AP World



AP World

Chapter One

(From the Origins of Agriculture to the First River-Valley Civilizations,

8000-500 B.C.E.)

Civilizations origins (~3000 B.C.E.) in Mesopotamia and Egypt need examination.

Civilization indicators: cities as administration centers

political system based on defined territory

many people engaged in specialized activities

status (class) distinctions based on wealth

monumental buildings

system for keeping permanent records

long-distance travel

sophisticated interest in science and art

Prior to civilization-occurred to development of culture, which is defined as learned patterns of action and expression (ex. Cave paintings near Lascaux, France).

Culture includes: dwellings, clothing, tools and crafts, beliefs, and languages

*The development, transmission, and transformation of cultural practices and events are the subject of history.

Stone tool making was the first recognized cultural activity (~2 million years ago).

The Stone Age lasted until ~4000 B.C.E. It is subdivided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). The New Stone Age saw the origins of agriculture.

Other advancements: foragers and gatherers with proof of cooking ~12,500 years ago.

East Asia shows woven clothing ~26,000 years ago, and visual artwork occurred ~32,000 years ago.

Agricultural Revolution began ~10,000 years ago with the domestication of plants and animals. It emphasized the central role of food production. Specialized stone tools indicate the change. Women played a role in the selection of seeds and cultivation.

The Middle East ~8000 B.C.E. saw agricultural revolution (wheat and barley);

Greece ~6000 B.C.E.; Central Europe ~4000 B.C.E; Asia ~10,000-5,000 B.C.E. (rice);

Americas ~3000 B.C.E. (maize).

First domesticated animal was the dog with cattle following (~3000 B.C.E.) with use of the yolk the next step in agricultural development.

Pastoralism (~2500 B.C.E.) which is the herding of grazing animals in arid regions occurred.

Why did the agricultural revolution occur? Grain provided a dietary staple and source of beer making. More significant is the climate change. Population increase may also have contributed. Global warming contributed to a decline in animals for hunting, the period ~9000 B.C.E. Holocene was marked by a rapid population increase. (~10 million in 5000 B.C.E. to ~50-100 million in 1000 B.C.E.)

Life in Neolithic Communities

Farming required more effort than foraging. Farming spread with limited confrontation and violence. Kinship led to landholding by lineage or clan. Both matrilineal (traced through the mother) and patrilineal (traced through the father) societies existed. (Note the interesting story in your textbook related to the legend of leadership by Kikuyu women until a conspiracy by the males!)

Kinship led to the custom of ancestral worship, which continued/s in many cultures.

It may give support for the development of sacred groves, the Earth Mother deity, and even megaliths (big stones) such as Stonehenge in England.

Jericho and Catal Huyuk reveal societies with sophisticated systems featuring agricultural and religious emphases. There were also specialized occupations such as metalworking.

Mesopotamia “the land between two rivers”

Centrality of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Agriculture arrive ~5000 B.C.E.

with irrigation begun ~3000 B.C.E. The concept of a fallow field and the ox drawn plow (~4000 B.C.E.) were also present.

Written records began with the Sumerians in the region and separates prehistory from history (~5000 B.C.E.). Non-Sumerian (Semitic) languages such as Hebrew, Aramaic, and Phoenician appeared ~2900 B.C. E. By 2000 B.C.E. Semitic Akkadian language became dominant. *Sumerian/Semitic cultural heritage until the arrival of the Greeks in ~400 B.C.E.

Cities, Kings, and Trade

Development of village occurs, but still centered on agriculture

Creation of the city-state a self governing urban center with agricultural territory controlled. These city-states built and maintained irrigation networks. The construction of weirs (partial dams) was introduced. *Both of these ideas required compelling and persuasive leaders.*

There were two centers of power under these leaders: temple and king’s palace, The temples were centrally located and housed the culture’s (deity) god/s. Cults (sets of religious rituals) were established.

By 3000 B.C.E. lugal “big man” (king) became known. *The king’s power grew at the expense of the priests.* Duties: upkeep of temples,

maintain city walls,

oversee irrigation system,

defense,

establish justice

In 2350 B.C.E. the King of Sumer and Akkad created universal dominion (rule) in the region. During the period 1900-1600 B.C.E., one ruler Hammurabi established the first Law Code.

Trade and long-distance commerce flourished with sea-faring vessels as early as 5000 B.C.E. Most merchants worked for the temple or the palace. By 2000 B.C.E. merchants engaged in independent action with increasing influence. *Coins, stamped metal pieces of state-guaranteed value, appeared around 600 B.C.E. Barter or values in relationship to fixed weights of products prevailed.

Mesopotamian Society

*Urbanized civilizations encourage social division along lines of status and privilege, wealth, social function, and legal and political rights.* Hammurabi’s Law Code created three classes: 1.free-landowning class (royalty, officials, warriors, priests, merchants,some artisans); 2.dependent farmers and artisans (primarily the rural work force); and slaves (domestic servants) distinguished by distinctive hair style.

*Scribes (reading and writing tasks) were male dominated, which limits the knowledge of women’s roles.* Women’s status was reduced with the movement from foraging to agricultural society. Further loss of status occurred in the 2nd millennium with the introduction of veils and the remaining at home traced to this period.

Gods, Priests, and Temples

Religion dominated by forces of nature: Anu (sky), Enlil (air), Enki (water), Utu (sun), and Nanna (moon). Through time the Semitic gods blended with the Sumerian gods. Gods were anthropomorphic (exhibited human characteristics) possessing bodies, needing nourishment, enjoyed worship, and had emotions). Humankind existed to serve the gods. Religion was public and state organized. In Sumer, Nippur was considered a religious center. There was a complicated hierarchy (ranking) of the priests’ status and functions. The religious compound centered on a ziggurat (multi storied, pyramid-shaped tower). Religion encompassed many amulets (small charms) and was often accompanied with a widespread belief in magic. There was a twelve day New Year’s festival focused around the sprouting of the crops. Time (seasons) were ordered in a circular pattern with agriculture.

Technology and Science

These ideas imply skilled or “specialized” knowledge. Specialized knowledge was used to transform the natural environment. Writing, with the introduction of cuneiform ~3300 B.C.E., represented such specialization with the use of the point of a sharpened reed into moist clay. The complexity of character writing meant literacy was rare and *often concentrated within a class of scribes to protect status in society.*

Cuneiform served as a means of expressing the Akkadian language of the Semites. Economic concerns dominated early Sumerian documents. (Why would that be?)

Technological advances as related to the needs of improving irrigation and agricultural methods led to the importation of metal ores (bronze). Clay was a major resource and was used for mud bricks in architectural and engineering projects. By ~4000 B.C.E. the potter’s wheel was in use. Militaries, which became full time armies by the late 3rd millennium, were also influenced by technological advances. (For example, the use of horse-drawn chariot. By early 2ne millennium B.C.E.). Another area of technological advance was in the use of base-60 number system (in which numbers were expressed as fractions or multiples of 60). Finally, the people of this location were strong practioners of astronomy.

Egypt

Its natural environment had a major impact on its history and culture. In fact, Egypt is less a crossroads than an isolated land protected by barriers which fostered a unique culture.

The “Gift of the Nile” is vital. It extends from Lake Victoria to the Mediterranean

Sea, ending a triangular-shaped delta. Egypt is sometimes referred to as “Black Land” (soil of lower Nile) and “Red Land” (desert of upper Nile). Travel and communication centered on the river. The water for irrigation was the result of the floods (primarily in September), with “nilometers” stone staircases measuring height. Other resources present include papyrus, wildlife, building stones, clay, and copper. *Egypt was more self sufficient than Mesopotamia.

By 5500 B.C.E. farming villages with domesticated animals were present. A major climate change encouraged movement into the Nile Valley (~3000 B.C.E.)

Divine Kingship

The growth of the population meant a need for complex political organization. *(This is a common factor to many societies.) Upper and lower Egypt were united under Menes (~3100 B.C.E.) Egyptian history is divided into three dynasties (sequences of kings from same family). The king was called pharaoh (actually meaning “palace”) and was a king god on earth. The pharaoh was the son of Re. *The concept of a divine king may explain the lack of a code of law (like Hammurabi). ~2630 B.C.E. saw the first construction of a stepped pyramid under Djoser at Saqqara. The pyramids of Giza were built ~2550-2490 B.C.E. These marvels were built with stone tools and may have been viewed as religious service by laborers.

Administration and Communication

The base of power was at Memphis in the Old Kingdom; at Thebes in the Middle and New Kingdoms. A bureaucracy (governmental structure with different levels of officials) kept detailed records. A merit system existed within the government. At this point there were no middle class traders. The deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphics (character writing) was aided by the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. Hieroglyphics were done in cursive style on papyrus. Historically there was conflict between the centralized power of the monarchs (pharaohs) and decentralized bureaucracy. The large percentage of the population lived in farming villages. The country’s relative isolation resulted in the acquisition of needed resources rather than conquest. (For example, contact with Nubia to the south for gold.)

People of Egypt

An ethnically diverse population of ~1-1.5 million. Social structure: king and high-ranking officials, lower-level officials and priests, and peasants. *(A good description of peasant life is on page ?? in your textbook.) Slavery had minimal economic consequence. *Women were subordinate to men but held some rights and respect (page ?? ).

Beliefs and knowledge

The Egyptians held to belief in recurrent cycles and periodic renewal as a part of the natural world. *Much of the country’s wealth was devoted to religious purposes. There is little recorded information on gods and worship. Amulets and magic were widespread. An obsession with the after-life led to the development of mummification techniques. There was extensive and chemical and medical knowledge, along with mathematics and calendars. Architecture, ship building and road construction demonstrate technical know how.

Indus Valley civilization

The fertile Indus River with settled farming created a food surplus leading to urbanization. Its natural environment is dominated by the monsoons (winds). There are twice yearly floods.

Material culture

There were two major urban cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The population of Indus River Valley was stable. Agriculture began ~5000 B.C.E. The early Dravidian language was undecipherable. A greater abundance of metal was present in IRV than in Mesopotamia or Egypt. Most of it was of utilitarian rather than decorative value. The cities’ organization suggests centralized authority, but that is unconfirmed. Trade contacts were extensive. The IRV civilization was well developed technologically with irrigation, pottery wheel, and metal smiths.

Transformation of IRV

The cities were abandoned ~1900 B.C.E. due a breakdown of the political, economic, and social systems; possibly as a result of a natural disaster. The urban centers could not be maintained. Speculation rather than fact is associated with the changes. *The majority of the population adjusted to the changes, but the elite (upper classes and political leaders) lost its distinctions.

Conclusions:

Highly developed societies (with political centralization, urbanization, and technology) occurred in the three river valleys.

Technology was applied to make nature work them. (For example, irrigation)

Nature-centered religions developed.

Divine kingships found in both Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Diverse populations adapted to cultures of the regions.

Egyptian women were given a higher level of respect than in Mesopotamia.

While Egypt and Mesopotamia move into new phases in 2nd millennium B.C.E.,

Indus River Valley civilization disappears.

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