sites were not membership based. The fees for membership application varied from site to site. Membership dues also varied. Requirements for membership varied as well. A common requirement is that of being white or Aryan, with seven of the twenty five sites (28%) stating this implicitly. Three (12%) of the sites have a requirement of not being affiliated with Law Enforcement. Imperial Klans of America () states that no Jewish descent is a requirement. The Aryan Nations requires gainful employment. Race or “whiteness” is determined by a photo and a phone call by many of the sites. Also, background checks are part of many of the applications. Twelve of the twenty-five websites (48%) hold meetings outside of the internet. These include conferences, rallies, as well as congregation meetings. The Council of Conservative Citizens and The American Nazi Party both hold conferences. Aryan Nations, Sadistic Souls MC, and the Loyal Ku Klux Klans all hold rallies. Some of the communities function in a meet up capacity, such as the Racial Volunteer Force and the Creativity Movement.Proselytization Only one (4%) of the sites limited access without membership. This was Stormfront, due to forum moderation being dependent upon membership. Only three (12%) of sites have the amount of members posted, only within the forum sections. This included Stormfront, Hammerskin Nation, and the American Nazi Party. One site (4%), reached out to non group members. The American Nazi Party reached out to non Aryans as sympathizers for their cause. Twelve out of the twenty-five sites (48%) linked to other extremist sites and communities. The American Freedom party linked to , a self proclaimed news source that reports on black on white racial violence. The American Nazi Party linked to , and ns88records. Aryan Nations linked to many of the sites in the sample population. These sites included Hammerskin Nation, Racial Volunteer Force, and the Aryan Kindred Church.Sites within the population also advertised with links and banners to other sites. The difference between advertisement and link is that the banner was used for marketing purposes. Seven of the twenty-five sites (28%) advertised for other sites. The National Socialist Freedom Movement linked to a site with Aryan Clothing. The League of the South advertized Southern heritage Products and literature. Variable/ValuesN%Membership1976 White requirement728 Cannot be law Enforcement312 Meet ups offline1248Proselytization Linked to Similar Sites1248 Advertised other sites728 Posted population312 Limited Access w/o Membership14Sociopolitical ElementsMany of the websites within the sample showed political views. Seven out of the twenty-five sites (28%) stated a specific political belief system. This included Socialist and Nationalist, conservative, anti-establishment, and nationalist. The American Freedom Party, for example, declared itself a populist nationalist site and a third party. The American Nationalist Union declared themselves a third party and represents a Nationalist viewpoint. Many of the sites educate on policy. Nine out of the twenty-five sites (36%) educated on policy, voting, and legislature. The American Freedom Party claims to educate on border legislation, gun rights, and runs third party candidates. The National Socialist Freedom Movement educates on the topic of freedom of speech. The League of the South educates on the states’ rights to secede from the Union. Only two sites (8%) links to candidates pages, those being the American Freedom Party and European-American Unity and Rights Organization. EURO links to David Duke, a former political party candidate that was a member of the Ku Klux Klan.Variable/ValuesN%Sociopolitical Elements Stated Political Belief System728 Educated on Policy, Voting, etc.936 Linked to Candidates Page28Sutherland’s Differential AssociationThe websites all have information on the sites and specific belief systems. Eighteen of the twenty-five (72%) websites in the sample have a list of norms or a platform posted on their page. The National Socialist Movement and the National Socialist Freedom Movement for example, have a twenty-five point thesis posted in twenty-one different languages. It demands changes to how the United States is governed. The creativity movement and the Creativity Alliance both use the same holy book and 16 commandments while differentiating themselves from each other at the same time. Both the Imperial Klans of America and the Aryan Nations have the list of statements starting with the phrase “We Believe” outlining their belief system and ideologies.Eight of the twenty-five (32%) sites displayed an ideological statement. This statement is differentiated from a platform or list of norms by clarifying it as a motto, slogan, or phrase. Both the American Nazi Party and the Hammerskin nation use the same “14 words”, those being “We must secure the existence of our people and a future for White Children”. Westboro Baptist Church uses the same phrase as their domain name “God Hates Fags”. The European-American Unity and Rights Organization uses “Equal Rights For All – Even European Americans”Eighty-eight percent, or twenty-two out of twenty-five websites provide access to educational materials in several different ways. Many of the sources are free access to articles, ebooks, and online materials, as is the case with the League of the South, United Northern and Southern Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, the Aryan Kindred Church of the YHVH, and Faith and Heritage. Another form is a periodical in the form of a newspaper or magazine. This is the case seen with the American Nationalist Union, the National Socialist Movement, American Nazi Party, and the National Alliance/ Vanguard. Also books, cassettes, compact discs, and recordings are sold. There is also access to youtube videos by most of the sites. Variable/ValuesN%Differential Association Provided Education Materials2288 Specific List of Norms, Platform, etc.1872 Meet ups offline832Discussion and ConclusionCulture, Symbolism, and LanguageThe transition of culture from in person, interpersonal transmission, and “real world” circumstances to an online virtual format is one of the most significant changes to occur in society in recent history. This is no different in the deviant sub cultures and counter cultures of society. The internet has the capability of increasing the reach of the message of a deviant subculture far beyond the boundaries of real interpersonal interaction. This is not to say that online interaction is not real interpersonal interaction. Online interaction and transmission of culture, socialization and teaching allows a broader context of imagination. You can talk to someone you have never met; become friends three thousand miles away. In reviewing literature, no studies were found that explored the creation of extremist communities on the internet. Literature explained how the internet is structurally formed as well as how hate is propagated. With a solid foundation on the history of racism, some of the groups, as well as the foundations of the internet itself, there was a realization that the creation of a unique study was required. Exploration of culture required descriptive qualitative data.The development of online cultures is observable in the symbolism represented by the sample in this study. Patriotism, Racism, Nazi Symbolism, and religious symbolism are all present. In some ways contradictory symbolism can become intertwined. This is seen with the American Nazi Party’s use of the Swastika adorned with the Flag of the United States of America, historically enemies. Also when the American Flag is flown next to a Confederate Flag this overlap of ideology is observed, again with historical enemies. Ethnic Heritage can be seen in a smaller portion of sites through connection to ancestral descent and the use of runes or script. This is all representative of pride in the counterculture or subculture present on the sites. When observations are made concerning the use of language and terminology, the deviant beliefs, discriminatory beliefs, and the sociopolitical systems begin to come into focus. A large percentage, 64%, of the websites use a specific set of jargon. The sites used racist or racial terminology, socio-political terminology, legalese, spiritual or biblical terminology, anti-Semitic or anti-Islamic terminology, and in some cases genetic or scientific terminology. This use of different jargons and sets of terms makes clear the perspective and motives of a website. Fifty-two percent made use of racial or racist terminology. This included the use of derogatory race terms such as “Nigger”, speaking negatively of “mudraces”, while also including speaking of White Superiority. Forty percent of the sites used Anti-Semitic terminology. This included references to Jews being the children of Satan as well as insinuating that the Jewish Holocaust was a hoax. This language is considered deviant in the public arena. On the internet it is used frequently and without hesitancy. Some of the sites use scientific jargon to justify their deviant beliefs concerning race. The use of the word Allele was noted on two different sites, The Creativity Movement and the Creativity Alliance.Biblical or spiritual terminology was also used by several of the sites. This indicates a deeper connection to in group membership. The Creativity Alliance and The Creativity Movement both had terminology devised specifically for their belief systems. This included the use of Latin as well as the creation of new distinct words, Salubrious for example. This creation of terminology could create a more solid group cohesion. The Aryan Nations and the churches, such as the Aryan Kindred Church of Yahweh, The Church of the Sons of YHVH, and the Westboro Baptist Church use scripture and biblical terms to frame their ideologies and express their belief systems. This creates connections to mainstream Christian ideology while maintaining their deviant beliefs concerning the interpretation of the bible within the context of race, natural law, and superiority. A smaller portion of the sites (20%) used sociopolitical terminology. The expression of extreme political views phrased in a moderate way again seems to be an effort to merge with the mainstream. An example of this, the American Freedom Party, labels itself as a third party and with that relegates itself to be within the realm of the American Democracy, despite the fact that third party candidates usually weaken their ideological kindred. Membership and ProselytizationThese web communities function with the idea that their beliefs and ideologies are spreading. That being said, membership of a website is important. Seventy-six percent of the websites surveyed had membership based services. An interesting aspect of this is that membership in many of the sites provided only a subscription to a newsletter or magazine. Membership often supported the community financially with fees and dues. The requirements for membership differ from community to community and are expressed on the applications. The most prevalent of these, the requirement of being white or Aryan, clearly establishes an in group. One site, The American Nazi party, reached out to the out group, labeling them as sympathizers if they chose to support the site. The out groups in this context were non Aryans who cannot be members because of their ethnicity.The online world is not completely separated from the offline world. Many of these groups meet up offline for national conferences, rallies, or protests. Some of the sites function in a brick and mortar form with the internet acting as a source of proselytizing. These meet ups contradict the use of the Internet as a haven for deviant beliefs and ideology. That being said many of the meet ups are portrayed as family friendly and completely legal affairs.It is interesting that the sites are for the most part not limited by membership, meaning you do not require a membership to access most of the content. Only Stromfront, a forum limited the access of non-members. This was due to the difficulty of moderating non-members posting. Forty-eight percent of the sites linked to other sites. This effectively creates an online network of deviant communities. This made it easy to traverse the larger community of extremist ideology sites online. This seemingly made it much more efficient to reach out for new members or have overlap with similar communities. Socio-political ElementsA portion of the sites surveyed, 28%, specifically identified a political ideology. This ranged from socialist nationalist to conservative, to anti-establishment ideologies. A repeated theme on the different sites was deregulation and reduction of the powers of the federal government. This is seen in the National Socialist Movement, the American Nationalist Union, and the Council of Conservative Citizens. Ascribing to political ideology polarizes the belief systems and could lead to a stronger homogenous in group membership. Two of the sites linked to specific candidates, taking ideology from a belief system to action in the political arena. This is seen with the European-American Unity and Rights Organization (EURO) with David Duke, aforementioned in the Literature Review. This is also seen with the American Freedom Party which runs third party candidates. Thirty-six percent of the sites made efforts to educate on policy and politics. Sutherland’s Differential AssociationSutherland’s differential association theory looks at deviant behavior and how it is learned, or taught. Taking this and applying it to the online communities in the sample required looking at the norms, ideologies, and education methods of the groups. Seventy-two percent of the websites had a set of norms or a platform outlined in a formal way. This took the form of a dedicated page for norms or a platform, as seen with the American Freedom Party, or the National Alliance/Vanguard. Another form of this is religious commandments as seen with the Creativity Movement and Creativity Alliance. The National Socialist Movement posted a platform in twenty-one different languages. Many of the sites used biblical scripture and interpretation of said scripture to frame the ideology and norms of the community.With a formal list of norms to follow, new members have the opportunity to acquaint themselves with the norms and mores, as well as the stricter rules of the community. This socialization to the norms of the subculture, the deviant counterculture, is an important element of Differential Association. These individuals become part of the in group and in turn become less and less associated with the norms of regular society.Added to this is the eighty-eight percent of the sample that provides educational materials. These materials, some free while some is for sale, provide another source of socialization and enculturation into these communities. The deviant ideology is further reinforced by these materials. The materials include books, magazines, sermons, radio recordings, propaganda pieces, and articles. All of which provide information from the communities perspective.Conclusion Looking at these twenty-five sites provided qualitative support for the application of Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory. Deviant ideology and behavior is both taught and learned by members of these sites. Education is central to a significant majority of the sites in both free and for sale forms. The norms of the sites are outlined and set a framework for social expectations and ideology. The development and transfer of culture online is very present in terms of symbolism, the use of language and terminology, and ideology. Sociopolitical elements are present as well, again in the form of education as well as in a smaller part support for third party politics.However, there may be a few weaknesses in this study. The sample was relatively small. This was due to very little population information available. Post current study, a clearer picture of what can be studied in more depth can be seen. Future studies in virtual ethnographic form would be very beneficial to understand the culture and communities. These said studies could be conducted with one community as the subject of the study. In conclusion, the internet has become a new home for hate, and extremism. Societal sanctions are prevented due to the internet being a fairly un-moderated medium of communication and social existence. Communities that are too deviant to exist in comfort offline can easily find a home on the internet. Added to this the efficiency and ease of communication and spreading of ideology on the internet is a solid benefit to these extremist hate communities. This is an important subject that requires far more research to explore different aspects.ReferencesAngie, Amanda D., Josh L. Davis, Matthew T. Allen, Cristina L. Byrne, Gregory A. Ruark, Cory B. Cunningham, Toni S. Hoang, Daniel R. Bernard, Michael G. Hughes, Shane Connelly, H. Dan O'Hair, and Michael D. Mumford2011 Studying Ideological Groups Online: Identification and Assessment of Risk Factors for Violence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 41(3):627-657. Bates, James Edward2011 The Modern-Day Ku Klux Klan; Text and Photographs.(Personal Account). The Chronicle of Higher Education(37).Blee, Kathleen M.2005 Racial Violence in the United States. Ethnic & Racial Studies 28(4):599-619.Blood, Rebecca2004 How Blogging Software RESHAPES THE ONLINE COMMUNITY. Communications of the ACM 47(12):53-55. Boyd, danah m., and Nicole B. Ellison2007 Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13(1):210-230. Brown, Christopher2009 WWW.: White Supremacist Discourse on the Internet and the Construction of Whiteness Ideology. Howard Journal of Communications 20(2):189-208. Chau, Michael, and Jennifer Xu2007 Mining Communities and their Relationships in Blogs: A Study of Online Hate Groups. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies; Information Security in the Knowledge Economy 65(1):57-70. Chaudhuri, Anindya, Kenneth S. Flamm, and John Horrigan2005 An Analysis of the Determinants of Internet Access. Telecommunications Policy 29(9–10):731-755. Douglas, Karen M., Craig - Mcgarty, Ana-Maria - Bliuc, and Girish - LalaUnderstanding Cyberhate: Social Competition and Social Creativity in Online Dentice, Dianne2011 The Nationalist Party of America: Right-Wing Activism and Billy Roper's White Revolution. Social Movement Studies 10(1):107-112.Drabble, John2008 The FBI, COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE, and the Decline of Ku Klux Klan Organizations in Alabama, 1964-1971.(Report). The Alabama Review(1):3.Gerstenfeld, Phyllis B., Diana R. Grant, and Chau-Pu Chiang2003 Hate Online: A Content Analysis of Extremist Internet Sites. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 3(1):29-44. Gifford, Diane2006 A Preliminary Analysis of an Internet Chat Room? can a Chat Room be a Real Community? Conference Papers -- American Sociological Association:1. Goodwin, Glenn2013 Sociological Theory: Lecture and Discussion, Personal Interaction. Univeristy of La Verne. Hochstetler, Andy, Heith Copes, and Matt DeLisi2002 Differential Association in Group and Solo Offending. Journal of Criminal Justice 30(6):559-566.Klein, Adam2012 Slipping Racism into the Mainstream: A Theory of Information Laundering. Communication Theory 22(4):427-448.Kurubacak, Gulsun2008 Online Identity: Guidelines for Discerning Covert Racism in Blogs. International Journal on E-Learning 7(3):403-426.Leibowitz, Aaron G.2013 Terry Jones and Global Free Speech in the Internet Age. Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal. Meddaugh, Priscilla Marie2009 Hate Speech Or 'Reasonable Racism?' the Other in Stormfront. Journal of Mass Media Ethics 24(4):251-268.Rosenbloom, Andrew2004 THE Blogosphere. Communications of the ACM 47(12):32-33. Stern, Kenneth2001 Hate and the Internet. Journal of Hate Studies 1(1):57.Wicker, Stephen B., and Stephanie M. Santoso2013 Access to the Internet is a Human Right. Communications of the ACM 56(6):43-46. Appendix A:Research InstrumentResearch InstrumentCultural ElementsIs there use of specific jargon and language? Yes Is it Derogatory and Explicit? (Racial Terminology for example) What language, terms, words are used? Is symbolism apparent? If so, what kind of symbolism: Is there a membership to the group? Type? Paid? Cost? Description:Does the group meet up offline, if observable? Notes:ProselytizationIs access limited by a membership? NoIs the number of Members stated? (population) NoDoes the site reach out to members of the out-group? (I.e. Non Aryan’s) Not observedAre their web links to other groups with similar ideology and beliefs? Are there other extremist sites advertised?Notes: Socio-political elementsDoes the group label itself with a political view? (I.e. Libertarian, republican, nationalist, separatist, etc)? If so which one?Does the group link to political campaign/candidate pages? Does the group support/endorse candidates? Does the group claim to raise money for political efforts? Does the group “educate” on policy, voting, and political actions?: Notes: Sutherlands Differential AssociationIs there a list of norms (platform, credo, etc.)?Is there an ideological statement? Are there educational resources? Description? For free? Notes:Appendix BWeb Domain Directory for Research SampleWeb Domain DirectoryThe American Freedom Party - Nationalist Union - American Nazi Party (ANP) - Kindred Church of Yahweh Nations - of Conservative Citizens - Creativity Alliance - Creativity Movement - Church of the Sons of YHVH - Unity and Rights Organization (EURO) - Faith and Heritage - Klans of America IKA The Hammerskin Nation - of the South - White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan - Alliance/National Vanguard - Socialist Movement - Socialist Freedom Movement - Volunteer Force RFV [UK] - Souls Motorcycle Club - - Northern and Southern Knights of the Ku Klux Klan - Baptist Church - ................
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