Warwick.ac.uk
HI277 AFRICA AND THE COLD WARCOURSE PACKNatalia Telepneva. Module convenerE-mail: N.Telepneva@warwick.ac.ukOffice hours: 1-3pm on Mondays in H343 (third floor of the Humanities building)Lectures: 4-5pm on Mondays in R1.13 (Ramphal Building)Classes: 9-10am on Mondays H0.56Anna Bruzzone. Class TeacherOffice hours: 10.00?am - 12.00 pm on Tuesdays in H306 (third floor of the Humanities building)E-mail: A.Bruzzone@warwick.ac.ukSeminars: 5-6pm and 6-7pm on Mondays in H3.55If you cannot make it to your assigned seminar for a particular reason, you are welcome to attend another class. However, please, e-mail the class teacher in advance as a courtesy. I. LECTURE OUTLINE**Term 1Week 1. From Berlin to Berlin: the division of Africa, the division of the worldWeek 2. The rise of African nationalismWeek 3. The Cold War dimensions of decolonisationWeek 4. Searching for alternatives: Bandung, pan-Africanism, and non-alignment*Week 5. Crisis in Congo, 1959-65Week 6. Reading Week. No Lectures or seminarsWeek 7. Revolution in Zanzibar, 1964*Week 8. Capitalism, Socialism or African Socialism? Struggles over Economic Growth. Essay 1Week 9. The Other Cold War: The Sino-Soviet RivalryWeek 10. Educating Africa: students in the Eastern BlocTerm 2*Week 1. The end of the dream: coups, dictators and military ruleWeek 2. Superpower rivalry and revolution in the Horn of Africa*Week 3. Proxy war? The Ethiopia-Somalia conflict, 1977-78Week 4. A luta continua! Liberating southern AfricaWeek 5. Defending white minority ruleWeek 6. Reading Week. No lecture or seminarsWeek 7. Cuba, South Africa, and the struggle for Angola, 1974-89Week 8. The Cold War and the end of Apartheid. Essay 2Week 9. New Dawns? Africa after the Cold WarWeek 10. Looking back: themes, perspectives, periodisation [Revision session]*indicates a source-based task**The schedule below indicates timings for lectures only. The discussion of seminar topics will begin during week 2 of Term 1.Please, consult the course webpage and/or TalisAspire for ‘further readings’ for each weekII. ASSESSMENT 1. During the academic year, students will complete two non-assessed short essays. Each essay should be no more than 2,000 words long. Copies must be submitted in both electronic copy (via email) and hard copy (in the relevant folder outside my office).?The first must be submitted by 5pm on Friday, Term 1, Week 8?The second must be submitted by 5pm on Friday, Term 2, Week 8Written feedback and face-to-face feedback sessions will follow shortly after.2. The formal assessment consists of two elements:?A two-hour exam (50%)?A 4,500 word essay (50%), submitted by 12pm on Thursday, Term 3, Week 2General information about assessed work including deadline dates and submission information can be found on the department Assessment & Submission webpages.The exam will take place during summer term on a date that will be scheduled closer to the rmal Guidelines for Written Coursework (applies for assessed and non-assessed essays)Focus and RangeThe essay should be fully focused on the question. There is a close, integral fit between Question and AnswerStructure and CoherenceThe essay is well-structured, with a clear introduction and conclusion, with points following one another in a logical and clear way. 1 paragraph should convey 1 clear idea (consider using first sentence of each paragraph to convey one)Depth of Analysis and Quality of ArgumentsThe essay makes a clear argument, answering the question in a thoughtful way. The argument is backed up with selective supporting evidenceUse of HistoriographyThe essay engages with key historiographical debates on the question Expression and PresentationThe essay is written in a clear manner. Avoid long quotations from secondary literature, paraphrase in your own words instead. Avoid overly lengthy sentences and paragraphs. Use a consistent referencing system for footnotes and bibliography. KEY TEXTBOOKSCold War: Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) [e-book].Elizabeth Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2013) [e-book].Modern AfricaRichard Reid, A History of Modern Africa, 1800 to the Present (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).Frederick Cooper, Africa since 1940: The Past of the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) [e-book]NB: See the full list on the website for HI277 under ‘background readings’Africa and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 1From Berlin to Berlin: the division of Africa, the division of the worldThis week’s lecture will provide essential background for the course: the colonisation of Africa and the development of superpower rivalry. Anyone desiring further information should look at the background reading set out with the course outline. Please note that material on colonisation or the early development of the Cold War (i.e., the division of Europe after the Second World War into two rival alliance blocs) will not be examined, either in coursework or the final written examination. Usually, each week’s lecture and seminar will address the same topic: the lecture giving a broad overview and narrative, the seminar digging down into the key debates. However, given the introductory nature of this first substantive week, the reading is somewhat different. Below are a number of journal articles and chapters, which mix historiographical reflections with brief surveys of the Cold War in Africa or the ‘Third World’.Please select any two of the following readings and extract their core arguments. Don’t get stuck on too much detail – this week is about exploring the scope of the course matter and potential analytical approaches to it. You should be ready to speak about your impressions of the texts you have read in class.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. What role does African agency play in the history of the Cold War in Africa?2. How readily does Africa’s experience of the Cold War fit within the conventional periodization of the Cold War?Follow-up: What was the Cold War? What was Cold War rivalry about? Class reading (pick any two)Mark T. Berger, ‘The Real Cold War was Hot: The Global Struggle for the Third World’, Intelligence and National Security, 23 (2008), 112-26.Larry Develin’s book: support for Mobutu; Gerald Horne—English-speaking Carribean, Carribean Labour Congres; radical labour leaders became victims of the Cold War1950s: unable to prepare for change“the most important aspects of the cold war were neither military nor strategic, nor Europe-centred, but connected to political and social development in the Third World’Cold War=”continuation of colonialism through different means” Westad methods used“two istorical projects that were genuinely anticolonial in their origins became part of a much older pattern of domination”. Third World=central to the story Westad overstates the continuity between Soviet and US intervention in the Third World Jeffrey James Byrne, ‘Africa’s Cold War’, in Robert J. McMahon (ed.), The Cold War in the Third World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 101-23.Notes: --rapid implementation of the sovereign-state model, as opposed to notions of pan-African, regional or semi-imperial integration “without the context of the pervasive American-soviet contest, african and european leaders would not have both so quickly embraced this version of decolonization”Cold War ideological dimention—influenced the expression of anti-colonial sentiment--US and Soviets -rarely challenged borders1956: Suez Crisis: accelerated abandonment of federalist or transnational notions of the postcolonial order in favor of sovereigntyElizabeth Schmidt: Cold War tensions within RDA which led Guinea seceding from the movementCold War competition encouraged consolidation of dictatorial regimesLENIN was Single party rule and democratic centralism; employed Wilson as wellENDGAME: neoliberal revolutionCOLD War transformed helped transform anti-colonial sentiment into nationalist expression because 1. The supwerpowers established a world of states in 1945 + clientelism demanded encouraged the consolidation of state power and prioritization of national interests Worst consequence -nature of its endingJohn Lewis Gaddis, ‘The Long Peace: Elements of Stability in the Post-War International System’, International Security, 10 (1986), 99-142.Mark Kramer, ‘Ideology and the Cold War’, Review of International Studies, 25 (1999), 539-79.Michael E. Latham, ‘The Cold War and the Third World 1963-1975’, in Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (eds.), Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 258-80 [e-book].Patrick Major and Rana Mitter, ‘East is East and West is West: Towards a Comparative Socio-cultural History of the Cold War’, Cold War History, 4 (2003), 1-22.Richard Reid, ‘Horror, Hubris and Humanity: The International Engagement with Africa, 1914-2014’, International Affairs, 90 (2014), 143-65.Jeremi Suri, 'The Cold War, Decolonization, and Global Social Awakenings: Historical Intersections', Cold War History, 6 (2006), 353-63.Odd Arne Westad, ‘The New International History of the Cold War’, Diplomatic History, 24 (2000), 551-65.Africa and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 2The rise of African nationalismThe Second World War left the empires of Britain and France severely wounded. In the immediate aftermath of the war, there was an upswing in anticolonial protest in Africa. Waves of strikes brought many colonies to a standstill. Some leaders, seeking to shape local discontent into a sense of African nationalism, turned to socialism and Marxism as a language of anticolonial struggle. In the context of the early Cold War, such rhetoric alarmed the West. What forms did African nationalisms take? And how were they influenced by the superpower rivalry? Nationalist movements, however, were contoured by multiple dynamics, including ethnicity, gender, class, and regional identity. Start with Cooper for a general outline. The class will focus on Schmidt’s challenging but rich article on Guinea as a case-study: which dynamics can we detect at play here?Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. Was nationalism in Africa an elite phenomenon? Answer in reference to TWO countries.2. What impact did the Cold War have upon the emergence of African nationalism between 1950 and 1965?3. What kinds of states were established in Africa, as consequence of the 1950s nationalist movements?Class reading*Frederick Cooper, Africa since 1940: The Past of the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 66-84.Elizabeth Schmidt, ‘Cold War in Guinea: The Rassemblement Démocratique Africain and the Struggle over Communism, 1950-1958’, Journal of African History, 48 (2007), 95-121.Africa and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 3The Cold War dimensions of decolonisationAs African nationalists agitated for independence, Britain and France were forced to confront the task of renegotiating their relationships with their colonies within the context of the Cold War. They juggled a diverse range of interests - geopolitical, business, economic, ideological - in determining their exit strategies. While the decolonisation process was mostly peaceful in the British and French territories, the settler colonies of Algeria and Kenya were split by bloody wars. Decolonisation cannot be explained simply by the ‘pull’ of governments in the metropoles or the ‘push’ of African nationalism. How did the Cold War and the superpowers feature here? Connelly, with reference to North Africa, offers a toolbox for opening up the international and transnational aspects of decolonisation; then use Rice and Thomas to explore the situation in French West Africa. Come prepared to discuss the “National Security Council Report 5719/1” from August 1957 (see document below).Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. Account for the evolution of US policy in Africa in the 1950s.2. To what extent was decolonization in Africa shaped by Cold War politics? Answer with reference to any one region of Africa.3. What was the impact of the Algerian War on the process of decolonisation in Africa?Class readingMatthew Connelly, 'Taking off the Cold War Lens: Visions of North-South Conflict during the Algerian War for Independence', American Historical Review, 105 (2000), 739-69.Louisa Rice, ‘Cowboys and Communists: Cultural Diplomacy, Decolonization and the Cold War in French West Africa’, Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History, 11 (2010), [no pagination].Martin Thomas, ‘Innocent Abroad? Decolonization and US Engagement with French West Africa, 1945-56’, Journal of Imperial & Commonwealth History, 36 (2008), 47-73.Document: The National Security Council Report 5719/1: “Note by the Executive Secretary of the National Security Council on US Policy Toward Africa South of the Sahara Prior to Calendar Year 1960”, Washington , August 23, 1957, available from the Office of the Historian at: and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 4Searching for alternatives: Bandung, pan-Africanism, and non-alignmentThe Cold War was more than a zero-sum, bipolar game. Many thinkers in the decolonising world sought a different future from the competing models of modernity offered by the superpowers. At Bandung in 1955, leaders from across Africa and Asia came together to condemn imperialism in any manifestation. Later, the Non-Aligned Movement explicitly challenged the Cold War order. Pan-Africanism and pan-Arabism offered alternatives to the nation-state, designed to empower former colonised peoples through unity. Ultimately, these initiatives failed to fulfil their heady goals. But this search for alternatives - and its legacies - shines a different light on the story of decolonisation, foregrounding the agency of Africans.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. ‘For Africa, Bandung was a missed opportunity.’ Discuss.2. To what extent was the Non-Aligned movement an attempt to remain outside the Cold War?3. What motivated Kwame Nkrumah’s pan-Africanist project?4. How successful were Africa’s newly independent states in retaining non-aligned status?Class readingsOdd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 97-109 [e-book].Jeffrey James Byrne, 'Beyond Continents, Colours, and the Cold War: Yugoslavia, Algeria, and the Struggle for Non-Alignment', International History Review, 37 (2015), 912-32.Frank Gerits, '"When the Bull Elephants Fight: Kwame Nkrumah, Non-Alignment, and Pan-Africanism as an Interventionist Ideology in the Global Cold War (1957-66)’, International History Review, 37 (2015), 951-69.Primary Source: Kwame Nkrumah, I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology (New York: Praeger, 1961), ix-xii, available from: and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 5Crisis in Congo, 1959-65If the Cold War had lurked in the wings during the decolonisations of the 1950s, Belgium’s hasty exit from Congo in 1960 thrust Africa into the centre of superpower rivalry. In volatile circumstances, the secessionist claims of the mineral-rich province of Katanga triggered Africa’s first major Cold War conflict. This story is complex: start with Schmidt (or, if you prefer, Westad) to gain a grasp on the narrative, then explore its various facets through the extra readings.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. What motivated Western intervention in the Congo, 1960-65?2. To what extent was the Katanga secession caused by the Cold War?3. What were the consequences of the Congo Crisis?Class readingsElizabeth Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 57-78 [e-book].Miles Larmer and Erik Kennes, ‘Rethinking the Katangese Secession’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 42 (2014), 741-61.Primary Source. Patrice Lumumba, Speech at the ceremony of the proclamation of Congo’s independence, 30 June 1960, available at: : Look through the documents on the Congo crisis available through the Office of the Historian and the Cold War International History Project (see links in class readings, you can chose one or the other). Bring one of the documents to class, to form the basis for the discussion about the motivations of the superpowers in the Congo. For US documents on the Congo Crisis, see: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Volume XXIII, Congo, 1960-1968, available at: ; see Soviet, US and Belgian documents available at the website of the Cold War International History Project at: and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 7Revolution in Zanzibar, 1964In the aftermath of events in Congo, the United States and its allies were alert to any potential signs of communist revolution in Africa. When the recently independent government of the tiny island archipelago of Zanzibar was overthrown in January 1964, many in the West perceived the emergence of a ‘Cuba in Africa’. Just a hundred days after the seizure of power, Zanzibar joined mainland Tanganyika in forming the state of Tanzania. What caused the violent revolution? Were the West’s fears of a communist plot justified? Was the union the embodiment of pan-African sentiment? And what was the broader significance of these events? Gleijeses and Speller tackle them from a mostly Western perspective, Wilson and Burgess add Zanzibari voices.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. What motivated the revolt in Zanzibar in 1964?2. To what extent did Zanzibar represent ‘a communist bridge into Africa’, as American commentators feared?Class readingsPiero Gleijeses, Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959-1976 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 57-60.Ian Speller, ‘An African Cuba? Britain and the Zanzibar Revolution’, Journal of Imperial & Commonwealth History, 35 (2007), 283-302.Amrit Wilson, The Threat of Liberation: Imperialism and Revolution in Zanzibar (London: Pluto Press, 2013), 46-61.G. Thomas Burgess, 'A Socialist Diaspora: Ali Sultan Issa, the Soviet Union, and the Zanzibari Revolution' in Maxim Matusevich (ed.), Africa in Russia, Russia in Africa: Three Centuries of Encounters (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2007), 263-91.G. Thomas Burgess, Race, Revolution, and the Struggle for Human Rights in Zanzibar: The Memoirs of Ali Sultan Issa and Seif Sharif Hamad (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009), 1-25.Africa and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 8Capitalism, Socialism or African Socialism? Struggles over Economic GrowthFrom the 1950s, the process of nation-building began for newly independent African countries. While some were drawn to opportunities for popular mobilisation or capitalism, others attempted to implement what is broadly regarded as 'African socialism’. This political ideology involved the rejection of western finance, as well as western ideas about social, economic, and political development. The superpowers, both the US and the USSR, were keen to offer their own ‘models’ of achieving rapid economic development in Africa. In this seminar, we will first examine Soviet and American approaches to development before examining what “African socialism” meant to its advocates, as well as to its opponents. Latham and Iandolo give an introduction to American and Soviet models of development respectively. Read Speich’s piece on Kenya, alongside short piece from Tom Mboya and Kwame Nkrumah for African perspectives. Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. How different were Soviet and Western approaches to economic development in Africa?2. What was ‘African socialism’ and why did many oppose it?3. How successful were Soviet and American development initiatives in Africa during the 1960s? Answer with reference to THREE examples4. 'The Cold War in Africa was a contest over different visions of economic modernisation'. DiscussClass readingsMichael Latham, Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present (Ithaka: Cornell University Press, 2010), pp. 65-68, 75-90Alessandro Iandolo, ‘The rise and fall of the ‘Soviet Model of Development’ in West Africa, 1957–64’, Cold War History, 12 (2012): 683-704Daniel Speich, ‘The Kenyan Style of African Socialism: Developmental Knowledge Claims and the Explanatory Limits of the Cold War’, Diplomatic History, 33 (2009), pp. 449-66Primary Source:Tom Mboya, 'African Socialism', Transition, 8 (1963), 17-19.Kwame Nkrumah, ‘African Socialism Revisited’, paper read at the Africa Seminar held in Cairo at the invitation of the two organs At-Talia and Problems of Peace and Socialism, available at : Look at the photographs of Ghana’s architecture in the Calvert journal. does this architecture represent?Africa and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 9The other Cold War: the Sino-Soviet rivalryThe breakdown of the Sino-Soviet alliance in the early 1960s brought a new dimension to superpower rivalry in Africa. While the Soviet Union struggled to make the impact it sought on Africa, China offered the continent’s decolonising states an alternative communism, projected as anti-imperial and Afro-Asian solidarities. What was the particular attraction of China to Africa? Were Chinese and Soviet relationships with the continent based on genuine ideological sympathies or was the language of revolution simply a plot to gain influence? Start with Friedman who situates the Sino-Soviet split in a global context, while Lal offers a local perspectives on the appeal of China and Maoism in East Africa.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. Why was the Chinese Revolution appealing to Africans?2. How did the Sino-Soviet split affect the Cold War in Africa?3. To what extent was China more successful than the Soviet Union in gaining influence in post-colonial Africa to 1975?Class readingsJeremy Friedman, ‘Soviet Policy in the Developing World and the Chinese Challenge in the 1960s’, Cold War History, 10 (2010): 247-72.Priya Lal, ‘Maoism in Tanzania: Material Connections and Shared Imaginaries’, in Alexander C. Cook (ed.), Mao’s Little Red Book: A Global History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 96-116 [e-book].Africa and the Cold War - Term 1 Week 10Educating Africa: students in the Eastern BlocThe experience of colonialism left Africa’s independent nations with a serious shortage of skilled workers. The superpowers saw an opportunity: thousands of Africans travelled to the United States and the Soviet Bloc on university scholarships. Yet they proved less ideologically impressionable and politically malleable than their sponsors hoped. This class will explore the experiences of African students in the Soviet Bloc. Issues of gender and - especially - race come to the fore here. The literature can often seem anecdotal, drawing on African memoirs - but what broader conclusions can we draw from it?Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay QuestionsHow successful in achieving its goal was the educational assistance offered to Africa by the Soviets and their allies?Was the USSR racist?3. What do the memoirs of those Africans educated in the Eastern Bloc tell us about the impact of Cold War politics on Africa?Class reading (feel free to substitute anything from the further reading section)Sean Guillory, 'Culture Clash in the Socialist Paradise: Soviet Patronage and African Students' Urbanity in the Soviet Union, 1960-1965', Diplomatic History, 38 (2014), 271-81.Maxim Matusevich, ‘Journeys of Hope: African Diaspora and the Soviet Society’, African Diaspora, 1 (2008), 53-85.Julia Hessler, 'Death of an African Student in Moscow: Race, Politics and the Cold War', Cahiers du monde russe, 47 (2006), 33-63.‘Black in USSR: The Children of Soviet Africa Search for their Own Identity’, Calvert Journal (2016), available from: and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 1The end of the dream: coups, dictators, and military ruleTo the newly independent African states faced with multiple challenges to its sovereignty, security was one of the key challenges. As much as the Cold War offered choices in developmental models, African governments faced choices faced important choices, as far as training their armies and developing their security sector. A decade on from the celebrations that greeted independence across Africa, the situation had turned much gloomier. Democracy quickly went the same way as colonialism. By the 1970s, most states were ruled by authoritarian one-party regimes. In many, the military overthrew civilian government, often sparking a rash of coups. To many African leaders, such as Kwame Nkrumah who was ousted in 1966, the coups were a product of 'neocolonialism', entrenched in the fabric of the African armies. As the militaries became increasingly important, all sides in the Cold War rushed to offer arms, military and security training to African armies and revolutionary movements. Why did Africa succumb to the ‘coup disease’? From where did these military regimes draw their legitimacy? And what role did the superpower rivalry play in abetting the rise of authoritarian government and dictators in Africa, including the role of secret agencies? The lecture looks at the coups that took place in Ghana in 1966, Uganda in 1971, and Burkina Faso in 1983 and addresses the militarisation of the Cold War. In class, we’ll take at various ways that the Western security actors (secret intelligence agencies, the military, etc) attempted to penetrate post-colonial institutions. The class readings offer three case studies, looking at the role of African agency in the militarisation of the Cold War in Africa.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. ‘Arms sales were a major element of competition for influence within Africa’. Discuss2. What was the impact of Western and Eastern bloc secret intelligence in Africa?3. To what extent did the Cold War ‘make’ Africa's tyrants? Answer with reference to either the Congo, Uganda or GhanaClass readingSimon Baynham, ‘Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes? The Case of Nkrumah’s National Security Service’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 23 (1985), 87-103.Poppy Cullen, 'Playing Cold War politics’: the cold war in Anglo-Kenyan relations in the 1960s’, Cold War History, 18:1 (2018), 37-54Marco Wyss, ‘The Challenge of Western Neutralism during the Cold War’, The Journal of Cold War Studies, Volume 20, Number 2 (Spring 2018)TASK: Look through a list of documents on US and Ghana and bring one to class: Foreign Relations of the United States Series, 1964-1968. Volume XXIV, Africa. Documents 253, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262.Africa and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 2Superpower rivalry and revolution in the Horn of AfricaThis class will cover the evolution of superpower rivalries in the Horn of Africa, including the events and consequences of the Ethiopian Revolution in 1974-75. As in the case of Congo, the course of decolonisation in northeastern Africa provided grievances for Africans who felt included or excluded from the new post-colonial states. For the United States and Soviet Union, the region held real geopolitical significance, especially in controlling sea access to the Red Sea. Begin with the outline narratives of developments in the Horn in Westad. Lefebvre then offers a more in-depth account of superpower rivalry, while Wiebel offers background on the Ethiopian Revolution. In next week’s class, we will look at the denouement of these developments – the Ogaden War of 1977-78.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. How do we account for the interest the superpowers showed in the Horn of Africa?2. Who led Ethiopia’s revolution, and what role did the Soviets play in the politics that established the Mengistu regime?Class readingsOdd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 250-87 [e-book].Jeffrey A. Lefebvre, ‘The United States, Ethiopia and the 1963 Somali-Soviet Arms Deal: Containment and the Balance of Power Dilemma in the Horn of Africa’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 36 (1998), 611-43.Jacob Wiebel, ‘“Let the Red Terror Intensify”: Political Violence, Governance, and Society in Urban Ethiopia, 1976-78’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 48 (2015), 13-30.Africa and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 3Proxy war? The Ethiopia-Somalia conflict, 1977-78Building on last week’s session on the context of superpower rivalry in the Horn of Africa, this class will look at the events of 1977-78 itself, when Ethiopian-Somali disputes spilt over into war. Ostensibly a conflict over a small triangle of land, the Ogaden War has often been presented as a ‘proxy war’ between the superpowers. We will assess whether this is a fair description of the conflict, looking at the impact in particular of Soviet and Cuban military aid for Ethiopia. You will already have an outline of the war’s narrative from the Westad's chapter on the reading list last week – this week’s reading presents a series of different viewpoints on the conflict. The CWIHP essay discusses material found in Ethiopian and Eastern Bloc archives on the Ogaden War: how has the end of the Cold War changed our understanding of the Ethiopia-Somalia war?Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. What caused the Ogaden War, and what advantage did victory bring?2. What do we learn about Cuba’s Africa policy from its intervention in the Ogaden War?Class readingsGebru Tareke, ‘The Ethiopian-Somalia War of 1977 Revisited’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 33 (2000), 635-67.Jiri Valenta, ‘Soviet-Cuban intervention in the Horn of Africa: Impact and Lessons’, Journal of International Affairs, 34 (1980-1), 353-67.Ermias Abebe, 'The Horn, the Cold War, and Documents from the Former East-Bloc: An Ethiopian View' in ‘Anatomy of a Third World Cold War Crisis: New East-Bloc Evidence on the Horn of Africa, 1977-78’, Cold War International History Project Bulletin, 8-9 (1996-7), 40-49 [plus see introduction from James Hershberg, pp. 38-40], available from : Look at the collection of documents on the crisis in the Horn of Africa. Bring one document to class. Be prepared to explain why you chose it and how it helps us understand the conflict: Africa and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 4A luta continua! Liberating southern AfricaWhile Britain and France largely retreated from their African colonial possessions in the 1950s and 1960s, in southern Africa, white minority regimes proved much more intransigent: the Portuguese imperial territories of Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau; the self-declared independent state of South Rhodesia; and apartheid South Africa. Unable to secure independence via peaceful means, African liberation movements took to violence. In this class, we will explore the experience in exile of these guerrilla organisations, especially in terms of their connections with the communist world, which provided military aid and ideological guidance. Westad provides an overview; the three case studies elucidate different dimensions of the liberation strugglesSeminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. Why did the armed liberation movements adopt violence as a means of struggle against Portuguese colonial rule and apartheid South Africa?2. What was the impact of Soviet military training programs on African soldiers?3. ‘The Cold War divided Africa’s armed liberation movements more than it united them.’ Discuss.4. How critical was the support of the Soviet Union to the success of South Africa’s ANC?Class readingsOdd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 207-18 [e-book].Natalia Telepneva, ‘Mediators of Liberation: Eastern-Bloc Officials, Mozambican Diplomacy and the Origins of Soviet Support for Frelimo, 1958-1965’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 43 (2017), 67-81.George Roberts, ‘The Assassination of Eduardo Mondlane: FRELIMO, Tanzania, and the Politics of Exile in Dar es Salaam’, Cold War History, 17 (2017), 1-19.Jocelyn Alexander & JoAnn McGregor, 'African Soldiers in the USSR: Oral Histories of ZAPU Intelligence Cadres’ Soviet Training, 1964–1979', Journal of Southern African Studies, 43:1 (2017): 49-66Africa and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 5Defending white minority ruleThe armed liberation movements of southern Africa were faced by a resolute but increasingly isolated set of enemies. As recent archival research has shown, the ‘unholy alliance’ between Portugal, Rhodesia, and South Africa went beyond mere rhetoric. Led by Pretoria, they coordinated a defence strategy against the liberation movements. In this seminar, we will think about how the responses of white minority regimes intersected with the broader dynamics of the Cold War. The pages from Westad set the scene. De Meneses and McNamara explore the institutional arrangements between the white minority states – Operation ALCORA. Finally, compare and contrast the two articles by Miller, who seeks to reproach the history of apartheid South Africa by reintegrating it into the story of the continent.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. What impact did the fall of Portugal’s African empire have upon the Cold War in southern Africa?2. Why was support of White Rhodesia so important to South Africa from 1965 until 1980?Class readingsOdd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 218-27.Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses and Robert McNamara, ‘The Last Throw of the Dice: Portugal, Rhodesia, and South Africa, 1970-4’, Portuguese Studies, 28 (2012), 201-15.Jamie Miller, ‘Things Fall Apart: South Africa and the Collapse of the Portuguese Empire, 1973-74’, Cold War History, 12 (2012), 183-204.Jamie Miller, ‘Africanising Apartheid: Identity, Ideology, and State-Building in Post-Independence Africa’, Journal of African History, 56 (2015), 449-70.Africa and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 7Cuba, South Africa, and the struggle for Angola, 1974-1989The sudden collapse of the Portuguese empire in 1974 did not end the conflict in Angola. Agostinho Neto’s MPLA government faced internal opposition from Jonas Savimbi’s UNITA. Savimbi was supported by South Africa, which secretly invaded Angola in 1975, and – intermittently – by the United States. The Soviet Union provided assistance to Neto’s regime, but it was Cuban troops which held the frontline against Pretoria’s forces. In this class, we will look at the motives for and consequences of these various interventions into a conflict which brought together the global Cold War with the aftermath of Portuguese decolonisation, the liberation of Namibia, and the fate of apartheid South Africa. Saunders and Onslow provide an introduction; Westad, Gleijeses and Miller provide new evidence on the agency of the USSR, Cuba and South Africa at the point of the internationalisation of the Civil War in Angola.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay QuestionsWhy did the USA and the Soviet Union intervene in Angola, 1974-75?South Africa and Cuba acted proxies of the superpower in Angola. DiscussHow decisive was the Cuban intervention for the ultimate success of the MPLA in Angola?Class readingsChristopher Saunders and Sue Onslow ‘Southern Africa in the Cold War 1975-1990’, in Melvyn P. Leffler & Odd Arne Westad (eds), The Cambridge History of the Cold War, vol. III (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 222-43. [e-book]Piero Gleijeses, 'Havana’s Policy in Africa, 1959-76: New Evidence from Cuban Archives: New Evidence on the Cold War in the Third World and the Collapse of Detente in the 1970s', Cold War International History Project Bulletin Issues 8-9, (Winter 1996/1997), pp. 5-8, available from Arne Westad, Moscow and the Angolan Crisis: 'A New Pattern of Intervention, New Evidence on the Cold War in the Third World and the Collapse of Detente in the 1970s' Cold War International History Project Bulletin Issues 8-9 (Winter 1996/1997), pp. 21-32, available from Miller, ‘Yes, Minister: Reassessing South Africa’s Intervention in the Angolan Civil War, 1975-76’, Journal of Cold War Studies, 15 (2013), 4-33.Africa and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 8The Cold War and the end of apartheidThe collapse of the Soviet Bloc was paralleled by dramatic events in South Africa, where the white minority regime eventually gave way to multiracial democracy in 1994. To what extent were these two developments connected? Was the end of apartheid the consequence of structural changes in the Cold War order or internal factors, as black protest rendered white minority government impossible? What role did American policy play here? Start with Saunders, then have a look at the debate between Guelke and Daniel. Kagan-Guthrie offers an American perspective, as well as a link to the previous week’s class on Angola – which is very much part of the story here.Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. 'The end of the Cold War was essential to the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa.' Do you agree?2. What part did American policy play in bringing an end to South Africa's apartheid regime?Class ReadingsChris Saunders, ‘The Ending of the Cold War and Southern Africa’, in Artemy Kalinovsky and Sergey Radchenko (eds), The End of the Cold War and the Third World (London: Routledge, 2011), 264-76.Adrian Guelke, ‘The Impact of the End of the Cold War on the South African Transition’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 14 (1996), 87-100.John Daniel, ‘A Response to Guelke: The Cold War Factor in South Africa’s Transition’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 14 (1996), 101-104.Zachary Kagan-Guthrie, ‘Chester Crocker and the South African Border War, 1981-89: A Reappraisal of Linkage’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 35 (2009), 65-80.Africa and the Cold War - Term 2 Week 9New Dawns? Africa after the Cold WarThe end of the Cold War brought about a wave of democratisation across Africa. But it did not bring peace. In Somalia, the state collapsed. The Rwandan genocide triggered a war in Congo which dragged in participants from numerous neighbouring states. Liberia and Sierra Leone both experienced brutal civil wars. Why did these conflicts break out as superpower rivalries fell away? How did thinkers and decision-makers in the United States respond to these wars? As the ‘War on Terror’ now forms the primary lens through which Washington views the continent, what legacies of the Cold War can we identify? Schmidt offers an overview of these wars, but in class we will focus on Prestholdt’s article – a tough, complex piece, but a rewarding one: how does his discussion of political Islam and terror in Mombasa fit in with the themes we’ve encountered over the duration of the course?Seminar/Non-Assessed Essay Questions1. ‘For Africa, the end of the Cold War has brought a regression into more armed conflict and greater political instability.’ Discuss.2. Did the end of the Cold War bring about a transformation in the United States’ policy in Africa?Class readings*Elizabeth Schmidt, Foreign Intervention in Africa: From the Cold War to the War on Terror (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 193-227.Jeremy Prestholdt, 'Superpower Osama: Symbolic Discourse in the Indian Ocean Region after the Cold War', in Christopher J. Lee (ed.), Making a World after Empire: The Bandung Moment and its Political Afterlives (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010), 315-50.Africa and the Cold War — Term 2 Week 10Looking back: themes, perspectives, periodisation [Revision session] ................
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