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1). What are the four aspects of the sick role model (Parsons 1951)? According to Parsons, medicine is an institution for the social control of deviant behavior. Do you agree or disagree with this view? Why or why not?

According to Parsons (1951), the four aspects of the sick role include two rights and two duties (p. 436, 437). They include temporary exemption from normal social roles. Of course, illnesses that are more serious exempt these persons from more roles and tasks. Sick person are not responsible for their illnesses and are not blameworthy. Moreover, illness is not simply a matter of deficient willpower. The sick person has a right to be tended to and looked after.

In as much as these rights are granted, Parson (1951) also believes that people should see illness as undesirable. Because of this, they have a duty to get well and to return to their normal roles and duties. In turn, this desire should drive their desire to achieve wellness. For this reason, the person is obliged to seek help from a qualified and competent person to regain wellness or some semblance thereof.

This is not to say, however, that the sick person is completely exempt from blame. Rather, any sick person who ignores their duty or obligation to seek and obtain the appropriate care and/or return to their roles in society are blameworthy, according to Parsons. Because of this, they lose their rights to exemption and the rights to be taken care of.

While Parsons (1951) sick role duties and obligations have some value, they are largely dependent upon the society in which they occur, the types of services available and even the level of self-efficacy and/or wellness each society promotes or delimits. For example, American society at the establishment level might deem a physician a qualified and competent individual. Yet, the physician might lack the knowledge, skill and ability to help the sick person regain wellness because of the allopathic constraints. Therefore, some levels of disability sanctioned by the establishment would be seen as acceptable, when in fact they might not be. In as much as Parsons (1951) contends a qualified and competent medical professional should be engaged, many factors inform this view, acceptability and/or even a willingness to try other treatments and modalities (p. 436; Liam, 2011, slide 5). Additionally, of course, illness also requires legitimation by the accepted professional (Lain, 2011, slide 5). If, for example, a disease is emergent and the establishment lacks a consensus regarding its “illness” status or definition this can be problematic for the sick person. In some cases, the sick persons with an unknown disease are seen as lacking will power or otherwise deviant and deficient.

a). What is the patient-physician relationship according to Cockerham? b). Which two sociological examples of the sick role, as evidenced by existing research, do you think are most appropriate? c). Justify your answers with appropriate research and reasoning and comment on the postings of at least two peers.

As Cockerham & Glassier (2001) explicates, doctor-patient interaction embodies a social contract (p. 273). As such, it is a structured relationship of well-established obligations and duties to the other. As explicated within Parson’s (1951) sick role rights and duties, sick persons have the right to be taken care and a duty to seek restoration from a competent, qualified individual. However, several societal changes have altered this relationship in significant ways. (Cockerham, 2009) The level of trust and assurance patients once afforded medical doctors has eroded and doctors socialized within the medical establishment after the first half of the twentieth century have embarked on medical careers for far less humanitarian goals (Cockerham, 2009, p. 355). Rather, money and power have driven many to make the decisions they make (p. 355). For all of these reasons, physicians believe they have more authority and power than they do and patients have less trust in them (p. 355, 356). Therefore, this unequal relationship and its now secular nature has not altered the sick person’s role in seeking care. However, physicians have decided in many cases to blame the patients and/or deny them care based on other factors (p. 356, 357). This denial delimits the right and duties of the sick persons and penalizes society, by extension. After all, physicians believe they are the intermediaries between science and knowledge. However, physicians and their profession have also been shaped by corporate and regulatory sectors that have proven detrimental (p. 356, 357).

2) “Large numbers of American consumers are using CAM in an effort to pre-empt disease and disability or to promote health and a sense of well-being.” (Source: Kirschstein, R. I., Acting Director, National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, National Institutes of Health, AMSA, 2008.)

a). How effective do you think CAM is in comparison to clinical treatment and diagnosis? Justify your answer.

In many cases, CAM is just as effective, if not more effective than allopathic clinical treatment and diagnosis. As exemplified by the WHO 2008 Beijing Declaration, Dr. Margaret Chan’s (2008) speech introducing it and the 1978 Alma Ata Declaration traditional medicine should serve as primary care in every nation (Hayes, 2009, p. 19; Leoung, 2003). During the height of the 2003 SARS epidemic, for example, herbal medicines proved 100% effective in SARS prevention among the general population and those exposed on a regular basis, i.e., hospital workers (Dharmananda, 2003 citing Foreman, 2004, et. al.; WHO, 2003; Leoung, 2003) Moreover, Chinese medicine also mitigated and alleviated the disease much quicker and without the disastrous necrotic effects the steroids did (Hayes, 2009, p. 18-20; WHO, 2003; Leoung, 2003).

b). Identify and discuss at least 10 types of treatments offered by CAM practitioners. c). Analyze and present at least one case that shows the positive effect of CAM and one that shows the negative effect.

Chinese medicine offers several modalities including but not limited to (NCCAM, 2011):

Guasha, using a piece of jade or specially carved wood to scrape the skin and remove stagnation and invading toxins from the meridians.

Acupuncture, the use of special needles inserted into the meridians based upon diagnosis and genetic body type. These thin needles are stimulated, manipulated in several different ways to remove blockages, promote the balance and flow of Qi, energy, blood, etc.

Tuina is a Chinese form of bodywork engaged to promote circulation, to restore flexibility, function and movement to muscles. It is often used as a complementary treatment in conjunction with acupuncture, but it is also used for various injuries, as well.

Chinese herbal medicine extends from a materia medica compendium of thousands of herbs and formulas. Its goals are to match the formula to the person, to their constitution type, condition and to alter the formulations based upon the presenting manifestations and diagnostic findings. It is molecular medicine.

Cupping engages the application of heated cups to create suction. Based upon the diagnosis and the condition of the patient, cupping can be flexibly engaged to treat various conditions.

Qi gong, a form of body, mind spirit exercise, can be taught to patients and persons seeking ways to restore health. Various forms involve breathing, specialized techniques and self-cultivation. When performed properly, they promote longevity and engender health.

Applied Qi Gong/Energy medicine is the transference of energy or the use of Qi energy to supplement Qi or to eliminate the invading forces/toxins, pathogens or disease. Only specialists can perform this type of medicine.

Tai Chi, a form of mind, body, and spirit exercise performed to maintain and restore balance and health.

Moxibustion, the use of moxa (mugwort) cones through various means, usually in conjunction with acupuncture or cupping. Typically, moxa are burned near skin, or moved over localized areas and meridians based upon diagnosis and condition.

Chinese diet therapy includes specialized diets based upon constitution (genetics) and early development (the first two years of life) and the person’s current condition. According to its compendium, people can prevent, manage or eliminate illness by eating certain foods and changing these patters with each season, condition change, etc.

Spinal manipulation-is the practice through which (NCCAM, 2011) practitioners apply a controlled force to a joint of the spine with either their hands or a device. By moving the spine beyond its passive range of motion, the force manipulates the spine to yield a desired outcome (2011). This is most often used for chronic, low back pain, which is difficult to treat otherwise (2011).

d). what is the National Institutes of Health’s (NIH) role in CAM research? Justify your answers with appropriate research and reasoning

The NIH NCCAM has been employed to moderate the argument between physicians and traditional healing modalities. Accordingly, it is (NCCAM, 2011) charged with the scientific evaluation of these modalities. However, critics have charged that its universalized approach granting credence to the prevailing, essentialist western medicine paradigm does not disprove these modalities. Rather, it fails to question the scientific relevance of both, by extension.

3). While there is evidence that chiropractic techniques can help patients with back, shoulder, and neck pain (Baer 2001), the medical profession has traditionally opposed the extension of professional status to chiropractors. a). Is the medical profession justified in its stance? Why?

No, the medical profession is not justified in its stance because chiropractic medicine has proven very beneficial to patients with certain conditions and in many cases treats the condition and the cofounding conditions such as depression. Because it does so without painkillers or other drugs with detrimental effects, medical doctors should recognize its value and refer patients. Ultimately, physicians must consider the welfare of their patients and the best possible outcomes.

However, Cockerham (2009) also reveals the problems therein, mostly related to corporatization of medical care in the U.S. Nevertheless, the AMA, the most vocal in the opposition had steadily lost members since the arguments between the AMA and the chiropractors ensued during the 1970s.

b). What is Daniel Palmer’s (1895) chiropractic approach to healing?

Dr. Palmer’s approach to healing contended that (ICA, 2011), “[…] the human body is a self-healing, self-regulating organism” (p. 1). Accordingly, Dr. Palmer’s approach coordinated the ways in which a body healed rather than engaging intervening interruptions or intrusions (p. 1).

c). What is the faith healers approach to healing in relation to religious beliefs? Justify your answers with appropriate research and reasoning and comment on the postings of at least two peers.

A faith healers approach to healing in relation to religious beliefs is truly an extension of the original more sacred physician-patient relationship. It thereby constructs a structured relationship based upon duty and obligation with the obvious recognition that the faith healer and the patients are mediums. That is to say that something greater than the faith healer himself/herself is channeled through the faith healer. Additionally, of course, the sick person must be willing to accept the healing, to modify daily rituals, to engage in his/her own purification and restorative efforts, as well. Faith-based communities and their ability to promote healthier lifestyles (Patham, 2006) evidence this. Through shared rituals, community values and socialization therein, faith and faith healing are congruent with man’s need for religiosity, to mediate the otherwise inexplicable circumstances and misfortune man encounters (Patham, 2006).

References

Cockerham, W. C., & Glasser, M. L. (2001). Readings in medical sociology. Upper Saddle River,

N.J: Prentice Hall.

Dharmananda, S. (2003). SARS and Chinese Medicine: How the Chinese People and Institutions

Responded with Herbs. Retrieved from

Hayes, D.A. 杜湘君 (2009). SARS: The Hidden Lessons. Presented at Humanity,

Development and Cultural Diversity, the 16th World Congress of the International

Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Kunming, China, 2009 July 27.

Published in the proceedings in Chinese and English.

International Chiropractors Association [ICA](2011 Sept. 1). Chiropractic professionals and

patients celebrate founder’s day. Retrieved from

asset/docs/FoundersDayRelease2011.pdf

Leung PC, Lau TF, Cheng KF and Lam CWK (2003 ). A herbal formula for the prevention of

transmission of SARS during the SARS epidemic in Hong Kong Special Administrative

Region — a prospective cohort study. Retrieved from whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/

2004/9241546433_reportA.pdf

Liam, G.R. (2011) Lecture 3: Sick Role Parson 1951. Retrieved from



National College of Complementary and Alternative Medicine [NCCAM](2011). CAM types.

Retrieved from

Pathman, Donald E. (2006, June 1). A prevalence study of faith-based healing in the rural

southeastern United States The Free Library. (2006). Retrieved November 19, 2011 from prevalence study of faith-based healing in the rural southeastern...-a0148139439

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