SQL

嚜燙QL

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SQL

About the Tutorial

SQL is a database computer language designed for the retrieval and management of data

in a relational database. SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

This tutorial will give you a quick start to SQL. It covers most of the topics required for a

basic understanding of SQL and to get a feel of how it works.

Audience

This tutorial is prepared for beginners to help them understand the basic as well as the

advanced concepts related to SQL languages. This tutorial will give you enough

understanding on the various components of SQL along with suitable examples.

Prerequisites

Before you start practicing with various types of examples given in this tutorial, I am

assuming that you are already aware about what a database is, especially the RDBMS and

what is a computer programming language.

Compile/Execute SQL Programs

If you are willing to compile and execute SQL programs with Oracle 11g RDBMS but you

don＊t have a setup for the same, do not worry. Coding Ground is available on a high-end

dedicated server giving you real programming experience. It is free and is available online

for everyone.

Copyright & Disclaimer

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Table of Contents

About the Tutorial ............................................................................................................................................ i

Audience ........................................................................................................................................................... i

Prerequisites ..................................................................................................................................................... i

Compile/Execute SQL Programs ....................................................................................................................... i

Copyright & Disclaimer ..................................................................................................................................... i

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................ ii

1.

SQL 岸 Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 1

What is SQL? .................................................................................................................................................... 1

SQL Process ..................................................................................................................................................... 2

SQL Commands................................................................................................................................................ 3

2.

SQL 岸 RDBMS Concepts ............................................................................................................................. 5

What is RDBMS? .............................................................................................................................................. 5

SQL Constraints ............................................................................................................................................... 6

Data Integrity ................................................................................................................................................... 7

Database Normalization .................................................................................................................................. 7

Database 每 First Normal Form (1NF) ............................................................................................................... 8

Database 每 Second Normal Form (2NF) ........................................................................................................ 10

Database 每 Third Normal Form (3NF) ............................................................................................................ 11

3.

SQL 岸 RDBMS Databases ......................................................................................................................... 14

MySQL ........................................................................................................................................................... 14

MS SQL Server ............................................................................................................................................... 15

ORACLE .......................................................................................................................................................... 16

MS ACCESS..................................................................................................................................................... 17

4.

SQL 每 Syntax ........................................................................................................................................... 19

Various Syntax in SQL .................................................................................................................................... 19

5.

SQL 岸 Data Types .................................................................................................................................... 24

6.

SQL 每 Operators ...................................................................................................................................... 28

What is an Operator in SQL? ......................................................................................................................... 28

SQL Arithmetic Operators ............................................................................................................................. 28

Arithmetic Operators 每 Examples ................................................................................................................. 29

SQL Comparison Operators ........................................................................................................................... 30

Comparison Operators 每 Examples ............................................................................................................... 31

SQL Logical Operators ................................................................................................................................... 34

Logical Operators 每 Examples........................................................................................................................ 35

7.

SQL 每 Expressions ................................................................................................................................... 41

Boolean Expressions ...................................................................................................................................... 41

Numeric Expressions ..................................................................................................................................... 42

Date Expressions ........................................................................................................................................... 43

8.

SQL 每 CREATE Database .......................................................................................................................... 45

9.

SQL 岸 DROP or DELETE Database ............................................................................................................. 46

10. SQL 岸 SELECT Database, USE Statement .................................................................................................. 47

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11. SQL 岸 CREATE Table ................................................................................................................................ 48

SQL - Creating a Table from an Existing Table ............................................................................................... 49

12. SQL 岸 DROP or DELETE Table ................................................................................................................... 51

13. SQL 岸 INSERT Query ................................................................................................................................ 53

14. SQL 岸 SELECT Query ................................................................................................................................ 56

15. SQL 岸 WHERE Clause ............................................................................................................................... 59

16. SQL 岸 AND & OR Conjunctive Operators ................................................................................................. 62

The AND Operator ......................................................................................................................................... 62

The OR Operator ........................................................................................................................................... 63

17. SQL 岸 UPDATE Query .............................................................................................................................. 66

18. SQL 岸 DELETE Query ................................................................................................................................ 69

19. SQL 岸 LIKE Clause .................................................................................................................................... 72

20. SQL 岸 TOP, LIMIT or ROWNUM Clause .................................................................................................... 76

21. SQL 岸 ORDER BY Clause ........................................................................................................................... 79

22. SQL 岸 Group By ....................................................................................................................................... 82

23. SQL 岸 Distinct Keyword ........................................................................................................................... 86

24. SQL 岸 SORTING Results ........................................................................................................................... 89

25. SQL 岸 Constraints .................................................................................................................................... 92

SQL - NOT NULL Constraint ........................................................................................................................... 92

SQL - DEFAULT Constraint ............................................................................................................................. 93

SQL - UNIQUE Constraint ............................................................................................................................... 94

SQL 岸 Primary Key.......................................................................................................................................... 95

SQL 岸 Foreign Key .......................................................................................................................................... 96

SQL 岸 CHECK Constraint ................................................................................................................................ 98

SQL 岸 INDEX Constraint ................................................................................................................................. 99

Dropping Constraints ................................................................................................................................... 101

Integrity Constraints .................................................................................................................................... 101

26. SQL 岸 Using Joins .................................................................................................................................. 102

SQL - INNER JOIN ......................................................................................................................................... 103

SQL 岸 LEFT JOIN ........................................................................................................................................... 105

SQL - RIGHT JOIN ......................................................................................................................................... 107

SQL 岸 FULL JOIN ........................................................................................................................................... 109

SQL 岸 SELF JOIN ........................................................................................................................................... 111

SQL 岸 CARTESIAN or CROSS JOIN ................................................................................................................. 113

27. SQL 岸 UNIONS CLAUSE .......................................................................................................................... 116

The UNION ALL Clause ................................................................................................................................. 119

SQL 岸 INTERSECT Clause .............................................................................................................................. 121

SQL 岸 EXCEPT Clause ................................................................................................................................... 123

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28. SQL 岸 NULL Values ................................................................................................................................ 127

29. SQL 岸 Alias Syntax ................................................................................................................................. 130

30. SQL 每 Indexes ........................................................................................................................................ 134

The CREATE INDEX Command ..................................................................................................................... 134

The DROP INDEX Command ........................................................................................................................ 135

SQL - INDEX Constraint ................................................................................................................................ 135

31. SQL 岸 ALTER TABLE Command .............................................................................................................. 138

32. SQL - TRUNCATE TABLE Command ........................................................................................................ 142

33. SQL 岸 Using Views ................................................................................................................................. 143

Creating Views ............................................................................................................................................. 143

The WITH CHECK OPTION ............................................................................................................................ 144

34. SQL 岸 Having Clause .............................................................................................................................. 148

35. SQL 每 Transactions ................................................................................................................................ 151

Properties of Transactions........................................................................................................................... 151

Transactional Control Commands ............................................................................................................... 151

36. SQL 岸 Wildcard Operators ..................................................................................................................... 158

37. SQL 岸 Date Functions ............................................................................................................................ 162

38. SQL 岸 Temporary Tables........................................................................................................................ 192

What are Temporary Tables? ...................................................................................................................... 192

Dropping Temporary Tables ........................................................................................................................ 193

39. SQL 每 Clone Tables ................................................................................................................................ 194

40. SQL 每 Sub Queries ................................................................................................................................. 197

Subqueries with the SELECT Statement ...................................................................................................... 197

Subqueries with the INSERT Statement ...................................................................................................... 198

Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement ..................................................................................................... 199

Subqueries with the DELETE Statement ...................................................................................................... 200

41. SQL 每 Using Sequences.......................................................................................................................... 202

Using AUTO_INCREMENT column ............................................................................................................... 202

Obtain AUTO_INCREMENT Values .............................................................................................................. 203

Renumbering an Existing Sequence ............................................................................................................ 203

Starting a Sequence at a Particular Value ................................................................................................... 204

42. SQL 每 Handling Duplicates .................................................................................................................... 206

43. SQL 每 Injection ...................................................................................................................................... 209

Preventing SQL Injection ............................................................................................................................. 210

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