NBSAP Forum
NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN OF GHANA
DRAFT
Copyright Page
MEST
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………. iv
Foreword ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Preface …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
GENERAL INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………
SECTION ONE: BIODIVERSITY ISSUES IN GHANA
Chapter One: IN-SITU CONSERVATION …………………………………………………………….
Chapter Two: EX-SITU CONSERVATION ………………………………………………………….
Chapter Three: INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES ……………………………………………………………
Chapter Four: AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY ……………………………………………………
Chapter Five: TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE ………………………………………………………….
Chapter Six: ACCESS TO GENETIC RESOURCES AND BENEFIT SHARING ……….
Chapter Seven: TAXONOMY ………………………………………………………………………………
Chapter Eight: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC …………………………………………………………..
Chapter Nine: POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………………………….
Chapter Ten: The WAY FORWARD………………………
SECTION TWO: THE STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All the writers
Other Contributors
NBC
Reviewers
Sponsors
FOREWORD-by the President of the Republic of Ghana
MESSAGES
Chairman – NDPC
Ministers of MEST
Minister of MOFA
Minister of MLNR
Minister of MOFEP
Minister of Justice and Attorney General
Minister Local Government and Rural Development.
PREFACE
This 2011 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan document is the outcome of a review of various thematic areas with reference to the decisions taken at the Conferences of Parties (COP) of the CBD. The review work has been both extensive and intensive. The document is purposely detailed to provide adequate information on the country’s obligations under the CBD, especially in relation to Article 6 (General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use); Article 13 (Public Education and Awareness); Article 15 (Access to Genetic Resources) and Article 18 (Technical and Scientific Cooperation). These articles have been cited because of the specific enterprise of 2010 as the International Year for Biodiversity and 2011 to 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity. Consequently it is expected that a new way to global, regional and national approach into understanding and achieving the three objectives of the CBD will be re-engineered. The three objectives of the CBD are (a) Conservation of Biological Diversity (b) Sustainable use of its components and (c) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including the appropriate access to genetic resources and suitable transfer of relevant technologies.
This document has a general introduction, followed by Section One (Biodiversity) with 10 chapters including a chapter on the way forward, and section Two with a preamble and a matrix on the Strategy and Action Plan. The chapters in the first section contain information on Ghanaian biodiversity from In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation systems, Invasive Alien Species, through to aspects of Social, Economic, Legal and Policy issues among others. Each of the chapters provides adequate background information for the future revision processes of Ghana’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans. The information provided in this 2011 document is expected to be used extensively to develop new policy guidelines to promote the revision of this biodiversity strategy and action plan for Ghana as this country joins other nations in the march through the 2011-2020 UN Decade on Biodiversity.
Honorable. Minister
Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The Purpose
The overall purpose of this document is to enable Ghana meet its immediate obligations under the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), especially in relation to Article 6 (General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use); Article 13 (Public Education and Awareness); Article 15 (Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing) and Article 18 (Technical and Scientific Cooperation) among others. Specifically, this document incorporates the decisions and work programmes of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Conventioninto a new National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) in conformity with the global Aichi Nagoya 2011-2020 CBD Strategic Plan
Geographical Location of Ghana
Ghana falls within three main biogeographical zones. The south-western portion of the country is in the Guineo-Congolian Zone; the middle belt is within the Guineo-Congolian/Sudanian Transition Zone and the northern tip is in the Sudanian Zone.
Ghana has a tropical climate. The country is located on the west coast of Africa, about 750 km north of the Equator and between Latitudes 40 North and 11.50 North, and Longitudes 3.110 -1.110 East. The country has a total land surface area of 238,537 km2 (about 92,100 sq miles), stretching 672 km from the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) in the south to her boundary with Burkina Faso in the north, and 357 km from her boundary with Togo in the east to La Cote D’Ivoire in the west.
Vegetation and Land Use
About 13 million hectares (57% of Ghana’s total land of 23 million hectares) is suitable for agricultural production and 5.3 million hectares of this is under cultivation. In terms of vegetation, the northern part of Ghana is predominantly savanna and the middle section (extending to the south-west part) is tropical lowland rainforest. About 11% of Ghana’s vegetation is therefore described as forest. The coastal section has thicket vegetation which is interspersed with savanna. The forest cover was estimated at 8.2 million hectares a century ago but it has been reduced to 1.6 million hectares.
Deforestation and forest degradation have had significantly negative effect on Ghana’s biodiversity. The rate of deforestation is estimated at between 60,000 ha and 75,000 ha per annum (Green Dove, 2007). Forest degradation is prevalent in the 252 permanent forest reserves which are established in the rainforest zone of Ghana. The economic loss to the nation as a result of biodiversity destruction through deforestation and forest degradation was estimated at US$54 billion (about 4.4% of the Gross Domestic Product) in the early 1990s (Tutu, et al, 1993).
The country is not mountainous but has some highlands and steep escarpments in the middle portion and isolated places in the northern part. The altitude is generally below 500 metres above sea level (m. a. s. l) (highest peak of 830 metres recorded at Afadjato ) but more than half of the country is below 200 m.a.s.l. The Volta basin, including the 8,480 km2 Volta Lake, dominates the country’s river system. Lake Bosomtwe, situated about 35 km south-east of Kumasi in Ashanti Region, is one of the world’s six major meteoric lakes and believed to be about 1.3 million years old. It is an ecologically important site which is rich in biodiversity, with several species endemic to the lake’s environment.
Information on Biodiversity
Despite the lack of information on the full coverage of the biological resources of the country in such areas as the marine and other aquatic ecosystems, about 2,974 indigenous plant species, 504 fish species, 728 bird species, 225 mammal species, and 221 amphibian and reptile species have been recorded so far. Three species of frogs, 1 species of lizard, and 23 species of butterflies have been reported to be endemic.
Sixteen percent (16%) of Ghana’s land surface area has been set aside to conserve representative samples of the country’s natural landscapes and ecosystems in the form of forest reserves, national parks and other wildlife reserves including various traditional forms of conservation areas such as sacred groves. Despite this effort, increasing pressure from agricultural expansion, mining, timber extraction and other socio-economic factors have negatively impacted the biological resources of the country.
Relevant Policies
Uncoordinated implementation of sectoral socio-economic development policies poses another serious threat to Ghana’s biological resources. Reorganization of Government ministries, commissions and, departments and agencies have so far failed to give due attention to the values of Ghana’s biological resources and the ecological services provided by ecosystems, including forests, lakes and rivers in the country.
Under the system of democratic decentralization of responsibilities enshrined in Chapter Twenty of the Constitution of the Republic of Ghana (1992), Parliament is mandated to prescribe the functions of District, Municipal and Metropolitan Assemblies (DMMAs) which shall include the formulation and execution of plans, programmes and strategies for the effective mobilization of resources necessary for the overall development of the districts municipalities and metropolis.
At the Central Government level, the functions of several ministries, commissions, departments and agencies are relevant to biodiversity conservation. Table 0.1 contains a list of some of these ministries, commissions, departments, agencies and divisions.
Table 0.1. Government ministries and other organizations with functions relevant to environment and biodiversity
|Government Ministry, Commission, Department, Division, Agency |Relevance of functions to environmental protection and biodiversity |
| |conservation |
|Ministry of Energy |Expected to articulate policies for search and provision of affordable|
| |energy sources |
|Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology |Expected to articulate sound environmental policies and encourage a |
| |science and technology culture among the people |
|Ministry of Fisheries |Expected to provide policy for sustainable fishery |
|Ministry of Food and Agriculture |Expected to lead in policy direction for national food security |
|Ministry of Health |Expected to promote preventive health policy |
|Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development |Expected to ensure effective local governance and rural |
| |infrastructural development |
|National Development Planning Commission |The Commission is responsible for the development and implementation |
| |of Ghana’s Poverty Reduction Strategy. Poverty levels are high in some|
| |areas with rich biodiversity |
|Forestry Commission |To oversee all the issues related to forest estate |
|Lands Commission |To oversee all issues related to land use |
|Water Resources Commission |To provide guidance on water resources |
|Minerals Commission |To provide guidance on mineral exploitation |
|Wildlife Division (of the Forestry Commission) |Responsible for wildlife |
|Forest Services Division (of the Forestry Commission) |Responsible for forest reserves |
The National Environmental policy of Ghana seeks specifically to:
a) maintain ecosystems and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere
b) ensure sound management of natural resources and the environment
c) adequately protect humans, animals and plants, their biological communities and habitats against harmful impacts and destructive practices, and preserve biological diversity
d) guide development in accordance with quality requirements to prevent, reduce, and as far as possible, eliminate pollution and nuisances
e) integrate environmental considerations in sectoral structural and socio-economic planning at the national, regional, district and grassroots levels
f) find common solutions to environmental problems in West Africa, Africa and the world at large.
Other national policies in Ghana are relevant to biodiversity conservation and they should be made to work together as supplements and complements. Table 0.2 has a list of some of these policies.
Table 0.2. Sectoral policies and their relevance to biodiversity conservation in Ghana
|National policy |Relevance to biodiversity conservation |
|Fisheries |To ensure that fish is available and fishery activities are |
| |sustainably undertaken |
|Food and Agriculture |To ensure food sources are secure |
|Forest and Wildlife |To maintain the natural landscapes for the conservation of forests and|
| |wildlife |
|Mining |To undertake mining activities while ensuring that biodiversity |
| |sensitive areas are avoided |
|National Culture |To maintain biological wealth that are expressed in national culture |
|National Environment |To protect water catchment areas so that their ecological functions |
|Water Resources |are not compromised |
International Co-operation
Ghana recognized the need to collaborate with other countries in the efforts to conserve biological and other natural resources as far back as the 1960s. Ghana was one of the four countries that signed the instrument of ratification which brought the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources into force on 9 October 1969. The other three countries were Burkina Faso (then known as Upper Volta), Swaziland and Kenya. Ghana is a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (The Ramsar Convention). The country has already established six Ramsar sites (5 along the coastal areas and one inland).
Ghana has ratified several other multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). Some of these agreements are listed in Table 0.3. The need to mainstream these international agreements into Ghana’s Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan cannot be overemphasized.
Table 0.3: Major Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) ratified by Ghana
|MEAs |Year |Entry into Force |Date of |Issues covered |
| | | |ratification | |
| | | |by Ghana | |
|African Convention on the Conservation|1969 |1969 |09.10.1969 |Conservation of nature and natural resources |
|of Nature and Natural Resources | | | | |
|Convention on Wetlands of |1971 |21.12.1975 |22.06.1988 |Conservation and wise use of wetlands, primarily as |
|International Importance (RAMSAR) | | | |habitat for the water-birds |
|Convention for the Protection of World|1972 |17.12.1975 |04.07.1975 |Protection and conservation of cultural natural |
|Cultural and Natural Heritage | | | |heritage |
|Convention on International Trade in |1973 |01.07.1975 |14.11.1975 |International trade in endangered species of wild fauna|
|Endangered Species (CITES) | | | |and flora |
|Bonn Convention on Migratory Species |1979 |01.11.1983 |11.04.1988 |Conservation, management and wise use of migratory |
|of Wild Animals (CMS) | | | |species of wild animals and their habitats |
|Abidjan Convention |1981 |1984 |20.07.1989 |Conservation of marine resources |
|Bamako Convention**** |1991 |30.01.1991 |02.07.2004 |Ban on hazardous chemicals in Africa |
|Vienna Convention for Protection of |1985 |22.09.1988 |Signed but not yet|Protection of atmospheric ozone layer above the |
|the Ozone Layer | | |ratified |planetary boundary layer |
|Montreal Protocol on Substances that |1987 |01.01.1989 |Signed 28.05.1999 |Protection of atmospheric ozone layer above the |
|Deplete the Ozone Layer | | | |planetary boundary layer |
|Basel Convention on Transboundary |1989 |05.05.1992 |30.05.2005 |Regulation of transboundary movements of hazardous |
|Movements of Hazardous Wastes and | | | |wastes and their disposal |
|their Disposal | | | | |
|United Nations Framework Convention on|1992 |21.03.1994 |06.09.1995 |Changes in the earth’s climate system due to |
|Climate Change (UNFCCC) | | | |anthropogenic interference |
|Convention on Biological Diversity |1992 |29.12.1993 |29.08.1994 |Biological diversity and biological resources |
|(CBD) | | | | |
|United Nations Convention to Combat |1994 |26.12.1996 |27.03.1997 |Combating desertification and mitigating the effects of|
|Desertification | | | |drought, particularly in Africa |
|Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC |1997 |16.02.2005 |30.05.2003 |Quantified emission limitation and reduction |
| | | | |commitments for Annex I Parties |
|Rotterdam Convention on the Prior |1998 |24.02.2004 |30.05.2003 |Promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts |
|Informed Consent Procedure for Certain| | | |among the Parties in the international trade of certain|
|Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in | | | |hazardous chemicals, in order to protect human health |
|International Trade | | | |and the environment from potential harm and to |
| | | | |contribute to their environmentally sound use |
|Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the|2000 |11.09.2003 |30.05.2003 |Regulation of transboundary movement, transit, handling|
|CBD | | | |and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) |
|Stockholm Convention on Persistent |2001 |17.05.2004 |30.05.2003 |Protect human health and the environment from |
|Organic Pollutants | | | |persistent organic pollutants |
During the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) which brought the political leadership of the world together in Johannesburg in 2000, the several sustainable development targets which were agreed upon culminated into the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) with specific targets set for the period ending in the year 2015. Among the agreed targets was the 2010 biodiversity target to reduce/halt the loss of biodiversity. This particular target, in reference to the other 8 MDGs, required the review of the strategy of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity to take note of the new global thinking. Consequently, Parties to the Convention which include Ghana (having ratified the convention on 29 August 1994), were obliged to undertake certain actions. These include the implementation of the articles of the Convention and programmes of work on both thematic areas and cross-cutting issues to contribute to the global effort.
Ghana’s Obligation to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
In fulfillment of the provisions of Article 6 of CBD, Ghana developed a National Biodiversity Strategy in 2002. That strategy has served to promote some helpful initiatives on biodiversity and ecosystem services although it lacks references to several international actions, especially those that became apparent after the 2000 WSSD in Johannesburg and the subsequent 2010 biodiversity targets. Ghana has now revised the 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy and subsequently developed an Action Plan for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The Action Plan reflects, inter alia, the measures set out in CBD.
The Sections of the Document
This book has been divided into two main sections. The first section provides basic information on the state and trends of Ghanaian biodiversity. The second section presents a matrix of Aichi Global Goals, National Strategy National Targets, Actions, Actors and Estimated Costs..
A glossary is provided to give definitions and explanation of terms used in this document.
References
SECTION ONE
BIODIVERSITY ISSUES IN GHANA
Chapter One
IN-SITU CONSERVATION
Introduction
In the World Conservation Strategy prepared in 1980 by IUCN, UNEP and WWF in collaboration with FAO and UNESCO, Conservation was defined as “the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Thus conservation is positive, embracing preservation, maintenance, sustainable utilization, restoration, and enhancement of the natural environment. Living resource conservation is specifically concerned with plants, animals and microorganisms, and those non-living elements of the environment on which they depend. Living resources have two important properties the combination of which distinguishes them from non-living resources: they are renewable if conserved; and they are destructible if they are not conserved”.
Living resource conservation has three specific objectives:
- To maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems (such as soil regeneration and protection, the recycling of nutrients, and the cleansing of waters), on which human survival and development depend;
- To preserve genetic diversity (the range of genetic material found in the world’s organisms), on which depend the breeding programmes necessary for the protection and improvement of cultivated plants and domesticated animals, as well as scientific advancement, technical innovation, and the security of the many industries that use living resources;
To ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems (notably fish and other wildlife, forests and grazing lands), which support millions of rural communities as well as major industries.
IUCN et al (1980) recognized the fact that conservation is a process – to be applied cross-sectorally – but not an activity sector in its own right. In the case of sectors (such as agriculture, fisheries, forestry and wildlife) that are directly responsible for the management of living resources, conservation is that aspect of management which ensures that utilization is sustainable and which safeguards the ecological processes and genetic diversity essential for the maintenance of the resources concerned. In the case of other sectors (such as health, energy, industry), conservation is that aspect of management which ensures that the fullest sustainable advantage is derived from the living resource base and that activities are so located and conducted that the resource base is maintained.
For the purpose of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), in-situ conservation “means the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings and in the case of domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties”. CBD also refers to in-situ conservation as “on-site conservation” i.e. the conservation of living biological resources in their natural habitats. In-situ conservation also implies the process of safeguarding the ecological integrity of species and their evolved ecological processes in the natural environment by protecting them against predation and from destructive tendencies.
Forms of In-situ Conservation
The management of forest resources, including wildlife, is mostly based on in-situ conservation. This involves the protection of wild plants and animals in their natural habitats. The population size is normally large enough to enable the necessary genetic diversity to survive within it to ensure a continuous adaptation and evolution over time. Protection from intrusion or human destruction and against other catastrophes is required. Mole National Park and Krokosua Forest Reserve are examples of in-situ conservation sites
In agriculture, some native varieties may be preserved and improved through in-situ conservation. This is done through field trials under specific conditions. The variety derived from gene banks or germplasms and those obtained from farmers are subjected to scientifically recommended field trial conditions and the derived best varieties are subsequently crossed and multiplied. Farmers are subsequently provided with the resultant improved varieties for cultivation. This is particularly carried out in areas that are subject to climate change impact or soil fertility constraints.
Benefits of In-situ Conservation
The benefits of in-situ conservation are twofold:
a) It maintains the recovery of populations in their natural surroundings where they have developed the distinctive properties or characteristics;
b) It also helps to ensure the on-going natural processes of evolution and adaptation in their natural environment.
In situations where in-situ conservation alone cannot secure the survival of the target species, ex-situ or off-site conservation interventions, such as Kumasi Zoo or Aburi Botanical Garden, are used as a last resort.
Inception of In-situ Conservation in Ghana
Traditional structures, systems, knowledge and practices were developed during the pre-colonial era for an effective community-based management and utilization of both forest and wildlife resources in the country. The comparatively small human population and the absence of modern technologies during the pre-colonial era favoured biodiversity conservation in the country. Tufour et al reported in 1992 that there were at least 1,450 sacred groves in Ghana. These traditional conservation areas have been maintained basically as miniature forest and wildlife reserves and for cultural purposes.
The Wild Animals Preservation Ordinance of 1900 (Cap. 100) protected primarily some species of wild animals and regulated game hunting and exportation of trophies. In 1903 the first game reserve of the country (Obosom-Sene Game Reserve) was created for the purpose of managing species of wild animals to provide game meat. Mole Game Reserve and others were created later. The Forestry Department was established in 1909 with three main objectives namely (a) to provide a permanent forest estate to protect the environment (b) to ensure successful agricultural development and (c) to sustain forest revenues for the land owners. Sacred groves, forest reserves and wildlife conservation areas are therefore the major biodiversity sites in this country.
Protected areas have been created with the purpose of ensuring that representative samples of the various ecological zones are set aside to facilitate in-situ conservation in Ghana. Incidentally, more emphasis has been placed on harvesting of timber than environmental protection and wildlife conservation in the country. In terms of environmental protection and biodiversity conservation, the wildlife conservation efforts have achieved more significant results than those of forestry.
In-situ conservation sites in Ghana
According to the Forestry Commission, Ghana has a total of 288 forest reserves and 16 protected (wildlife conservation) areas. About 268 of the forest reserves are formally gazetted and the others are proposed reserves. All the 16 wildlife conservation areas are gazetted.
The gazetted forest reserves and protected wildlife areas form about 17% of the total land surface area of Ghana. Intact dense forest reserves and wildlife protected areas cover about 1,193,000 ha. Degraded forest reserves cover approximately 450,000 ha. The types of Ghana’s wildlife in-situ conservation areas are also described as protected areas. these categories are listed in Table 1.1. the details of which are provided in table 5.
Table 1.1. Categories of wildlife conservation areas in Ghana
|Category |Number |
|Biosphere Reserve |1 |
|National Park |7 |
|Strict Nature Reserves |1 |
|Resource Reserves |5 |
|Wildlife Sanctuaries |2 |
|Sacred Groves |1,453 |
In recognition of their extraordinary biological importance, thirty forest reserves
have been re-designated as Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas (GSBAs). (Table 1.2)
Table 1.2: List of Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas(GSBA)
| |Name Of GSBA |Year Constituted |Area(Ha) |Perimeter (Km) |Region |
|1 |Obotomfo |1930 |200 |4.35 |Central |
|2 |Akrabong |1930 |300 |5.53 |Central |
|3 |Ahirasu I&II |1930 |100 |4.75 |Central |
|4 |Abasumba |1929 |100 |3.06 |Central |
|5 |Fure Headwaters |1940 |2304 |42.1 |Western |
|6 |Fure River |1939 |4736 |28.37 |Western |
|7 |Apedwa |1924 |400 |13.91 |Eastern |
|8 |Atewa Range |1939 |23200 |124.48 |Eastern |
|9 |Southern SCarp |1957 |10 |4.1 |Eastern |
|10 |Boin River |1932 |7552 |32.1 |Western |
|11 |Boin Tano |1968 |6450 |86.56 |Western |
|12 |Dadieso |1977 |17100 |63.79 |Western |
|13 |Disue River |1943 |2400 |30.21 |Western |
|14 |Tano Nimri |1935 |3456 |33.8 |Western |
|15 |Yoyo River |1932 | |32.73 |Western |
|16 |Jema Asemkrom |1991 |2048 |51.1 |Western |
|17 |Ndumfri |1937 |3768 |40.72 |Western |
|18 |Neung South |1953 |7304 |45.38 |Western |
|19 |Draw River |1954 |12800 |49.03 |Western |
|20 |Ebi Shelterbelt |1941 |2600 |38.77 |Western |
|21 |Neung North |1953 |2688 |24.43 |Western |
|22 |Subri River |1937 |5120 |62.46 |Western |
|23 |Cape Three Points |1950 |2000 |38.67 |Western |
|24 |Tano Offin |1949 |10752 |79.5 |Ashanti |
|25 |Krokosua Hills |1935 | |52.1 |Western |
|26 |Bandai Hills |1928 |1403 |5.2 |Ashanti |
|27 |Yongwa |1937 |640 |6.74 |Eastern |
|28 |Yogaga |1927 |100 |5.22 |Eastern |
|29 |Sapawsu |1937 |925 |10.85 |Eastern |
|30 |Aboben Hills |1937 |700 |14.51 |EAstern |
In addition, six Ramsar sites are designated as wetlands of international importance. Five of these sites are along the coast and a sixth one located inland. The management of Ramsar Sites is interdisciplinary. Each site has representatives of all agencies with a stake in the site, including local people, chiefs, District Assemblies (Local Government) and recognised women and other groups serving on its Management Committee. Table 1.3 has information on the distribution of the six Ramsar sites.
Table 1.3. Ramsar sites in Ghana
|Name of site |Location |
|Anlo-Keta (Keta lagoon) |Keta, Volta Region |
|Densu Delta |Accra, Greater Accra Region |
|Muni |Near Winneba, Central Region |
|Owabi Wildlife Sanctuary |Near Kumasi, Ashanti region |
|Sakumo |Tema, Graeter Accra Region |
|Songor Lagoon |Ada, Greater Accra Region |
The forest land mosaics which consist of remnant natural forests and sacred groves located outside the forest reserves cover about 6,525,000 ha. The numerous traditional conservation areas such as sacred groves (e.g. Tafi-Atome Monkey Sanctuary) and other community initiatives (e.g. Mount Afadjato Community Forest Project) are contributing significantly to biodiversity conservation in this country. Unfortunately, even though the traditional authorities play a critical role in in-situ conservation by maintaining a system of sacred groves, community forests and protected wildlife areas, no provisions have been made to formally accord them legal recognition and to include them in the conventional management regime of the country. Table 1.4 has information on the distributionof the protected areas in Ghana and the types of vegetation in them.
Table 1.4 Protected areas in Ghana
|No |Name of Protected Area |Region |*Vegetation zone Forest |Year |Size (km2)|
| | | |Type |Gazetted | |
|Mammals |
|1 |African lion |Panthera leo |1 |3 |4 |
|2 |African civet |Viverra civetta |2 |1 |3 |
|3 |Spotted hyaena |Crocuta crocuta |1 |1 |2 |
|4 |Bushbuck |Tragelaphus scriptus | |3 |3 |
|5 |Bay duiker |Cephalophus dorsalis |2 |1 |3 |
|6 |Maxwell duiker |Cephalophus maxwelli |3 |3 |6 |
|7 |Crown duiker |Sylvicapra grimmia |1 |1 |2 |
|8 |Red flanked duiker |Cephalophus rufilatus |1 | |1 |
|9 |Warthog |Phacochoerus aethiopicus |2 |3 |5 |
|10 |Green monkey |Cercopithecus aethiopicus |3 |5 |8 |
|11 |Chimpanzee |Pan troglodytes |3 |3 |6 |
|12 |Olive baboon |Papio anubis |1 |5 |6 |
|13 |Patas monkey |Erythrocebus patas | |3 |3 |
|14 |Mona monkey |Cercopithecus mona |1 | |1 |
|15 |Grasscutter |Thryonomyx swinderianus |2 |3 |5 |
|16 |Ground squirrel |Xerus spp |1 |1 |2 |
|Birds |
|20 |Spotted eagle owl |Bubo africanus | | |1 |
|21 |Red-eyed dove |Columba spp | | |8 |
|22 |Laughing dove |Streptopelia senegalensis | | |6 |
|23 |Ostrich |Struthio camelopardis |1 |2 |3 |
|24 |Crown eagle |Stehanoetus coronatus | | |1 |
|25 |Black kite |Milvus migrans | | |1 |
|26 |Palmnut vulture |Gypo angolensis | | |1 |
|27 |Piping hornbill |Ceratogymna fistulator | | |3 |
|28 |Plantain eater |Musophaga violacea | | |3 |
|29 |African grey parrot |Psittacus erithacus | | |8 |
|30 |Green touraco |Tauraoco persa | | |2 |
|31 |Peafowl |Pavonina cristata |5 |4 |9 |
|Reptiles |
|33 |Nile crocodile |Crocodylus niloticus |1 |1 |2 |
|34 |Long snouted crocodile |Crocodylus cataphractus |2 | |2 |
| |Total | | | |138 |
*Source: Kumasi Zoological Gardens as at August 2011
Table 2.2 : List of Animals at Accra Zoo*
| |Common name |Scientific name |Males |Females |Total |
| | |Mammals | | | |
|1 |Hyena |Hyena brunea | |1 |1 |
|2 |Civet cat |Viverra civetta |1 | |1 |
|3 |Warthog |Phacochoerus aethiopicus |3 |6 |9 |
|4 |Fruit bat |Eidolon helvum | | |79 |
|5 |Camel | | | |1 |
|6 |Spot nosed monkey |Cercopithecus petaurista |1 | |1 |
|7 |Patas monkey |Erythrocebus patas |1 |1 |2 |
|8 |White naped mangabey |Cercocebus torquatus | | | |
|9 |Diana monkey | | | | |
|10 |Camel | | | |1 |
|11 |Spot nosed monkey |Cercopithecus petaurista |1 | |1 |
|10 |Rabbit | | | | |
| | |Birds | | | |
|11 |Ostrich |Struthio camelo pardis |3 |4 | |
|12 |Emu |Dromaius noveaehollandiae |1 |1 | |
|13 |Peafowl |Pavonina cristata |1 |1 | |
|14 |African grey parrot |Psittacus erithacus | | |2 |
|15 |Ostrich |Struthio camelo pardis |3 |4 | |
|16 |Emu |Dromaius noveaehollandiae |1 |1 | |
|17 |Peafowl |Pavonina cristata |1 |1 | |
|18 |African grey parrot |Psittacus erithacus | | |2 |
|19 |Senegal parrot |Poicephalus senegalensis | | |3 |
|20 |Love bird |Agapornis | | |4 |
|21 |Laughing dove |Streptopelia senegalensis | | | |
|22 |Piping hornbill |Ceratogymna fistulator | | |1 |
|23 |Green tauraco |Tauraoco persa | | |6 |
|24 |Plantain eater |Musophaga violacea | | |1 |
|25 |Parakeet |Neophema spp | | |1 |
|26 |Weaver bird |Quelia quelia | | |2 |
|Reptiles |
|27 |Royal python |Python regius | | | |
|28 |Dwarf crocodile |Osteolaemus tetraspis | |2 | |
Source: Accra Zoo as at August 2011
The World Zoo Conservation Strategy
The World Zoo Conservation Strategy seeks to address the following four issues in order to assist ex-situ conservation:
Assist zoos and aquaria in the formulation of policies
Indicate how contributions by an individual zoo and aquarium can be augmented by extending and intensifying contacts in the global zoo and aquarium network and other networks
Identify the areas in which zoos and aquaria can support and consolidate the processes leading to nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources
Develop an understanding and support national and global authorities as well as other organizations for the development of potential zoos and aquaria.
Inventory of species in ex-situ conservation in Ghana
The species found in ex-situ conservation in Ghana fall into two broad categories, namely (i) captive bred animals and (ii) artificially propagated plants.
i) Captive bred animals
A large number of species are bred in the country under agricultural and aquaculture programmes. In the freshwater ecosystem, breeding and selection of the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) for faster growth and mass production of fingerlings for fish farmers have been undertaken by the Fishery Division of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, NGOs, and the Water Research Institute (WRI) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
The collections of cryopreserved spermatozoa from fish species are anticipated to be used for some conservation and breeding programs of finfish species. The common fish species involved in ex-situ conservation are listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3. Fish Species in ex-situ conservation within Ghana
|Common name | Scientific Names |Family |Aquatic ecosystem |
| Catfish |Heterobranchus bidorsalis | Clariidae | Freshwater |
|Catfish |Heterobranchus longifilis |Clariidae | Freshwater |
|Catfish |Clarias gariepinus |Clariidae |Freshwater |
|Catfish |Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus |Claroteidae |Freshwater |
|Catfish |Chrysichthys auratus |Claroteidae |Freshwater |
|Nile tilapia |Oreochromis niloticus |Cichlidae |Freshwater |
|Black chined tilapia |Sarotherodon melanotheron |Cichlidae |Brackish |
| |Sarotherodon galilaeus |Cichlidae |Freshwater |
|Redbelly tilapia |Tilapia zillii |Cichlidae |Freshwater |
ii) Artificially (Culturally) propagated plants
Several researches have been undertaken into appropriate vegetative propagation of some tree crops and vegetables in Ghana. The key plant species are listed in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Key Plant Species deployed in ex-situ conservation in Ghana
|Scientific Names | Family |Life Form | Common name |
|Citrus sp. |Rutaceae | Tree |Citrus |
| Mangifera indica |Anacardiaceae | Tree |Mango |
| Myristica fragrans |Myristicaceae | Tree |Nutmeg |
|Synsepalum dulciferum |Sapotaceae | Herb |Sweet berry |
|Persea americana |Lauraceae | Tree |Avocado |
|Piper guineense |Piperaceae | Herb |Black pepper |
|Cymbopogon nardus |Gramineae | Grass |Citronella |
|Ipomoea batatas |Convolvulaceae | Herb | Sweet potato |
|Arachis hypogaea |Papilionaceae | Herb | Groundnut |
|Vigna unguiculata |Papilionaceae | Herb |Cowpea |
|Theobroma cacao |Sterculiaceae |Tree/shrub |Cocoa |
|Cocos nucifera |Palmae |Tree |Coconut |
|Elaeis guineensis |Palmae |Tree |Oil Palm |
|Coffea arabica |Rubiaceae |Shrub |Coffee |
|Dioscorea sp |Dioscoreaceae |Vine |Yam |
|Musa sapientum |Musaceae |Herb |Banana |
|Hevea brasiliensis |Moraceae |Tree | Rubber |
| Manihot esculentus |Euphorbiaceae |Shrub | Cassava |
Organisms in Ex-situ conservation for education and research.
Ex-situ conservation provides excellent research opportunities on the components of biological diversity. The institutions currently involved in ex-situ conservation also play a central role in public education and awareness creation by bringing members of the public into contact with plants and animals they do not usually find in their environs. In addition to the zoos, arboreta at Aburi, Bunso and the Botany Department in the University of Ghana have samples of medicinal plants, fruit trees, industrial crops and other plant species.
Capacity needs of institutions and organizations undertaking ex-situ conservation in Ghana
The four broad needs of the ex-situ conservation institutions and organizations identified in Ghana are (i) mechanism for allocating and reviewing responsibilities; (ii) human resources; (iii) building the capacities of institutions and organizations; and (iv) identification of performance indicators and reference points.
i) Allocation of responsibilities to institutions and organizations
In order to reduce gaps and overlaps in ex-situ conservation efforts of the relevant institutions and organisations, each group of institutions or organizations with similar mandates should be assigned or charged with defined responsibilities, preferably backed with an appropriate legislation.
(ii) Human resource requirements
Ex-situ conservation issues are diverse and require multidisciplinary approach. Various personnel with different backgrounds and expertise are needed. Unfortunately, most of the relevant institutions or organizations involved in ex-situ conservation activities have few trained technologists and specialists. The newly recruited personnel would need training in the state of the art technology for ex-situ conservation relevant to the assigned institutional responsibilities.
(iii) Institutional and organizational strengthening
In addition to the staffing training needs, equipment and logistic support should be provided to the institutions and organizations who should make an in-depth assessment of their requirements in consonance with the assigned ex-situ conservation responsibilities.
The existing institutional framework needs to be strengthened to encourage institutional linkages that are necessary for early and continuous consultations between the National Biodiversity Committee, the Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, other relevant government ministries commissions and research institutions.
Local companies should be encouraged to support research in biodiversity conservation. The government can do this by granting them incentives such as tax relief for funds donated by the companies for research in biodiversity conservation. The government’s budgetary support to the institutions and organizations for ex-situ biodiversity conservation should also be increased.
The budget support to the institutions for ex-situ conservation is minimal if not meagre. Thus institutions and organizations dealing with ex-situ biodiversity conservation issues need to be further strengthened by way of national budget and fiscal support in order to render them more effective and live to their responsibilities.
(iv) Performance indicators and reference points
Performance indicators are useful for the assessment of the degree in which management actions are achieving the stated goals and objectives. This is facilitated by measuring performance through a series of indicators related to the generic goals and objectives. Indicators can illustrate the trends and state of a specific biological resource and can be analyzed at social or ecosystem level. For the purpose of ex-situ conservation in Ghana, the indicators could be socio-economic e.g. quality of human health or living standard, household income distribution, level of understanding of human impacts, and perceptions of local resource harvest.) In addition some governance indicators must be considered e.g. existence and adoption of management plans, existence and adequacy of enabling legislation, application of research data, clearly defined enforcement procedures, level of stakeholder involvement in surveillance, monitoring and enforcement.
Review of ex-situ conservation in Ghana
The review of the ex-situ conservation may be based on the degree of adoption of the following techniques:
(i) Seed/embryo Storage Conservation
(ii) Botanical/Zoological Garden Conservation
(iii) In Vitro Conservation
(iv) Field Gene Bank/Livestock Park Conservation
(v) Pollen/Semen/Ovule/DNA Conservation
(vi) Museums and Herbaria
i) Seed/embryo storage conservation
Ex-situ seed/embryo collection and storage is the most convenient and widely used method of genetic conservation. This is because seeds and embryos are the natural dispersal, storage, or generative organs for the majority of species. This involves collecting samples from individuals or populations and then transferring them to a gene bank for storage, usually at sub-zero temperatures.
There are only a few centres advocated for ex-situ conservation in Ghana with respect to seed/embryo conservation which include the Plant Genetic Resources Research Institute at Bunso as well as facilities in the Botany and Zoology (Animal Biology and Conservation Science) Departments and Agriculture faculties of the Universities of Ghana, Agricultural and Environment based CSIR Institutes and the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. Unfortunately these institutions are not well resourced to undertake this responsibility to the fullest.
The advantages of this approach are that it is efficient and reproducible, and feasible for short-, medium-, and long-term secure storage. The disadvantages are that there are problems in storing recalcitrant-seeded plant species.
(ii) Botanic/Zoological Garden Conservation
Historically, botanical or zoological gardens were often associated with psychic or medicinal gardens or displays of single specimens of zoological curiosities, and as such they did not attempt to reflect the genetic diversity of the species.
In Ghana, the two zoos (Accra and Kumasi); botanic gardens and arboreta in Aburi, Accra, Bunso, Cape Coast Kumasi and Mampong-Akwapim, are notable for this type of ex-situ conservation technique. There is need to maintain these and also establish new ones.
The advantage of this method is that gardens do not have the same constraints as many other conservation agencies; they have the freedom to focus on wild species that may otherwise not be given sufficient priority for conservation.
There are however two disadvantages to this approach for ex-situ conservation in the country. The first is that the number of species that can be genetically conserved in a botanic or zoological garden will always be limited because of the available space. Secondly, the majority of these gardens are located in urban areas where expansion to the sites may be difficult or expensive. Thirdly, very few individuals of each species can be maintained, thus severely restricting the range of genetic diversity found in the wild.
(iii) In Vitro Conservation
In vitro conservation involves the maintenance of ex-plants in a sterile, pathogen-free environment, and it is widely used for vegetatively propagated and recalcitrant-selected species. This method offers an alternative to field gene banks. It involves the establishment of tissue cultures of accessions on nutrient agar and their storage under controlled conditions of either slow or suspended growth.
The best answer for cheap, long-term in- vitro conservation may be cryopreservation, that is, the storage of frozen tissue cultures at very low temperatures, for example, in liquid nitrogen at – 196 0 C. If the possible damage caused by freezing and thawing is perfected, it should be possible to preserve materials indefinitely. Cryopreservation is yet to be seriously adopted in the country.
The main advantage is that it offers a solution to the long-term conservation problems of recalcitrant, sterile, or clonally propagated species. The main disadvantages are the risk of soma-clonal variation, the need to develop individual maintenance protocols for the majority of species, and the relatively high-level technology required and its cost .
(iv) Field Gene Bank/Livestock Park Conservation
The conservation of germplasm in field gene banks or livestock parks involves collecting plant or animal specimens from one location and the transfer and conservation at a second site. It has been the traditional method for recalcitrant- (whose seeds cannot be dried and frozen without loss of viability) or sterile-seeded plant species or for those species for which it is preferable to store clonal material.
In Ghana, field gene banks have been useful for cocoa, rubber, coconut, oil palm mango, coffee, banana, cassava, sweet potato and yam establishment and production. The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) at Akim-Tafo, the CSIR-Oil Palm Research Institute at Kusi-Kade, the CSIR-Plant Genetic Resources Research Institute at Bunso, maintain field gene banks for Cocoa, Coconut , Oil Palm and other plants respectively.
Livestock Parks are rare breed centres, as distinct from zoos and they emphasize captive breeding programs and therefore contribute to genetic conservation.
In the aquatic environment, some form of fish breeding programmes are undertaken at the Aquaculture Research and Development Centre, of the Water Research Institute (CSIR) and the Fisheries Directorate of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. A number of NGOs and private fish farmers also undertake fish breeding programmes.
The advantages of field gene banks and livestock parks are that the species are easily accessible for utilization and evaluation can be undertaken while the material is being conserved. The disadvantages are that the material is restricted in terms of genetic diversity, susceptible to pests, disease, and vandalism, and may require large areas of land.
(v) Pollen/Semen/Ovule/DNA Conservation
The storage of pollen grains is possible under appropriate conditions that allow their subsequent use in pollination for cross breeding. Research may also be undertaken to regenerate haploid plants routinely from pollen cultures.
The development of artificial insemination techniques has been initiated in some private hospitals in Ghana for human beings. It has already proved successful for domesticated animals handled by the Animal Research Institute of the CSIR and Agriculture Faculties in the Universities.
An appropriate level of technological development is required for the storage of DNA under prescribed conditions. The regeneration of entire organisms may be envisaged in the near future.
vi) Museums and Herbaria
These are special places where special collections of biological materials (usually dead materials) are maintained for research, teaching and other purposes. Animal (or faunal) collections constitute museums, and those of plants (or flora) constitute herbaria.
The major faunal research institutions in Ghana keep collections of insects and other animals including birds, reptiles, mammals, fishes, other invertebrates. Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG), for example, holds a very large insect museum containing insect pests of their mandatory research crops including cocoa, coffee, cola, cashew and shea. Some of the faunal museums containing other animals are also found at the departments of biological sciences in most Ghanaian universities.
The major floral research institutions in Ghana also keep collections of plants, mostly of Ghanaian origin for research and other purposes. The herbaria at the Botany Department of the University of Ghana and the Forest Resources Centre of Forest Commission in Kumasi are considered the ones with the highest collections representing every Ghanaian floral species in the country. The former is normally referred to as the Ghana Herbarium. Other departments in the universities in Cape Coast, Kumasi, Tamale and Winneba also have herbaria. The research institutes at Tafo (CRIG), Mampong (CSRPM), Kumasi (CSIR-FORIG, SRI), Bunso (CSIR-PGRRI) and others also have herbaria to serve their needs.
The concern about these collections is their maintenance for the future and the human resource requirements for the maintenance. Very little attention is paid to these issues.
References
Chapter Three
INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES
Introduction
Invasive alien species are organisms introduced into the country and which subsequently cause harm to the environment, the economy and human health. Invasive alien species also have negative effects on food security. They are mostly spread through human activities. Invasive alien species include insects, photosynthetic plants, fungi, bacteria, viruses, fish, snails, and mammals. They can affect all types of ecosystems. A few specimens of an organism may enter the country but they can multiply and become invasive and cause a serious negative and extensive impact over time. Such alien species have invaded and affected native biota in almost every type of ecosystem on earth. They have affected all major taxonomic groups. In economic terms, the cost associated with invasive alien species is significant. The total annual cost, including losses to crops, pastures and forests, as well as environmental damages and control costs, has been conservatively estimated at hundreds of billions of US dollars and could be more than one trillion dollars. This estimate does not include the cost of species extinction and loss of ecosystem services and aesthetics. In human health, they have brought about new disease incidents that have created worldwide epidemics. The incidence of invasive alien species affects several human livelihood situations including provision of food and nutritional needs. Food security therefore becomes threatened in the advent of invasive alien species.
The negative effects of invasive species on food security include (a) decreased production in both subsistence and economic sectors and (b) decline in native biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Many people in Ghana rely almost exclusively on agriculture, horticulture, forestry, fishing and harvesting of wild biological resources for their food supply. The damage caused by invasive plants, animals and microorganisms can seriously affect food security in the country.
Native plants and animals in Ghana have evolved in the West African environment and many of them lack competitive ability against new and more aggressive plants or animals and also lack defense against disease-causing organisms which are introduced into the country. In recent times however, some indigenous aquatic plant species in Ghana have become invasive as a result of significant human induced alteration in hydrology and water quality. The proliferation of invasive species leads to the loss of native biodiversity which contributes eventually to the degradation of local ecosystems and the decline in the associated ecological services.
Status of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) in Ghana
The menace caused by invasive species was first recognized in Ghana in the early 1970s with the sudden appearance of Chromolaena odorata, also known as Siam or Akyeampong weed, in the local Ghanaian landscape. The plant has been aggressively replacing the native farm weeds that make form the farm and roadside ecological structure. Following the unsuccessful attempts to eradicate this species, its management has become an option.
Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata), Leucaena, teak (Tectona grandis) and pulp/paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) are receiving due attention in research. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) another example of IAS. It was introduced into Ghana as an ornamental plant with disregard to its potential threat to aquatic ecosystems. Records show that a Odwuma (Cecropia peltata),a tree species, and Kariba weed (Salvinia molesta) a water weed, entered the country from Cote D’Ivoire. Limnocharis flava, a water plant native to tropical America, has also become an invasive alien species in Ghana. It was confined to the Kumasi metropolis but recently (in October 2009) it was recorded in Nkawkaw area and it is potentially more devastating than the water hyacinth.
The hyppo grass, (Vossia cuspidate), though an indigenous species has become invasive on the Lower Volta as a result of the construction of the Akosombo and Kpong Dams in 1964 and 1975 respectively. The weed has spread over the period. Current infestation is about 2500 ha. in the Lower Volta. The infestation has significantly constrained fishing, water supply and water transport. It is seen as a threat to hydropower generation from the Kpong head pond.
On the lower Tano River, the hyppo grass has spread very rapidly at an estimated rate of 6 ha. per year(Tetteh and Fiati, 2002) colonizing areas where infestation of water hyacinth has been reduced by an on-going biological control programme. It is estimated that about 5,000 ha. of water surface has been infested by this weed (Fiati and Kudjawu, 2009).
Insect invaders in Ghana include the Larger Grain Borer (Protephamus truncatus) and the African Army worm (Spodoptera exempta) which attack grains. It has been reported that the African Army worm devastated some 600 hectares of maize farms in Nkoranza North District of the Brong Ahafo Region in October 2009. The Fire Ant (Solenopsis sp.) is native to South America and it is known in Ghana as “Efo Red” or “Charles Taylor”. The Mango mealy bug (Rastrococcus invadens ) is a mango pest but it attacks citrus and some 40 other plant species. It was introduced accidentally into West Africa in the 1980s. The invasive fruit fly (Bactrocera invadens) and the cassava whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) as well as Cassava bacterial blight (CBB) ( Xanthomnoas manihoti), Cassava green mite (CGM) (Mononychellus manihotis) and (Mononychellus tanajoa),Cassava mealy bug (Phenacoccus manihoti),Sigatoka disease (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) of banana and plantain are other examples of IAS. The invasive fruit fly (Aleurodicus disperses), the Oil palm leaf miner, the beetle (Coelaemonenodera minuta), Cape Saint Paul’s “Wilt” a phytoplasma transmitted by insects and the Oryctes beetle (Rhinocerus rhinoceros and O. monocerus) are the most important coconut pests.
Lately several other invasive plant and animal species have been in Ghana and they have created a lot of concern. Their presence on the Ghanaian ecological landscape has affected the biodiversity of this country. The problems caused by the invasive species, both within terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, are now recognized as a national issue.
Evaluation of institutional and general public actions
When Chromolaena odorata (Siam or Akyeampong weed ) was first found in Ghana the research organizations tried to use biological control methods to prevent its further spread. The same methods were used for the control of Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) when it became economically important because of its impact on water abstraction from lakes, navigation and fishery. When the biological control methods failed to yield good results, physical or mechanical means of removal was adopted but at an exorbitant cost.
The Environmental Protection Agency created an awareness of the menace caused by IAS. The CSIR of Ghana, in collaboration with four other African countries, implemented a UNEP-GEF funded international project titled ‘Removing barriers to invasive plant management in Africa’. The other countries were Ethiopia, Kenya, Zambia and Tanzania The Ghanaian project team has published the following documents (a) The Enabling Policy and Institutional Environment for Invasive Plant Management in Ghana; (b) National Invasive Species Strategy, Policy Guidelines and Action Plan for Ghana” (c) “NISSAP” brochure and (d) “National Invasive Species Communication Strategy”. These are new publications and they are yet to make an impact in Ghana. It has been observed that there is more information on plant invasive species than of animals. There is therefore an urgent need to document additional information on animal invasive species in Ghana.
Global concerns on Invasive Alien Species requiring a national action
The menace caused by invasive alien species has been a cause for concern by the global community spear headed by the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Conference of Parties (COP) has provided guidance on the kind of activities to be undertaken in order to reduce, prevent or overcome the menace caused by invasive alien species. Some of the recommended activities are reproduced here to guide in the development of the strategy and the action plan.
a. To use risk assessment guidance and other procedures and standards developed by the International Plant Protection Convention, the World Organization for Animal Health and other relevant organizations to solve the problems caused by invasive alien species;
b. To submit examples of best practices for addressing the risks associated with the introduction of alien species as pets, aquarium and terrarium species, and as live bait and live food;
c. To develop and implement national policies, strategies and/or programmes for addressing the problems caused by invasive alien species including their threat to biodiversity at all levels and for effective coordination among relevant agencies;
d. To collaborate in the development and use of early warning systems;
e. To enhance the participation of farmers and local communities in the implementation of national strategies and action plans on invasive alien species;
f. To identify capacity building needs in order to support activities aimed at solving the menace caused by invasive alien species;
g. To build capacities to understand and address the impacts of climate change, land-use practices on the risks associated with the introduction, establishment and spread of invasive alien species;
h. To be in a position to contribute through case studies on risk assessment procedures in socio-economic, health and environmental impacts, monitoring and surveillance programmes, methodologies in assessing socio-economic, health and environmental impacts, management of the pathways of transfer, introduction and spread of invasive alien species, and restoration and rehabilitation of ecosystems degraded by the presence of invasive alien species;
i. To put in place mechanisms to manage pathways for potential invasive alien species, especially in freshwater, marine and coastal ecosystems;
j. To ratify the international convention for the control and management of ships’ ballast water and sediments;
k. To assist the development of guidance in the area of plants for planting, particularly as related to ornamental plants and landscaping, and to ensure that such information is communicated via the clearing house mechanism;
l. To study the impact of other drivers, particularly land use practices, climate change adaptation and mitigation activities, on the introduction, establishment, and spread of invasive alien species and their related socio-economic, health and environmental impacts;
m. To strengthen national level communication and synergy across sectors;
n. To ensure greater cooperation and coordination between relevant agencies and authorities at the national level, including those responsible for veterinary, phytosanitary, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, environment and biodiversity issues, and to consider the advisability of establishing or designating national coordination centres, in order to ensure a coordinated and coherent science-based approach to addressing threats posed by invasive alien species;
o. To support awareness-raising programmes at all levels for decision makers and practitioners in the freshwater, marine and terrestrial environmental sectors, particularly in agriculture, aqua-culture, forestry, horticulture and pet trade, and more generally in the transportation, trading, travel and tourism sectors that are potential pathways of biological invasions;
p. To support global initiatives.
At the Ghana national front, the following issues are flagged to receive urgent attention.
1. The spread of Neem (Azadirachta indica) in the Accra plains which is presently seen as completely overtaking the indigenous tree and shrubby species. Neem has dominated the thicket clumps it is causing problems in the conservation efforts in the Shai Hills Resource Reserve. It is also affecting the livelihoods of people in the Accra-Winneba plains;
2. The spread of the paper mulberry plant (Broussonetia sp.) which is currently the focus of intensive research programme of the CSIR;
3. Institution of a rigorous integrated management of invasive aquatic weeds with strong mechanical control component.
4. The possibility of species of Oreochromis, a genetically improved tilapia fish, becoming invasive should be considered seriously by aquaculture operators, particularly, the Fisheries Section of the CSIR-Water Research Institute;
5. A system of monitoring the establishment and spread of those invasive species already present in Ghana must be given due attention;
6. The need to identify and apportion responsibilities on rehabilitation, compensation and redress in the event of invasion by an alien species should receive due attention in Ghana.
References
Chapter Four
AGRICULTURAL BIODIVERSITY
IntroductionAgricultural biodiversity is a broad term and it includes agro-ecosystems i.e. the variety and variability of animals, plants and other organisms, at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels, which are necessary to sustain the agro-system, its structure and processes (COP Decision V/5, Annex).
Agricultural biodiversity provides not only food and income but also raw materials for clothing, shelter, health care and other purposes. It contributes to the maintenance of soil fertility and biota, conservation of soil and water. Nearly, one-third of the world’s land surface area is used for food production. The agro-ecological zones of Ghana ( Fig 4.1……) indicate that over 50% of Ghana’s total land surface is suitable for agricultural production.
Fig…4.1 Agro-Ecological Zones of Ghana (Source: USGS/Science for a changing world)
[pic]
Agricultural biodiversity is still being developed through human activities. Farming communities play a key role as custodians and managers of agricultural biodiversity. Culture including indigenous knowledge and traditional practices are considered as an integral part of agricultural biodiversity management.
The conservation of agricultural biodiversity through food and other production systems is linked to both in-situ and ex-situ biodiversity conservation. The diversity within and between crop and livestock species has been greatly expanded through agriculture. The use of alien crop and livestock species in the many farming systems of Ghana has created a high interdependence between this country and the countries of origin. The interaction between the environment, genetic resources and management practices within agro-ecosystems contributes to the conservation of agricultural biodiversity.
Agricultural biodiversity provides humans with food and raw materials for goods, such as cotton for clothing, wood for shelter and fuel and plant materials for medicines. Agricultural biodiversity is also the primary source of bio-fuels, income and livelihoods. It contributes to soil and water conservation, maintenance of soil fertility and biota, and pollination and the provision of other ecological services which are essential to human survival. Genetic resources in agricultural biodiversity enable species to adapt themselves to changing environmental conditions and subsequently increase the tolerance of the species to frost, high temperatures, drought and water-logging, as well as their resistance to particular diseases, pests and parasites. This is particularly important for adaptation to climate change.
Importance of agricultural biodiversity
The importance of agricultural biodiversity encompasses socio-cultural, economic and environmental elements. About 80% of agricultural output in the country is produced by small scale producers on small holder, family-operated farms by using rudimentary technology and it is generally dependent on rainfall. Ironically, agriculture contributes the largest share to GDP and employs about 50% of the labour force.
All cultivated crops and domesticated animals are the outcome of human management of biodiversity in response to new challenges including the need to maintain and increase productivity under constantly varying conditions.
Interdependence of biodiversity and agriculture
Biodiversity, being the origin of all species of crops and domesticated livestock and the variety within them, provides the basis for agriculture. It is also the foundation of ecosystem services essential to sustain agriculture and human well-being. Today's crop and livestock biodiversity are the result of many thousands years of human intervention.
Biodiversity and agriculture are strongly interdependent. Biological resources are crucial for agricultural development. Agriculture in return contributes to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The maintenance of biodiversity is essential for the sustainable production of food and other agricultural products. The interdependence benefits humanity by helping to ensure food security and sustaining livelihoods.
Agricultural Policy Development in Ghana
The Ministry of Food and Agriculture is responsible for developing policies to address the numerous challenges confronting the sector. Until recently, the Ministry was pursuing a food and agriculture development policy (FASDEP I and II) which is running concurrently with a new policy drive medium term agriculture improvement policy (METASIP). The object of both policies are basically to ensure food and nutrition security.
Agricultural Research in Ghana
Agricultural research should focus primarily on the key emerging global issues like biotechnology, land degradation and Climate Change.
The current agricultural research direction focuses on applying the lessons from research in the cocoa sub-sector to other areas in the agricultural sector. The focus is on the provision of adequate funding and infrastructure for the major research institutions in the country to concentrate on strategies that increase agricultural productivity. The direction is to target research programmes that can increase wealth and reduce rural poverty. Specifically, trends in agricultural research seek to promote the safe application of new technologies to increase productivity. Areas that have been targeted include the reduction in both pre and post harvest losses in food and cash crops and the promotion and development of food processing to enhance value addition. Most importantly, strengthening the linkage between research and agricultural extension has been identified as a priority activity in Ghana’s national research policy. To encourage private sector participation in agricultural research and development, the government’s policy is to provide support for individual research and development projects especially, in the non-traditional export sector.
The challenges posed by agriculture in biodiversity conservation include how to address the issues of soil loss, decreased soil fertility, reduction in water quality, contamination of watersheds, and reduction or extirpation of species that are traditionally associated with agricultural landscapes. Other challenges could also be the restoration of biodiversity, especially in areas where there has been disruptive land use such as surface mining and urbanization.
The constraints of the agriculture sector in Ghana
Although agriculture plays a very important role in the Ghanaian economy, the sector is plagued with several constraints. The major constraints include inadequate human resources, inadequate infrastructure and lack of appropriate technologies.
CBD COP Decisions in relation to agricultural biodiversity in Ghana.
In reference to CBD COP 8 Decision VIII/8 and Paragraph 8 of COP 9 Decision IX/8 which provide consolidated guidance to assist Parties in the development and revision of their NBSAPs, attention is being drawn to additional information which can highlight some aspects of the third national report to the Convention dated November 19, 2005 and contribute to the development of targets and actions for the 2011-2020 strategy and action plan of Ghana. The additional information that need to be highlighted are the following:
a. The smallholder agricultural farmer
The areas used for agriculture by the smallholder traditional farmers are characterized by the presence of numerous plants as a result of complex, diverse traditional management arrangements. These areas have promise for the future of Ghanaian agriculture and should inform the development of modern agricultural improvement packages that enhance yield and biodiversity conservation simultaneously.
b. The traditional belief in land and water bodies as sacred ancestral property
In Ghana some parcels of forest land with rich biodiversity are conserved traditionally as sacred or ancestral property. Like similar water bodies, they are protected and used sustainably and passed on to posterity. The traditional belief in land and some water bodies as sacred ancestral property underlies the customary land tenure arrangement based on kingship. This philosophy, like the traditional practice of placing highly valued tree species under the custody of priest (‘Okomfo’ or ‘tindana’) is a dying ecologically positive belief that warrants revival for the promotion of conservation of biophysical resources.
c. The traditional practice of ‘Prowka’
‘Prowka’ is the traditional practice of using cleared vegetation for mulching purpose instead of burning it on the farm. ‘Prowka’ helps to conserve plants, seeds, and soil microbes in addition to enhancing soil nutrients. The practice may be improved scientifically for the control of weeds and pests.
d. Traditional bush fallow
Bush fallowing is part of the traditional system of food cropping in Ghana. After some years of subsistence crops production on a farm, the farmer leaves that piece of farmland to lie idle or to fallow in order to encourage the natural replenishment of soil nutrients. Farmland fallowing contributes significantly to the regeneration and preservation of a diversity of plants and animals. The agricultural policy should therefore encourage research into farmland fallowing in order to promote agricultural biodiversity conservation in Ghana.
e. Traditional Intermixing of crops
The widespread traditional practice of intermixing of crops, such as allowing trees to grow on farm lands, helps to conserve biodiversity and enhance ecological services.
f. Role of female farmers
Female farmers play a pivotal role in the conservation of traditional varieties of food species e.g. varieties of rice grown at Garu in the Upper East region of Ghana. Their contribution to the conservation of agricultural biodiversity should be supported.
References
Chapter Five
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE
Introduction
According to Article 8 (j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity, effective in-situ conservation depends on the wider use and application of Traditional Knowledge (TK), innovations and practices often referred to by scientists as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) (Gadgil et al 1993). This is far more than a simple compilation of facts. It is holistic and forms the basis for local level decision-making in areas of contemporary life including natural resource management, nutrition, food preparation, health, education, community and social organisation (Posey, 1996). It can also be defined as a set of perceptions, information and behaviours that guide local community members’ uses of land and natural resources (BSP, 1993). Indigenous knowledge is created and sustained by local community members as means to meet needs for food, shelter, health, spirituality, and savings. These are usually adapted and specific to local ecological conditions, and to community members’ social and economic situations and cultural beliefs (Ntiamoa-Baidu et al., 2000).
What is ‘traditional’ about traditional knowledge is not its antiquity, but the way it is acquired and used. In other words, the social process of learning and sharing knowledge, which is unique to each indigenous culture, lies at the very heart of its ‘traditionality’ (Four Directions Council, 1996). Posey (1996) explains that much of this knowledge is actually quite new, but it has a social meaning, and legal character entirely unlike the knowledge that indigenous peoples acquire from settlers and industrialised societies. This is why protecting indigenous knowledge necessarily involves the recognition of peoples’ own laws and their own processes of discovery and teaching.
Traditional knowledge is vital for sustainability of natural resources including forests, water, and agro-ecosystems across landscape continuum spanning from households through farms, villages, and forests.
In this chapter, the traditional knowledge on biodiversity, particularly in the light of contemporary research on traditional and formal knowledge systems is examined. The chapter also outlines the value of traditional knowledge for biodiversity conservation. The status of TK studies and research in biodiversity and other renewable natural resources in Ghana is examined and the capacity needs for expansion in various institutions are assessed. The chapter contains a report on the policy and a reference to the legal aspects of TK intellectual property issues. The efficacy of traditional knowledge systems for conservation is also revisited. Finally the recent developments in research on local knowledge are interfaced with the challenges that contemporary society faces in Ghana as well as how local knowledge can be used in the process of addressing biodiversity conservation challenges in the country.
Traditional Knowledge and Biodiversity Conservation
Natural and social sciences have helped to avert the threats to biodiversity conservation by acquiring and applying knowledge about ecosystem conservation and restoration and by strengthening the policy and practice of sustainable development. Scientific research on human-environmental interactions is now a budding sustainability science (Kates et al., 2001). The concept recognizes that the well-being of human society is closely related to that of natural ecosystems. The intellectual resources on which the sustainability science is developing should take into account the knowledge of local people as well. There is therefore the need to foster a sustainability science that draws on the collective intellectual resources of both formal sciences, and local knowledge systems of knowledge often referred as ethno science (Pandey, 2001).
A discussion on traditional knowledge is useful at this juncture for many reasons including:
i. inadequacy of economic incentives to conserve biodiversity as demonstrated recently by Kleijn et al., (2001) compels rethinking classical utilitarian approach to resource management;
ii. an emerging sustainability science (Kates et al., 2001) will need all stocks of knowledge and institutional innovations to navigate transition towards a sustainable planet;
iii. rediscovery of traditional ecological knowledge as adaptive management (Berkes et al., 2000) and need to apply human ecological (Bews, 1935; East, 1936; Muller, 1974) and adaptive strategies for natural resource management (Bates, 2000) offers prospects for scientists to address the problems that beset conservation biologists and restoration ecologists;
iv. an increasing realization that we need innovative ethics and policy to conserve biodiversity and maintain ecosystem functions (Tilman, 2000) and that such ethics must come from society;
v. local (traditional) knowledge systems are disappearing at a rate that may not allow us even to know what value, if any, such systems had (Cox, 2000; Brodt, 2001; Pandey, 2002a);
vi. a limitation of pursuing economic development without regards to its implications on ecosystems (Cavalcanti, 2002).
The prevailing economic theories treat the economic process from a purely mechanistic standpoint. Different ways exist, however, to deal with the choices that humans have to make with respect to the allocation of resources, the distribution of its returns and the fulfillment of purposes of material progress (Pandey, 2002). To understand how local people solve their economic problems in a sustainable fashion is a serious challenge in this context. Management of natural resources cannot be the subject of just any single body knowledge such as the Western science, but it has to take into consideration the plurality of knowledge systems. There is a more fundamental reason for the integration of knowledge systems. Application of scientific research and local knowledge contributes to the equity, opportunity, security and empowerment of local communities, as well as to the sustainability of the natural resources. Local knowledge helps in scenario analysis, data collection, management planning, designing of the adaptive strategies to learn and get feedback, and institutional support to put policies into practice (Getz et al., 1999). Science, on the other hand, provides new technologies, or helps in the improvement of the existing ones. It also provides tools for networking, storing, visualizing, and analyzing information, as well as projecting long-term trends so that efficient solutions to complex problems can be obtained (Pandey, 2002a).
Local knowledge systems have been found to contribute to sustainability in diverse fields such as biodiversity conservation and maintenance of ecosystem services, tropical ecological and bio-cultural restoration, sustainable water management, genetic resource conservation and management of other natural resources. Local knowledge has also been found useful for ecosystem restoration and often has ingredients of adaptive management.
In order to be effective, efforts on biodiversity conservation can learn from the context-specific local knowledge and institutional mechanisms such as cooperation and collective action; intergenerational transmission of knowledge, skills and strategies; concern for well-being of future generations; reliance on local resources; restraint in resource exploitation; an attitude of gratitude and respect for nature; management, conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity outside formal protected areas; and, transfer of useful species among the households, villages and larger landscape. These are some of the useful attributes of local knowledge systems (Pandey, 2002a).
Status of studies and research in traditional knowledge and biodiversity conservation in Ghana
A few studies have been done in Ghana on the use of TK to achieve biodiversity conservation objectives. Various authors such as Asibey (1965), Dickson (1969), EPC (1976), Asamoa (1990), Dwomoh (1990) Ntiamoa-Baidu et al (1992), BSP (1993), and Cadwell (2007), have concluded that TK in biodiversity conservation is very diverse in their geographical distribution, farming strategies, food habits, subsistence strategies, and cultural traditions. For example, as far as traditional laws were concerned, wildlife protection was the responsibility of all citizens (Asibey, 1965). Therefore, heavy fines were imposed on people who violated the various traditional laws. The tax placed on big game included giving up the hind limbs to the chief of the community, performing certain rituals before and after killing such big wild animals as elephant, leopard, lion, and bongo. The protection of these wildlife resources was further enhanced by a traditional system of closed seasons during which people were not allowed to hunt because most of the animals were breeding during that time. Through some superstitious beliefs and traditional laws, the importance and benefits of wildlife, watershed and natural forest have been maintained to date (BSP, 1993).
Sacred groves are forested areas that enjoy full protection through these traditional systems. The basis for declaring a patch of forest as sacred varies and several categories of groves exist (Dickson 1969; EPC 1976; Dwomoh, 1990; Ntiamoa-Baidu et al., 1992; BSP, 1993). One such criteria, and the most commonly used, is the forest patch in which royals of a particular town or village are buried. Such sites are considered very important since they are traditionally considered as sites hosting respected local people who should not be disturbed in any way to allow them to rest until their reincarnation. Entry into such forest areas was prohibited, and only limited classes of people such as members of the royal family, village elders, and clan heads, were allowed access for burial purposes (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1995).
A number of sacred groves have also originated from some historical events linked with the culture of communities. These sacred groves tend to be sizeable tracts of forests and often become associated with fetishes and religious beliefs. Examples of such groves in Ghana are the Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary in the Nkoranza District of the Brong Ahafo Region and Tafi-Atome Monkey Sanctuary in the Hohoe Municipality of the Volta Region. The habitat of the monkeys in the twin villages of Boabeng and Fiema is a riverine forest island in the savanna zone. The forest has been traditionally protected by the local people who use boundary clearance and early burning as a method for maintaining a firebreak which protects the forest against the annual bushfires that are usually started by hunters and farmers. The forest is protected as the abode of the monkeys which are revered as symbols of the gods of the local people. The Wildlife Division (former Department of Game and Wildlife) of the Forestry Commission has been supporting the efforts of the local people towards biodiversity conservation since the early 1970s. The success story of community-based wildlife conservation efforts in Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary has been contrasted with the culture-related challenges faced by the Ghana Government in the development of Digya National Park (Manu, 1992).
Historical records show that the Tafi-Atome Monkey Sanctuary started as a sacred grove when the natives who had migrated from Assin area in the Central/Western Regions planted their god at Tafi-Atome (Manu, 2006). It is asserted that the present location of the sanctuary, part of which is forest marshland, was predominantly a grassland area when the natives arrived at Tafi-Atome. As a result of the subsequent protection of the forest against bushfires and hunting, the forest vegetation has improved and Mona monkeys have co-existed with the people in the sacred grove (sanctuary) for many years. Taboos have played a significant role in the traditional conservation efforts within the Tafi-Atome Monkey Sanctuary (Tufuor et al, 1992). The role of community-based attributes such as taboos and traditional practices in the promotion of in-situ conservation of biological resources and ecotourism development within Boabeng-Fiema and Tafi-Atome Sanctuaries has been
Other examples are the lagoons which are considered traditionally as sacred places in the West African coastal areas. Specific species of fish and molluscs were protected, with their harvest regulated by a system of closed seasons, sacred days and taboos. However, the old rules and regulations are no longer respected, and most lagoons are now heavily exploited. Nevertheless, tabooed (totems) species are still protected (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1991b).
By virtue of their sacred nature, some forests and lagoons have contributed immensely towards the conservation of natural resources in the country. It is of particular relevance to this study that one such area, the Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary, was established and managed on the basis of traditional beliefs and taboos as far back as 1831 (Asamoa, 1990). The area is now backed by a local government law and it is not yet fully incorporated into the state system of protected areas. Other studies that assessed the relevance of traditional knowledge and modern conservation concepts have been documented in the proceedings of the Third UNESCO MAB Regional Seminar on Biosphere Reserves for Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development in Anglophone Africa (BRAAF) (Amlalo et al, 1998).
Policy and legal references to traditional knowledge in intellectual property issues
Indigenous conservation activities are well recognized and supported by international conventions and charters including the following:
ILO Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples;
Agenda 21: Programme of Action for Sustainable Development;
ITTO Guidelines for the Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests;
Charter of the Indigenous – Tribal Peoples of the Tropical Forests; and,
Convention on Biological Diversity
These conventions and charters seek to encourage governments to inter alia:
i. ensure indigenous and tribal peoples receive equitable benefits;
ii. recognize rights of ownership over lands which they occupy traditionally;
iii. safeguard their rights to natural resources and to participate in management of these resources;
iv. ensure programmes for exploiting timber resources comply with conditions laid down by indigenous peoples;
v. ensure participation of indigenous people in planning of national forest policies and laws;
vi. ensure local consultation in planning of reforestation programmes; and
vii. practise multiple-use forestry, rather than focusing on only the values of timber.
a) Global Policy and Legal Framework on Traditional Knowledge
Traditional knowledge has been the subject of ongoing discussions on the international, regional and national policy-making agendas within the broader context of access to genetic resources. In the context of Article 8(j) of the Biodiversity Convention, traditional knowledge protection has indirectly become an important focus of international negotiations. The implementation of Article 8(j) has been addressed by the Conference of the Parties in different ways. An ad hoc open-ended inter-sessional working group was established in 1998 to give more importance to issues related to traditional knowledge (Article 8(j) Working Group). The Article 8(j) Working Group is mandated with the task of giving advice on legal and other means of protection of the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. Efforts are being made in the context of Article 8(j) to develop systems for protecting traditional knowledge.
At the regional level, the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources mandates all member states to use legislative measures ‘to ensure that traditional rights and intellectual property rights of local communities including farmers’ rights are respected’.
The African Model Legislation for the Protection of Rights of Local Communities, Farmers, and Breeders and for the Regulation of Access to Biological Resources (Model Legislation) also recognizes the collective rights of communities to their biological resources and the right to collectively benefit from their use, rights to their innovations, practices, knowledge and technology as well as the right to collectively benefit from their utilization. It provides for the recognition of community intellectual property rights which include the rights to innovation, practice, knowledge or technology (NSBCP/MLFM, 2006).
At the World Trade Organization, two developments are of relevance to traditional knowledge. One is the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) which imposes the patentability of inventions, whether products or processes, in all fields of technology and specifically mandates legal protection for plant varieties. Article 27(3) b requires member states to ‘provide for the protection of plant varieties either by patents or by an effective sui generis system or by any combination thereof’. This provision gives member states the option to introduce a protection regime different from the patent system. The second development at the WTO is the ‘indirect’ or ‘negative’ protection of traditional knowledge approached through the proposal for the introduction of disclosure requirements in patents laws to ensure that patent applicants do not use traditional knowledge without acknowledging it and thus providing the basis for benefit sharing.
At the World Intellectual Property Organization, the issue of traditional knowledge is being addressed in the context of the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore. It has been suggested that an international treaty on traditional knowledge protection should be adopted but this has encountered opposition from some developed countries. To-date, the Intergovernmental Committee has contributed a lot of material to the debate over different options for traditional knowledge protection but no specific proposals have emerged yet (NSBCP/MLFM, 2006).
b) National Policy and Legal framework on Traditional Knowledge
Ghana has been a Party to the Convention on Biological Diversity since 1994 but the provisions of the Convention are yet to be incorporated fully into country’s legislation. More importantly, a coherent legal and policy framework for implementing the provisions of the Convention especially those related to access and benefits sharing should be established (NSBCP, MFLM, 2006).
Property rights are recognized under the common law, customary law and in the 1992 Constitution whose Article 18 affirms that every person has the right to own property either alone or in association with others. Given that most of Ghana’s biodiversity falls within private ownership, it is important to note that local communities, families and individuals with land-owning rights play an important role in the granting of access to genetic resources within their lands or areas. The state also lays claim to natural resources and indeed the CBD recognizes the sovereign rights of states over their own biological resources. The inevitable challenge for any legal and policy regime is how to fashion a formula that takes into account these competing claims.
There is currently no legislative instrument to control the search for commercially valuable genetic and biochemical resources in Ghana. Generally access to genetic resources in the community is based on mutual agreement between the collector and the local communities. These bilateral agreements are usually restricted to only access for the purpose of collection in exchange for one-off payment, sometimes nominal payment or even free. They do not usually extend to other benefits-sharing mechanisms such as royalties.
The Traditional Medicine Policy like the other policies if its kind does not deal with access issues and the need for consultation with local communities or the mechanisms for recognizing and protecting the rights of the holders of traditional medicine knowledge (NSBCP/MLFM, 2006). It only identifies the need for sustainable bioprospecting.
It should however be noted that the National Biodiversity Policy, following closely on the CBD objective of fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources, identifies the need to formulate effective mechanisms for regulating bio-prospecting. Article 8(j) of the CBD deals with benefit sharing and stipulates that this can be accomplished through the utilization of knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities.
The current Forest and Wildlife Policy recognizes that ‘a share of financial benefits from resource utilization should be retained to fund the maintenance of resources’ production capacity and for the benefit of local communities’. The majority of the strategies and actions adopted so far are in respect of timber. Nothing much has been done on the issue of access and benefit sharing of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs).
In the absence of definite and clear national guidelines to control access to Ghana’s genetic resources, Ghana will remain saddled with the practice whereby genetic resources are lost or depleted through the activities of national and foreign-based researchers, scientists, pharmaceutical companies and other actors who appropriate these genetic resources without any or adequate compensation, a phenomenon which is now commonly referred to as biopiracy. A major challenge confronting the government is to provide for an equitable, sustainable and enforceable access regime and to ensure the development of an effective benefit-sharing framework.
The policy of the Ghana government, in response to the World Health Organization (WHO) policy objective, is to integrate the practice of Traditional Medicine (TM) into the formal health sector and to mainstream traditional medicine practice into the health care delivery system in the country. In pursuance of this policy objective, A Traditional and Alternate Medicines Directorate has been established within the Ghana Health Service with a mandate to, among other things, ensure that traditional medicine products are safe, efficacious and of good quality.
The Traditional Medicine Practice Act, 2000 (Act 575) provides the legislative framework for the regulation of traditional medicine practices. It has established the Traditional Medicine Practice Council whose functions are mainly to regulate the practice of traditional medicine, to register practitioners and license practices, and to regulate the preparation and sale of herbal medicines.
The main objective of the Traditional Medicine Policy is to serve as a framework to improve upon the safety and efficacy of traditional medicine as well as accord it with the recognition it deserves in the public health system in order to improve access to health care in Ghana. It is worth noting that the issues of quality and safety of traditional medicines and the regulation of the activities of Traditional Medicine Practitioners (TMPs) have been of concern to the WHO over the years.
The policy notes that there is currently no defined intellectual property regime covering indigenous traditional medicine knowledge and practices. It further recognizes that there is a general lack of awareness among TMPs on the need for intellectual property rights protection.
The TMPs mainly use traditional knowledge which has been handed down from generation to generation and the Government of Ghana is making an effort to ensure that this knowledge is protected and preserved. The policy recommends patenting as one way of offering intellectual property protection and encouraging innovation. This recommendation should however be viewed against the fact that Section 2 of the Patents Act, 2003 (Act 657) excludes plants and animals other than micro-organisms, biological processes for the protection of plants or animals other than non-biological and micro-biological processes and plant varieties from patent protection. Other policy recommendations include the education of TMPs on all aspects of intellectual property protection, the need for agreements between TMPs and other scientists potential benefit sharing and the development of a sui generis TMPs knowledge protection and the keeping of records and documentation of their findings to support rational scientific analysis. Other relevant policies include the National Drug Policy, which was adopted in July 2004 and one of its objectives is the promotion of the proper use of traditional herbal medicines in Ghana.
The 2005-2009 National Strategic Plan for Traditional Medicine and Alternative Medicine Development in Ghana was produced by the Traditional and Alternative Medicine Directorate of the Ministry of Health in February 2005 (NSBCP/MLFM, 2007). The plan has identified programmes whose execution would ‘ensure the safety of Traditional Medicine products and practices and encourage sector-wide approach to regulating, controlling and guiding the practice to make it widely acceptable to a majority of people working or living in Ghana’. It is also intended to be a working guide to all stakeholders with an interest in traditional medicine. It recognizes the absence of a system for the protection of intellectual property as one of the weaknesses of the traditional healthcare system in Ghana. The Food and Drugs Board is the statutory body charged with, among other things, the duty to ensure adequate and effective standards for food and drugs. In exercise of its statutory functions it has established guidelines for the registration of herbal medicines.
Traditional knowledge and plant biodiversity used for food
A large number of edible plant products are gathered from the wild. They include seeds and nuts, leaves, fruits, roots and tubers and cereals. Collectively they add diversity and flavour to the diet while providing protein, energy, vitamins and essential minerals. A lot of information is available on edible forest products. Furthermore, through the experience of forest communities, forestry professionals have recently rediscovered the great importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in meeting peoples’ needs. These include their uses as food, fruits, fibres, dyestuffs, flavours, medicines, building materials. For most of the world’s rural households, NTFPs provide essential food and nutrition, materials, mulch and non-farm income. The products are particularly important in relieving the ‘hunger periods’ in the agricultural cycle and in smoothing other seasonal fluctuations in food supply. Thus, individually and collectively, wild species can contribute to the food and financial security of rural households as dietary supplements, hedges against crop failure and income generators. Farmers rely on these forest products to replace the missing staple foods and to provide the necessary energy to harvest their fields during this period. It has also been observed that before the harvesting season in Ghana, households obtain an average of 16 to 20 per cent of their food supply from the wild compared with 6 per cent after the harvest. Poor households in particular depend on these products for their livelihood, because they usually have more access to the forest than to other resources, and for the same reason, they depend directly on the NTFPs in the wild.
Traditional knowledge and plant biodiversity used for medicine
Long before allopathic medical practice was introduced in Ghana, herbal medicine was the major source of health delivery by local people and was held in high esteem. To date, about 75-90 per cent rural dwellers rely on plant species for herbal preparations to cure various ailments. These have traditionally been gathered from forest areas, fallow lands, and village common lands as well as from agricultural fields. With this long association between man and plants, particularly for the cure of ailments, a system of practice known by only a certain group of people called herbalists emerged. Through periods of trial, error and success, these herbalists and their apprentices have accumulated a lot of knowledge about plants. Such indigenous knowledge has played significant roles in the search for novel bioactive compounds from plants used as therapeutic agents and agrochemicals. However, they jealously guard this knowledge, lest it becomes public. Consequently, knowledge, technology transfer and innovation under these circumstances are normally held within a family or a close-knit circle to ensure that the secrecy is maintained. Thus, apprenticeship within the herbal medicine practice has normally been along lineages. However, the exigencies of the time can no longer ensure that such secrecy will not come into public domain without any protection. There is therefore the urgent need to ensure that access to such knowledge is adequately protected so that local practitioners would have the full benefit of their traditional rights.
The challenges in the use of traditional knowledge for conservation of biodiversity in Ghana
A number of protected areas, such as sacred groves, are managed through traditional belief systems. They have not yet been mainstreamed into the formal conservation protocols that have legal backing to enhance the conservation of biodiversity. Currently only a few NGOs interested in indigenous conservation practices, support the protection of traditional conservation sites. However, with the advent of modern way of living, coupled with lack of interest by modern society, the reverence for such beliefs is quickly eroding, leaving most sacred groves exposed to encroachment and degradation. It is important to note that local knowledge provides opportunities for developing effective approaches to conserving biodiversity (Ntiamoa-Baidu et al, 2000). Hence, these practices should be well documented and mainstreamed into formal conservation practices to respond to the needs of the times and also to ensure retention of traditional knowledge for future generations. Article 8 (J) and related provisions of the decisions of COP’9 provide guidelines for the documentation of traditional knowledge for conservation. The article urges governments and international organizations to support and assist indigenous communities to retain control and ownership of their traditional knowledge, innovations and practices. It also urges Parties and Governments to develop their own toolkit of measures and mechanisms to address the underlying causes of the decline of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices based on their own unique national circumstances and diversity of indigenous and local communities
References
Manu, C., 1992. Local Community Wildlife Conservation: The Ghana Case Study. Resources: (Journal for Sustainable Development in Africa) Vol. 2 No. 3 1992. Pgs 20-21
Manu, C., 2006. Tafi-Atome Monkey Sanctuary. FOELINE (Environmental Magazine of Friends of the Earth-Ghana). Issue No. 18 of December 2006. Pgs 6-9
Manu, C, and Oduro W., The quest for taking due account of wildlife in forest management efforts in Ghana. NATURE & FAUNE Vol. 23, Issue 2. (Success stories in management of wildlife and nature in Africa; Published by FAO Regional Office for Africa) Pgs 28 – 31
Tufuor, K., et al. 1992. Study of Traditional Conservation of Biodiversity (Sacred Groves) in Ghana (A project funded by WWF)
Chapter Six
ACCESS TO GENETIC RESOURCES AND BENEFIT SHARING
Introduction
Thoughts about Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) arrangements for Ghana are not new, in the sense that some aspects of benefit sharing exist at different levels of the Ghanaian society. However at the national level there is no regularized arrangement reflecting the benefits that the country and her citizens should receive from the use of genetic resources. The desire to delve into it at this time in the history of Ghana is based on the accepted fact that with the coming into force of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Parties to the Convention have sovereign rights over their natural resources in areas within their jurisdiction. They also have the authority to determine physical access to biodiversity and the inherent genetic resources in areas within their jurisdiction. Thirdly, they are obliged to take appropriate measures to ensure that there is equity in the sharing of the benefits derived from the use of these resources, particularly for national and human development.
Historical account
In agreeing to be Parties to the CBD, States have subscribed to the three objectives of the Convention, namely: conservation of biological diversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources. Parties have been very active in trying to achieve the first and second objectives through various implementation schedules of the articles of the Convention, and in many cases with some successes at all levels of the society. The promotion of the third objective has lagged behind and this has created problems in the overall achievement of the implementation of the articles of the CBD.
The Bonn Guidelines on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from their utilization was adopted at the 6th Conference of the Parties (COP 6) in the Hague, the Netherlands. This is contained in Decision VI/24. The Guidelines were recognized as a useful first step of an evolutionary process in the implementation of relevant provisions of the Convention relevant to access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing. These guidelines were meant to be reviewed by the COP and for further refinement on the basis of relevant developments under the Convention, including those on issues such as traditional knowledge and technology transfer.
The use of the guidelines is voluntary. The guidelines are meant to assist Parties, Governments and other stakeholders to implement Article 15 by developing an overall access and benefit-sharing strategy, and in identifying the steps involved in the process of obtaining access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing. More specifically, these guidelines are meant to assist Parties, Governments and other stakeholders when they contemplate establishing legislative, administrative or policy measures on access and benefit-sharing and/or when negotiating contractual arrangements for access and benefit-sharing
Access and Benefit Sharing, became popular during the proceedings of the World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002, in Johannesburg, South Africa. At the WSSD, governments called for the negotiation of an international regime to promote the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Further to this call for action, at its seventh meeting in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in 2004, the Conference of the Parties (COP 7) established and mandated the Working Group on ABS to elaborate and negotiate an international regime on access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing with the aim of adopting an instrument/instruments to effectively implement the provisions in Article 15 (Access to Genetic Resources) and 8(j) (Traditional Knowledge) of the Convention, and the three objectives of the Convention. COP’7 also agreed on the terms of reference for the Working Group, which include the process, nature, scope and elements for consideration in the elaboration of the regime (decision VII/19). The COP 9, in Decision IX/12, also appreciated the progress made by the Working Group and offered more support for the further elaboration and negotiation of the international regime.
Remit at the international level discussion
In accordance with the negotiations before COP 10, the following areas were considered as forming part of the international regime, which in effect must also be reflected at the national level. These include a definition of the term ‘genetic resources’, the scope of the protocol, Clearing House and Information Sharing, Compliance with National Legislation, Monitoring, tracking and reporting the utilization of genetic resources, compliance with MAT, Model Contractual clauses, Codes of Conduct and Best practices, Awareness raising, Capacity, Technology Transfer and Cooperation.
At COP’10 in Nagoya, the Conference of the Parties endorsed the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing and the process leading to its signature and ratification began. Ghana signed the Protocol on 11th May, 2011. The process of getting the country to formally ratify is being vigorously pursued.
Case studies guiding ABS arrangements
A number of case studies of International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) (now known as Bioversity International, Frijof Nansen Institute of Norway) have looked at ‘Farmers’ Rights in Ethiopia. Genbenefit studies looking at the Kani and NIPRISAN studies on the San peoples’ Hoodia Case beneficial in the consideration of national legislation on ABS. Other sources of information are the WIPO database for ABS contracts at the WIPO website, the United Nations University-Institute for Advanced Studies (UNU/IAS) database on bioprospecting information resource that covers the Antarctic, Pacific, Arctic and Marine resources at the UNU/IAS website and the ABS Capacity Development Initiative for Africa which provides short summaries of a number of bioprospecting case studies in some African countries.
Efforts made in Ghana
In November 2008, the Ministry of Health (MOH) in conjunction with the then Ministry of Lands, Forestry and Mines (MLFM), now the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR), and the Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment (MLGRDE) (now the Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology (MEST), took advantage of the then ongoing Northern Savanna Biodiversity Project and developed an Intellectual Property Regime (IPR) for Ghana. The title of the document is “Guidelines for the intellectual property protection framework (IPPF) for the indigenous knowledge related to health and medicinal plant resources “. Even though the document has considered only medicinal plants, several elements in it can be applied to other genetic resources, including animals and microbial organisms, especially for food, agriculture, forestry, horticulture and other applications. For the avoidance of doubt, it may be necessary to revise the document to literally take note of all other biological resources. The broader definition of genetic resources which the African negotiators are seeking should also be used in order to capture all the unforeseen loopholes that may arise in the determination of benefits from the utilization of derivatives that are already known or yet to be discovered. from the genetic resources. Available information indicates that this document on the guidelines for IPPF was presented to the 4th Parliament of the 4th Republic for ratification. However there is no evidence of the acceptance of the document by parliament. It is necessary for the three Ministries to work together to ensure a revision of text, if need be, to form the basis for a Ghanaian ABS guidelines.
The core and purpose of these policy guidelines and guiding principles of Ghana’s ABS policy should include the following:
a. Prospectors and exploiters of indigenous knowledge (IK) and genetic resources (GR) shall be required to negotiate with the source communities for mutually agreed terms of sharing the anticipated benefits that may accrue from their activities.
b. The terms must be based on the principle of fairness and equity or on the spirit of moral responsibility or benevolence on the part of the prospector. ABS to GR may be dissociated from the use of the associated IK.
c. Where IK is included in the arrangement, provision must be made for the protection of the IP by registration under this policy or by any other suitable IP regime
Lead Institutions
The traditional public and private research, academic institutions and other organizations in the areas of agriculture, forestry, medicine, pharmacy, general biology, horticulture, biochemistry, microbiology and chemistry can be considered as the front line institutions. They include the agricultural-related institutes of the CSIR, Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana, Centre for Scientific Research into Plant Medicine, all the public and private tertiary institutions including the Universities, public research and development organizations, private research and some profit-making organizations.
The needs
Ghana has ratified the International Treaty for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA). The country is currently involved in a number of programmes and projects, through its many agricultural institutions. Ghana is collaborating with Bioversity International, International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), other CGIAR centres (e.g. CIAT) and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to collect, develop and establish several ex-situ collection centres in the country. Some of the materials of Ghanaian origin, presently located elsewhere in the tropics, are expected to contribute to the improvement of the genetic make-up of crops for the achievement of food security. Capacities are therefore needed in all the centres that deal with issues related to the provision, documentation and management of services for ex-situ conservation practices. The capacities are both human and infrastructural. Specific areas of capacities include registry, transfers, documentation, compliance, development and enforcement of guidelines, awareness creation protocols, research and monitoring of status and trends of resources in current and new applications, including the use of derivatives at all levels both local and national. The capacities will also include areas such as Mutually Agreed Terms (MATs), Prior Informed Consent (PIC), Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) and other related issues, legal interpretations particularly as they involve social, economic and environmental issues.
Inter-ministerial and other public partnerships
Genetic resources and their derivatives which come from the country’s biological diversity are of interest to all sectors. It is therefore necessary to have in Ghana some form of an inter-ministerial body involving all the key economic, transport and agricultural sectors (MFA, MoFEP, MOH, MEST, MoFA, MLNR, MOTI, MLGRD, MJA-G, MHWR, MOE, MWCAM MLSWE, MRT and others) which will partner with the private and public sector organizations and institutions and individuals. The advantage of this is that all Ghanaian stakeholders will be on board to ensure the implementation of Article 15 of CBD, especially the Bonn guidelines and the national guidelines which take into account the national laws, and the Nagoya Protocol on ABS.
Regulatory framework
A regulatory framework is urgently needed and the effort of the MOH, MEST and MLNR are cherished in the development of the IPR guidelines for Indigenous Knowledge on medicinal plants. The review and formal legal recognition by the 5th Parliament of the 4th Republic is urgently needed to take care of such areas as liability, compensation, redress and any other need that will emerge from the negotiated text of the international regime.
References
Chapter Seven
TAXONOMY
Introduction
The Parties to the CBD, having acknowledged the existence of the ‘taxonomic impediment’ identified by COP 3, developed the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI) as a ‘Cross-cutting Issue’ of the Convention to:
• identify taxonomic needs and priorities;
• develop and strengthen human capacity to generate taxonomic information;
• develop and strengthen infrastructure and mechanisms for generating taxonomic information, and for facilitating the sharing of and access to that information; and
• provide taxonomic information needed for decision-making regarding the conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources
Within the remit of the Convention, the need for taxonomic input has been recognized in several areas, including the following:
a. developing national biodiversity strategies and action plans (Article 6)
b. monitoring and assessing the effects of management practices and impacts of environmental and use changes (Articles 7, 14)
c. identifying appropriate in-situ conservation areas (Article 8)
d. developing protocols for sustainable use of biological resources (Article 10)
e. training and research programmes in conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity (Article 12)
f. promoting an understanding of the importance of biological diversity (Article 13)
g. enabling access to genetic resources (Article 15)
h. as part of technology transfer, information exchange and technical and scientific cooperation (Articles 16, 17, 18)
i. managing the distribution of benefits of biotechnology (Article 19)
j. addressing issues on biosafety (Cartagena Protocol), and
k. addressing problems within the thematic and cross-cutting areas of the CBD
With these in mind, the CBD Parties have developed a ‘Programme of Work’ for the GTI, with 19 planned activities. The first three of these activities relate to assessment of taxonomic needs at national, regional and global levels.
The fourth planned activity addresses public awareness and education. Part of this activity has been carried out already but more is expected to be done through the Global Initiative on Communication, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA) under the Convention.
The fifth and sixth planned activities address capacity-building to support access to and generation of taxonomic information, and strengthening of networks for regional cooperation. In spite of the many efforts and initiatives that essential for capacity-building, the world’s taxonomic expertise is shrinking.
The seventh planned activity envisages development of a coordinated global taxonomic information system. In this regard, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and others have made considerable progress in improving upon the linkages and in harmonizing the approaches so that information can be shared easily.
The remaining 12 planned activities address the role of taxonomy in supporting the work on thematic areas and other cross-cutting issues of the CBD. The GTI is a cross-cutting issue and as the use of taxonomy is necessarily driven by user needs, it is appropriate that the programme of work focuses on users particularly with a focus on the needs of providers.
The specific planned activities address the following:
• Marine and coastal biodiversity;
• Agricultural biodiversity
• Forest biodiversity;
• Inland waters biodiversity;
• Dry and sub-humid lands biodiversity;
• Mountain biodiversity;
• Island biodiversity;
• Access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing;
• Invasive Alien Species;
• Traditional knowledge, innovations and practice;
• Ecosystem approach, impact assessment, monitoring and indicators; and
• Protected Areas.
The Conference of the Parties, which is the governing body of the CBD, develops and refines the GTI, with support from various mechanisms and actors, including the CBD Secretariat, the Coordination Mechanism for the GTI, national focal points, and the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA). The implementation of the GTI is the responsibility of many actors, particularly national governments and relevant organizations, funding agencies, taxonomists and their institutions. Implementation of the GTI is facilitated and/or monitored through several means including national biodiversity strategies and action plans, national reports, and various outreach activities such as Clearing House Mechanism (CHM) and other initiatives.
Implementation of the GTI depends largely on funding, not only for projects and initiatives specific to taxonomy but also for biodiversity-related projects and other initiatives with a taxonomic component. Issues of taxonomy should therefore be one of the important driving forces for national implementation of programmes of all biodiversity-related conventions and the achievement of global, regional and national goals for sustainable development.
Taxonomic Needs Assessments
The Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) have repeatedly emphasized the importance of National Taxonomic Needs Assessments. The GTI Programme of Work suggests that National Governments, with the support of national and relevant international organizations and institutions, play a leading role in carrying out assessments. Some countries have used national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs) as well as national reports under the Convention to indicate their need for taxonomic capacity, but few details have been provided. So far, national needs assessments have been done by a few countries e.g. UK. In this case the assessment does not cover all possible stakeholders with an interest in taxonomic information, since resources have been too little for such a comprehensive process.
A good understanding of the role of taxonomic information in meeting CBD-related needs is vital for good management. It is also of great importance in developing National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans. Once the needs are known the available resources can be assessed and the results used to set goals and priorities for building the necessary capacity. The needs of countries that are involved in regional taxonomic networks can also be assessed within the context of meeting obligations to those collaborations, especially when participation includes complementarities and sharing of research effort. For Ghana, the partnership with other countries of the WAFRINET LOOP of BioNET-INTERNATIONAL is of potential importance in this regard.
As with so many CBD-related activities, a taxonomic needs assessment has both policy and implementation outputs. For policy, assessments should state clearly if and how lack of taxonomic capacity and/or information impedes implementation of NBSAPs. The needs assessment report is also a working document which can be used to inform taxonomists and funding bodies of the taxonomic input required. The process of conducting a needs assessment itself can be used to raise awareness of the CBD and of taxonomic needs.
Assessing the taxonomic needs of a country is quite distinct from assessing its taxonomic capacity. The latter refers to what taxonomy work can be done, and the levels of expertise, information and infrastructure, without considering needs. It is very important to understand taxonomic capacity. It can only be assessed in the context of the needs identified. In the case of Ghana, the assessment of both the needs and capacity is quite relevant, though the former is the more urgent than the latter.
a. State of taxonomic engagement in Ghana
There are numerous taxonomic needs globally but they can be placed in a relatively few classes. One example is the information needed for the monitoring of the components of biodiversity in accordance with Article 7 of CBD. The components include ecosystems and habitats, species and communities, genomes and genes of social, scientific and economic importance. Ghana is undertaking some monitoring activities but does not have a complete data on the species. Standardized monitoring systems (many of which have been developed by taxonomists) and sorting the specimens collected are some of the taxonomic needs of Ghana’s monitoring programme.
In 2001 a workshop held in Kirstenboch, South Africa under the theme: ‘The Global Taxonomy Initiative: Documenting the biodiversity of Africa’ attempted to produce a taxonomic needs and capacity assessment for the continent. The information on Ghana’s taxonomic capacity was published (Klopper et al, 2001). In the same year a document entitled ‘Assessment of the status of herbaria and capabilities in taxonomy and systematics for natural resources inventory in Sub-Saharan Africa’ was published (Kabuye, 2001). This publication has information on Ghana’s capacity.
The result of a recent taxonomic needs assessment in Ghana was presented at a workshop (Oteng-Yeboah et al 2010). In that presentation a number of issues of taxonomic concerns to Ghana were highlighted.
b. Institutions providing taxonomic information
Several major biological collections of taxonomic importance are maintained by a number of institutions in the country. In many instances it is from these institutions that taxonomic information is provided. Herbaria are maintained in the Botany Departments of the Universities in Ghana, at Legon, Cape Coast, Kumasi, Tamale and Winneba; the research institutes on forestry and crops (Kumasi, Bunso, Kade) and herbal medicine (Mampong), the Forestry Commission in Kumasi; Botanical Gardens at Aburi, (the subject of a UK Darwin Initiative Project including inventorying the plants present and the construction of a database of the medicinal plant collection[1]), Legon (also currently the central point in the digitization of Ghanaian biodiversity as part of GBIF-Ghana project), Cape Coast and Kumasi.
In 2001 the Kumasi Forest Herbarium had about 30,000 specimens, the Ghana Herbarium at the University of Ghana, Legon had approximately 90,000 and the Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, had only 1,200 specimens (Kabuye, 2001). There are Entomological and other Zoological collections at the Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science (‘DABCS’) in the University of Ghana, Legon, (formerly the Department of Zoology), and the Departments of Zoology in the Universities in Kumasi and Cape Coast. The Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) has an entomological museum containing insect pest specimens and those of beneficial insects collected from cocoa, coffee, cola, cashew and shea plantations, both from Ghana and other Western African Countries. Out of the over 800 species kept by the Cocoa Reasearch Institute of Ghana in 2002, more than 400 had not yet been identified down to species level. The CRIG also holds collections of virus isolates (CCSV), cocoa and coffee germplasm, and a herbarium (B. Padi, cited in Ayertey, 2002). The CSIR-Animal Research Institute in 2002 held a seed bank and was setting up a herbarium with a focus on forage and pasture species (C. Domozoro, cited in Ayertey, 2002). It is not clear whether Accra and Kumasi zoos have any taxonomic relevance.
c. Analysis of capacity challenges
The biological material collections in Ghanaian institutions are maintained quite well to prevent loss through pest attack or environmental decay, but unfortunately they are not actively curated, adequately staffed, or electronically data-based. Specimen housing (cabinets) are adequate, and developed to an internationally agreed level in some collections (Ghana’s 2nd National Report to CBD), although it is worth noting that there have been continual advances in collection housing standards, and the stresses on such housing caused by a tropical climate necessitate regular replacement. According to Ghana’s 3rd National Report to the CBD, the country is not investing, on a long-term basis, in the development of an appropriate infrastructure for its national taxonomic collections.
There are no national institutional frameworks for herbaria. The herbarium at the Department of Botany in the University of Ghana is often referred to as the national herbarium but it has no national input for its operations. The meagre support provided to the department from the University’s budget is used to run its operations. Consequently there is no room for its staff development outside the main academic and/or technical requirements of the department. The situation is similar for Entomology and other collections in the Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science at the University of Ghana. Nobody is specifically assigned to be solely responsible for the collections. It would help the situation to employ or train staff to be solely responsible for the day-to-day maintenance of the collection as well as replenishing stock from the field. This would involve planned and sponsored activities between Government and other stakeholders in collaboration with the University throughout the year. This would also expand the use and functions of the facility. Separation of the facility to include a portion for academic and non- academic uses could be an added advantage or an option to be considered. The department also has a good collection of marine invertebrates preserved in formalin, some of which have deteriorated and need to be replaced. A good collection of vertebrate skeletons is also available in a separate museum for teaching.
Many specimens collected in Ghana are housed in collections outside the country. (Klopper et al, 2001) and access to them by Ghanaian scientists is inevitably difficult because of travelling costs involved and their undisclosed locations. GBIF, which makes specimen and observation data available from collections around the world, holds 85,953 records from Ghana, 66,325 of which are geo-referenced; none of these arise from collections held in Ghana. The formal establishment of the node of the Ghana Biodiversity Information Facility (GhaBIF) will facilitate easy access to and repatriation of information on Ghanaian specimens held outside the country. Digitization efforts are under way at a number of collection centres including the University of Ghana at Legon, Aburi Botanical Gardens, and the University of Cape Coast. To date at least 100,000 herbarium specimens, 8,000 zoological specimens and 4,000 living plant specimens have been digitized. In addition more than 10.000 records of Ghanaian specimens have been repatriated from institutions such as the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew (UK) and Wageningen University (Netherlands).
There is an inadequate supply of the necessary equipment for carrying out research and other taxonomic activities, such as dissecting and compound microscopes, Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopes (SEM and TEM), computers, incubators, PCR machines and laboratory facilities for molecular studies (Klopper et al., 2001; Ayertey, 2002). A major problem confronting the maintenance of the collections is the unavailability of means of transport to the field for the replenishment of specimens used or damaged in day-to-day teaching of students. If collection of specimens by students is re-introduced it could help in solving this problem. Another problem encountered during the maintenance of the collections in some institutions is the unreliability of the electricity supply for operating the air conditioners in the herbaria and museums. Stand-by electricity generators would solve this very serious problem.
d. New needs for users and providers of biodiversity information
The general objectives in addressing taxonomy needs are the following:
• Identifying biological specimens and managing species diversity;
• Addressing environmental degradation, biodiversity loss, human poverty, public health concerns, policy issues, border inspection, air and land safety; and
• Forming a strong regional partnership because the region shares identical biological diversity and species evolution.
These objectives can be further enhanced through the use of new techniques such as the application of DNA Barcoding. With this technique the following activities and tasks can be accomplished:
• “Biogeographic assessments and distributions (barcoding techniques can improve the definition of radiation centres for priority taxa);
• Intra-specific discrimination of species complexes;
• Molecular ecology and improved assessments of community structure of priority species/taxa;
• Environmental degradation and biodiversity loss assessments; and
• Misidentifications, quality control, quality assurance and problems created by agricultural pests.”
Barcoding, as a technique will provide non-specialists with tools and data for improved livelihoods, and also can:
• help to boost the yields and quality of crops;
• facilitate sustainable use of natural resources;
• assist in an effective, sustainable control of diseases and public health concerns; and
• assist in poverty alleviation, policy issues, border inspection, air and land safety.
Training and capacity enhancement of resource persons is the main prerequisite for implementing barcoding in the whole sub-regions of Western and Central Africa. Additionally, the acquisition of relevant equipment and improvement of existing infrastructure within selected institutions are considered as relevant for the success of barcoding in the sub-regions.
Ghana would be well-placed for involvement in the global bee barcoding initiative called the ‘Bee-Bol’, because of its in-country expertise. The CSIR-Water Research Institute is involved in the Fish barcode of life initiative called the FISH-Bol, with two staff members of the institute on the Working Group. The Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR) of the University of Ghana is the lead organization for ‘Vector-BOL’ in West and Central Africa, and is involved in the barcoding of skin fungi. This centre is able to undertake barcoding work for other institutions. The University of Ghana is also engaged in the barcoding of stem borers of crops. The Animal Research Institute of the CSIR, is engaged in barcoding of poisonous plant materials in the digestive tract of cattle.
Taxonomic networks involving Ghana
Ghana participates in a number of regional and sub-regional networks, including the BioNET-WAFRINET, Forest Invasive Species Network for Africa (FISNA), International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), African Pollinators Initiative (API), Plant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA), West African Regional Networks (WARN), among others.
The International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) is one of the CGIAR network organizations, and in Africa, it pursues a programme of research on technology and processes important for development that helps rural communities build sustainable livelihoods, through competitive agriculture, healthy agro ecosystems, and rural innovation. In pursuit of these goals, it works closely with national institutions, NGOs, and the private sector, and uses participatory methods that offer rural people an active role in devising better ways to improve crops, build rural agro enterprises, and manage soil fertility, pests, and plant diseases. In the case of Ghana it has been involved in work on cassava, including at the germplasm level. While not a taxonomic organization per se (and, indeed, it may be a user rather than supplier of taxonomic expertise), it is relevant at the molecular and strain level.
Effective pollination mechanism is one key area in conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity that has been ignored in the scheme of things in agriculture at the national level. Pollinators provide the ecosystem service of ensuring fruit and seed production without any effort from man. Through their activities food is made available to both plants and animals leading to sustainable livelihood and food security. Pollinators also play a significant role in biodiversity by enabling the production of seeds of various plants on which all animals survive. It is estimated the over 75 percent of all plants depend on animal pollinators of which insects form 80%.
The African Pollinator initiative (API) consists of a group of scientists, biologists, conservationists and ecologists who have recognized the important services pollinators provide to the ecosystem. The group is concerned with the threats to these pollinators (animals, mainly insects) due to activities of man e.g. wrong methods of insecticide application in the environment, destruction of habitats through logging, forest fragmentation, wild fires, construction and urbanization. The initiative is part of the implementation of the CBD’s International Pollinators Initiative programme.
The API was founded in January 1999, at the First Congress of the Systematics Society of South Africa (SSSA), in Stellenbosch, South Africa. It had two main purposes:
• To facilitate African country participation in the International Pollinator Initiative’s (IPI) global pollinator project (Conservation and Management of Pollinators for Sustainable Agriculture through an Ecosystem Approach, IPI/GEF).
• To improve pollinator biodiversity conservation, and the pollination of crops and wild plants through networking.
Three African countries (Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa) have agreed to participate in IPI/GEF. The other IPI/GEF countries are Brazil, India, Nepal and Pakistan.
UN FAO has adopted API as the African Region’s IPI network, and API has become a model for implementation of IPI elsewhere. In 2004 the Global Environment Facility (GEF) provided funds for the preparatory phase of the global pollinator project proposal (PDF-B). This was for two years after which a final proposal was presented to GEF council for funding (March 2006). The pollinator project was approved by GEF and is now under way.
The API Action Plan seeks to implement several tasks that will develop and sustain pollination as an essential ecosystem service, including:
• Collect and document baseline information on Pollination and pollinators
• Conduct both scientific research and survey traditional knowledge on pollinators
• Build capacity and create public awareness on the importance of pollinators to the ecosystem.
• Mainstreaming this information into policies of countries and sharing information among member countries.
In line with API’s plan of Action, API Ghana has for the past eight years has supported a number of in country and continent-wide initiatives and projects. The need therefore to highlight a proper policy on pollinator diversity in Ghana is long overdue.
Since 2004 GEF through FAO has provided funds for the preparation of proposal for the global pollination project. This has involved workshops with project partners and stakeholders. A pilot project involving Mankessim Vegetable growers was carried out in 2007 in which some selected growers were trained in best practices for management of pollinators in their farms. Following the approval of the global pollination project, preparations are far advanced for the project take-off in Ghana. Several activities have been going on apart from the FAO and GEF global pollination project. Capacity building and training, Research, Extension work and Collaborations are some of the major activities:
The primary objectives of the West African Regional Network[2] (WARN) are to: foster research in environmental change that build on existing bilateral collaboration links; help develop research capacity among the partners involved through joint research activities on key aspects of environmental change; and train young scientists from African partner institutions in approaches and techniques for studying environmental change, such as the use of Earth Observation techniques and GIS.
The first WARN discussion meeting was held in 2005 to develop an Action Plan for West African Remote Sensing/GIS Network. WARN was officially initiated in 2007, at the 2nd West Africa Regional Network Meeting on Earth Observation and Environmental Change held at the University of Ghana.
The Department of Geography and Resource Development of the University of Ghana, Legon is a member of WARN. The work of digitizing and mapping biodiversity data is clearly an important component of developing the applicability of taxonomic information to biodiversity issues within Ghana and West Africa generally.
Summary of Taxonomic Needs for both users and providers
In summary the following seven issues are considered as key needs for both users and providers. It is firmly believed that these should provide the firm foundation required to overcome the taxonomic impediment in Ghana towards achieving the national targets to support the global goals at the turn of the UN decade on Biodiversity.
a. Increasing awareness and building communication
1. Develop an Action Plan to take forward the recommendations in this Assessment
2. Create a directory of taxonomists and their expertise.
3. Strengthen communication between the Ghanaian Government, the taxonomic community and others on policy needs identified by the CBD on GTI and other relevant thematic areas and cross-cutting initiatives, and of the efforts made to implement these policies.
4. Improve communication between different sectors with responsibility for biodiversity.
5. Encourage taxonomists and others to engage more with the public and other stakeholders.
6. Hold cross-disciplinary workshops.
Improving creation and delivery of taxonomic information through capacity-building
1. Increase provision of training resources to educational establishments.
2. Establish a Consortium of Experts within the Country or Region, with the responsibility to: (i) identify necessary elements of taxonomy to be taught at different educational levels; (ii) to provide a recommended list of resources and where to obtain them;
3. Create and deliver a short refresher course on taxonomy and taxonomic tools, aimed at practicing taxonomists and those that teach or lecture on taxonomy.
Developing Collections
1. Create a National Biological Collection on one or more sites, with a statutory duty to maintain the collection for the benefit of Ghana and as a regional resource.
2. Improve the ability of collection-holding institutions to employ sufficient staff to manage collections and provide an expert resource.
3. Develop a network of biological collections within Ghana.
4. Create an inventory of the holdings of biological collections within Ghana at collection level.
5. Build capacity to capture data from specimens held within Ghanaian collections.
Data management and analysis
1. Build and enhance capacity within collection-holding and other relevant organisations in data and information management.
2. Ensure delivery of training in bioinformatics.
Provision of taxonomic information through institutional capacity-building
1. Build identification system within Ghana, integrating local level services such as extension workers with regional and national centres.
2. Develop a range of cheap and user-friendly identification guides to priority groups and ecosystems.
3. Improve contents of and access to specialists libraries within Ghanaian taxonomic centres.
4. Create authoritative and accessible set of images of key Ghanaian species.
5. Ensure taxonomic identification and assessment capacity is available to carry out inventory work in priority areas, and to identify biodiversity hot spots.
6. Develop capacity to protect fruit production by monitoring fruit fly across Ghana.
7. Develop capacity to protect crop production by monitoring pollinators across Ghana.
8. Seek collaboration with local and external institutions in information exchange, science and technology.
9. Develop and maintain a list of all Ghanaian species of plants, animals and microorganisms.
10. Engage taxonomic support for the building of a Red Data List of threatened and extinct species.
Ecological and distributional information
1. Develop a sustainable resource for sharing distributional and ecological information.
2. Create distribution maps for priority species in conservation
(g) Some further notes to ponder upon
1. Using taxonomic signatures to track traffic of specimens of certain threatened species, as has been indicated for Elephant in CITES.
2. Development of expertise capacities in some aspects of taxonomy.
3. Taxidermy as a technique in both taxonomy and ex-situ conservation.
Chapter Eight
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ISSUES
Introduction
The current state of Ghana’s biodiversity and the measures required to ensure its sustainable utilization with a focus on the socio-economic linkages to biodiversity conservation in Ghana have been assessed through the study of several relevant reports and with reference to the guidelines for reviewing Biodiversity Strategies, as outlined in the 8th Conference of Parties (COP) Decision (8). The objective of the study was fourfold namely:
• Develop basis for community appreciation of biodiversity benefits to society
• Develop techniques for communication education and public awareness set in Ghana
• Assess possibilities of valuation for ecosystem services capacity needs assessment
• Assess and develop capacity need for assessing ecosystems services for human wellbeing.
The main challenge encountered during the study was the difficulty in gathering the requisite policy data that were fragmented and widely scattered in the various sector agencies. Secondly, there were virtually no institutional mechanisms for an effective inter-agency coordination of biodiversity conservation activities in the various sectors.
Benefits
While the benefits of biological resources are considerable to the well being of the people, their real economic value is not easily appreciated. It is important that this issue of economic valuation is addressed fully.
Subsistence
Biodiversity supports and provides numerous products that harvested from natural, semi-natural or managed systems for subsistence. Such products include a variety of food (plants and animals). Rural people, especially the comparatively poor depend directly on raw and wild biological resources for their livelihood. Some products are also traded for income in markets which are located outside the area of origin. Such products include timber, wood used for carving, game, and medicinal plants. It is estimated that over 11 million people in Ghana live in forest areas and about two-thirds of their livelihoods are based on forest activities (Birikorang and Rhein, 2005). Fisheries and wildlife resources serve as an important protein sources for many households. It is a well known fact that the nutritional value of several food items gathered from the wild is quite high. Some have greater amounts of protein, fats, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins than those found in cultivated plant plants or domesticated animals used as sources of food.
Agriculture
Farmers who are involved in small and large scale agriculture, forestry or livestock development use biodiversity to produce new varieties of crops and breeds of animals. Biodiversity also supports the process of adaptation to changing and completely new environments. The food and pharmaceutical companies also depend on biodiversity to produce derivatives. One of the important benefits of biodiversity conservation is the availability of wild plant gene pool which augments the narrow genetic base of these established food crops, the processes of developing resistance to diseases, improving productivity and enhancing environmental tolerance.
Human Health
People have been using biological resources for medicinal purposes for a long time. It is estimated that 50% of the pharmaceutical compounds on the market are derived from natural compounds found in plants, animals and micro-organisms. About 80% of the world population depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary health care.[3]
Tourism/Recreation
This is another important socio-economic benefit of biodiversity. Many people derive value from biodiversity through leisure activities such as hiking and bird watching. The unique species or special landscapes that are admired for their aesthetic qualities are, in certain contexts, important to markets e.g. eco-tourism has become an important source of revenue for community development. The important tourist sites in Ghana include the Kakum National Park, Mole National Park, Wli Water Falls, Boti Water Falls, Afadjato landscape, Buabeng-Fiema and Tafi-Atome Monkey Sanctuaries.
Cultural benefits
Biodiversity also plays an important role in the cultural, traditional and religious practices of many societies. For example some animal species are used as totems and are therefore revered. In many cultures, the adoption of wildlife as totems has helped to conserve much wildlife. In Ghana, almost every traditional ruler or a clan has a totem (Conservation International, undated). Some community forests are also managed as sacred groves because they serve as royal burial grounds, shrines and the abode of community gods. Biodiversity therefore has an intrinsic spiritual value which justifies its sustainable conservation. Finally, biodiversity has inspired musicians, painters, sculptors, writers and other artists. Many cultural groups view themselves as an integral part of the natural world and show respect for other living organisms.
Ecological benefits
Apart from the direct uses mentioned above, biodiversity produces environmental services on which human beings depend. Biodiversity is the medium through which air, water, gases and chemicals are moderated and exchanged to create environmental services. This moderation takes place through watershed protection, carbon storage, nutrient-cycling, pests and diseases control. It ensures the continued functioning, resilience and productivity of ecosystems, which provide the goods for direct use. The following are some of the important environmental services that biodiversity provides:
a) Watershed protection
This ensures the supply of water to communities for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses. This function is widely appreciated by most communities and as a result measures have been put in place to protect forests that serve as watersheds for sustainable supply of water.
b) Water purification/filtration
Aquatic plants help to remove nutrients, most importantly nitrogen and phosphorus, from water bodies including wetlands thus helping to improve water quality and preventing eutrophication.
c) Nutrient recycling
When plants and animals die and decay they release nutrients into the soil and these help to improve soil fertility in agriculture.
d) Prevention of erosion
The vegetative cover on a landscape protects the soil from erosion caused by wind and surface-running water. This function of vegetation can prevent the erosion of valuable agricultural and residential land property damage. This is an important function in the preservation of valuable agricultural soils and the prevention of damage to properties in human settlements.
e) Carbon sequestration
Forests play a key role in regulating carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere as a result of human activities. Without this regulatory function of forests there will be excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and this could aggravate the problems associated with global warming.
f) Ecosystem stability
The role of biodiversity in the maintenance of ecosystem balance and stability is important. Without this stabilization process the populations of some animals such as herbivores could increase to detrimental levels.
g) Micro-climate stabilization
Water and nutrient cycles and energy flow especially within forest and wetland ecosystems, affect local climatic conditions, particularly rainfall and temperatures. This in turn affects agricultural practices and other activities which are based on availability of biological resources as well as on the stability of natural ecosystems.
h) Windbreak
Windstorms sometimes cause extensive damage to life and property. Forests play a key role in dissipating the force of the wind and in reducing the subsequent damage caused by windstorms.
Threats to Biodiversity
The major causes of biodiversity degradation in the country include population pressure, unsustainable agricultural practices, excessive logging, game hunting, bush burning, mining and quarrying, the uncoordinated policy interventions and weak institutions (FOSA, 2001). The rapid depletion of biological resources in Ghana is therefore attributed to the fast increasing human population, economic and policy influences. For example the depletion of the forest resources in the country is being caused by excessive capacity in forest industry; inadequate implementation of the forest and wildlife policy and market failures; increasing human population growth with corresponding high demand for agricultural land, wood products, wood fuel; inadequate technological development in farming systems and low awareness about ecosystem services and their benefits among many local people. The quest for socio-economic development including urbanization, industrialization and unsustainable tourism presents a major threat to marine ecosystems, wetlands and fresh water habitats in the country.
The underlying causes of current threats to biodiversity conservation in Ghana include the following:
i) Low appreciation of biodiversity benefits by society
The current state of low appreciation of biodiversity benefits by local communities emanate from the conflict between conventional conservation approach and human welfare. The conventional approach tends to alienate local communities and deprive local people of their traditional rights to biological resources to meet socio-economic needs. This is exacerbated by the state’s tendency to facilitate the patronage of industrial exploitation mostly at the expense of resource dependent communities. Lack of clear policies on access and utilisation of biological resources by local resource users has resulted in non-compliance to conventional regulatory measures. In some cases, this has led to hostility expressed through encroaching on protected areas in the face of weak law enforcement mechanisms. Local farmers in many areas deliberately destroy timber trees and saplings that regenerate on their land as an expression of their distress over the increasing amounts of timber harvested from their farms by concessionaires who fail to compensate them for the damages done to their crops (Amanor, 2003).
The conventional conservation approach has also failed to recognize and incorporate local conservation practices such as those involving sacred animals/ plants, rivers, taboo days and sacred groves into its strategies. The failure and disregard have resulted in lack of appreciation of biodiversity in the conventional conservation approach.
The failure of conventional conservation approach, especially the Protected Areas system can therefore be attributed largely to its inability to promote the appreciation of benefits of biodiversity and the formal participation of local people in biodiversity conservation. This failure has necessitated a paradigm shift from the approaches that alienate local communities from conservation strategies to that which encourages and promotes community participation. The participatory approach seeks to take into consideration the social and economic needs of communities as key aspects of conservation strategies.
i) Low public awareness of the benefits of biodiversity
Poor knowledge on biodiversity resources and their ecological importance remains one of the major constraints to conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity. This is in spite of the implementation of major conservation programmes including those focusing on local involvement. The need to address the gap has been identified in the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD). Article 13 of the Convention calls on Parties to promote and encourage an understanding of the importance of biological diversity and the measures required for its conservation of as well as its propagation by the media as well as the inclusion of these topics in the educational programmes. Public education is therefore critical to increase awareness at all levels in society with the ultimate aim of changing perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours in favour of biodiversity conservation.
ii) Economic evaluation of biological resources and ecosystem services
Conspicuously absent in the competing economic development interventions in Ghana is economic valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. For instance, despite the importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as fuel wood, bushmeat, wild fruits, fodder and medicinal herbs in local livelihoods in Ghana and often serving as buffer and safety net, much of their value remains inadequately represented in policy analysis (World Bank, 2006). Mining on the other hand, contributes about 60% of Ghana’s foreign investment and therefore receives both economic and political support often at the expense of biodiversity and forest resources. The large footprints of open-pit mines directly result in significant loss of forest and genetic resources (UNEP, 2008). Surface mining operations dominate mining in Ghana and contribute to deforestation, habitat loss, land degradation, water and air pollution from waste dumps.
The ongoing Bui Hydro Power Project is expected to help Ghana meet her growing energy demand by generating a maximum power of 400 MW. The dam is expected to inundate about 23,450 ha of land including parts of the riverine forest, fragmented riparian gallery forest and savannah woodland habitats of the Bui National Park where many wildlife species are currently found (EMR, 2007). The potential economic development gains of the Bui Hydro Power Project has been over-emphasized without due consideration to the economic value of biodiversity loss and human wellbeing mediated by health cost implications related to reduced quality in ecosystem services.
Economic valuation of biodiversity provides an appropriate mechanism for assessing and subsequently appreciating the diverse benefits of biodiversity and ecological services as well as acknowledging the costs associated with degradation and loss genetic resources specie and ecosystems. Certainly an attempt to measure or describe ecological services in the common monetary or pecuniary units seems a difficult task but this should not result in disregard to their economic importance. Ecosystem goods and services are typically classified according to how they are used. The main framework used is the Total Economic Value (TEV) approach with components which generally include use value (direct use value; indirect use value; option value) and non-use value
iii) Limited capacity for assessing ecosystem benefits for human wellbeing
Human beings are fully dependent on ecosystem services such as the supportive services (nutrient cycling, soil maintenance, primary production), provisioning (food, fresh water, wood and fibre, fuel), regulating (climate regulation disease regulation, flood regulation, water purification), and cultural (aesthetics, spiritual educational, recreational) for their well being. Human well being in the context of ecosystem services is defined as a multivariate state comprising 5 dimensions, namely: basic material for a good life, health, security, good social relations, and freedom of choice and action (). The qualitative and situation dependent nature of the dimensions of human wellbeing present measurement challenges. Although many frameworks have been developed as indicators for the well being parameters (e.g. Human Development Index, Human Welfare Index, Subjective Wellbeing Index etc) they often use surrogates and correlates as indicators.
Ghana is reported to be on track in meeting the Millennium Development Goal of eradicating poverty – MDG 1, by 2015 having lifted over one million people out of poverty since 1992 while income poverty in the country also continues to fall from 52% in 1991 to about 28% in 2006 (2006 MDG Report-Ghana) . Such assessments however, fail to include how much natural capital has been depleted by the development progress made and its impact on the regulatory ecosystem services and biological diversity.
Required interventions for sustainable biodiversity conservation
a) Local participation in biodiversity conservation
Although the participatory approach such as Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) have been advocated in Ghana’s Forest and wildlife policy of 1994 and institutionalized in sector programmes and projects, genuine CBNRM has hardly been tried by public institutions in Ghana (World Bank, 2006). The implementation of Community Resource Management Area (CREMA) concept which is an off reserve participatory wildlife management strategy has been concentrated mainly on the buffer areas of wildlife reserves. This has been criticised as further ‘appropriation’ of land from local communities to secure wildlife reserves without corresponding benefits to local communities.
Evidence however, exist that given the chance CBNRM can work in Ghana as the health of sacred groves throughout the country amply demonstrates that communities can exercise control over access to the forest and also support conservation efforts (Campbell, 2005). Effective participation of local communities in biodiversity conservation can be achieved if local people derive adequate benefits from biological resources and their appreciation for the value of biodiversity deepened through effective communication of emerging knowledge and understanding of ecosystem services.
There are good examples which proved that with adequate capacity support and incentives such as revenue from ecotourism, local appreciation of benefits and conservation of biological resources would be greatly enhanced. The Amanzuri Wetlands and Nzulezu stilt village in the Western region, Afadjato-Agumatsa Community Nature Reserve in the Volta region and the Wechiau Hippo Sanctuary in the Upper West region are models of how local support has been effectively translated into biodiversity conservation through revenues from ecotourism. Boabeng-Fiema (in the Brong Ahafo region) and Tafi Atomey (in the Volta region) Monkey Sanctuaries demonstrate how revenue from ecotourism has helped to sustain socio-cultural bases for local appreciation and conservation of revered wildlife resources. Other examples are found at sites such as Agumatsa waterfalls, Kakum and Mole National Parks.
The above examples demonstrate that local appreciation of benefits of biological diversity should emerge from local people themselves with socio-cultural belief systems as core elements and must have tangible economic returns for local communities fringing resource areas. According to a BirdLife International report “Livelihoods and the Environment in Important Bird Areas”, the net cash received from the sale of NTFPs from the Palas Valley Important Bird Area (IBA) is greater than the cash received through the sale of timber royalties because the forest is harvested once in ten years while NTFPs are harvested annually.
b) Promotion of education and public awareness
Effective education and public awareness that aims at increasing appreciation and support for biodiversity conservation should target all stakeholders in biodiversity conservation. A comprehensive National Biodiversity Communication Strategy which takes into consideration specific threats, state, current responses and gaps to biodiversity conservation is needed for an impact. Such document should provide ecosystems and habitat specific messages with identified target audience to be shot these messages. The communication strategy document should be viewed as a working document to be improved and updated as experiences yield lessons about the appropriateness of a particular response to the issues of biodiversity conservation. Monitoring and evaluation should be an integral part of the National Biodiversity Communication Strategy in order to guide future analysis and review of the approaches.
It is important to situate the learning in the target audiences’ contexts for them to be able to make it meaningful to themselves (O’Donoghue & Lotz–Sisitka, 2006). In addition, providing “proximal experiences” in the environment can stimulate emotions and enhance feeling for biodiversity conservation.
It is often assumed that participatory practical training is only suitable for semi-literate village people, but because many highly formally educated people are much further disconnected from nature it is they who need to be “reconnected” by providing them with “in” nature experiences. It is very difficult to gain time from leaders, government executives, academics and politicians to travel to remote PAs but, once there, a well planned educational experience can heighten their feelings for species other than human and, given the right opportunities and links for deliberation, they can plan practical actions which they are competent to carry out in favour of nature. In such situations the local community, if supported to act as facilitators to the visitors, can gain confidence and respect for the value of their own knowledge as they realize that there are things that they know which are not known to highly educated people. Also, higher levels of governance and academia gain increased respect for indigenous knowledge sources and more equal partnerships towards appreciation for biodiversity are fostered.
A communication strategy is required to serve as a guide for an effective biodiversity conservation education in Ghana. This strategy should clearly define the goal, objectives, messages and targets. The goal should articulate the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services for human wellbeing through public education and awareness programmes for the purpose of achieving change in attitudes and promoting, perceptions and behaviours in favour of biodiversity conservation in Ghana.
Three main objectives for education and public awareness on biodiversity conservation in Ghana are:
I. Widening the support base by increasing national appreciation of the importance of biological resources and ecosystem services.
II. Improving knowledge sharing amongst those who have diverse skills and experiences with an emphasis on knowledge sharing among fringe communities, the scientist and policy makers.
III. Increasing communication, education, and advocacy competence amongst stakeholders.
The messages for biodiversity conservation education should focus on the following:
a. Increasing awareness of the socio-economic and ecological value of biological resources to people’s livelihoods.
b. Raising public awareness of the threats to biodiversity resources and the implications of biodiversity loss for human existence.
c. Deepening understanding of the international conventions and national laws and policies that promote the conservation of biodiversity.
d. Strengthening the understanding of both scientific and traditional knowledge on biodiversity and habitat conservation.
Communication approaches that aim to influence target audience towards effective conservation of biodiversity should endeavour to cover all stakeholders involved in the issues that lead to the use and appreciation of the value of biological resources. The identified stakeholders include Local Communities, Traditional Authorities, Research and Academic Institutions, Formal Primary, Junior High and Senior High Schools, Politicians, the Public, Private Sector, Local Government Authorities, Ministries, Departments and Agencies, Protected Area Authorities, Non Governmental Organizations and Civil Society Organizations, the Media, Multilateral Agencies and Convention Secretariats. A communication strategy should essentially target these stakeholders (Dugan, 1990).
As the general public is not aware of the values of biodiversity, conservation efforts should focus on educating the general public on the socio-economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity. Conservation organizations need to work with the media, the public, schools and colleges in order to build nationwide awareness of the importance of the country’s biodiversity resources and the problems faced in biodiversity conservation.
Local support is a prerequisite for effective conservation action. The education programmes should therefore not benefit only the communities that depend directly on biological resources but they must have a long term perspective and evolve with the conservation efforts as they progress. Education efforts with a focus on resource users should build on the understanding which they already have about biodiversity. They must be helped to recognize the effects of severe poverty and to communicate to them clearly how biodiversity conservation will help improve their capacity to meet their daily needs.
The decision makers are the most important audience. They include political and administrative decision makers who influence the use of biodiversity. Most policy makers are receptive to well-balanced conservation arguments relevant to their particular situation when these are reinforced by economic advantages. They are most likely to be influenced by arguments which demonstrate the social and economic values of biodiversity conservation. The valuation of biodiversity for this purpose should seek not only to quantify the worth of the resources and the number of people dependent on them, but also the contribution that biodiversity can make to the national economy by providing employment and in supporting rural development.
c) Improving the capacity for economic valuation of biodiversity
The disregard of the value of biodiversity and ecosystem services in Ghana has militated against biodiversity conservation and rather promoted the economic activities that destroy biological resources. There is currently a growing interest in assessing both the consumptive and non-consumptive uses of biodiversity including ecosystems. For instance, Nanang and Owusu (2009) have used the Travel Cost Method to estimate the recreational benefits of Kakum National Park at between US$ 1.12 billion and US$1.63 billion per year. The study concentrated mainly on the canopy walkway and did not include other non-consumptive use values. This suggests a higher economic value for the total value of the Park. The growing appreciation for indirect use value of biodiversity and ecosystems such as water filtration by wetlands, storm protection by coastal mangrove forests and carbon sequestration of forests, is yet to be translated into the process of assessing the economic values of these benefits. Little attention is currently given to non-consumptive use values such as the existence value of biodiversity in Ghana.
The low attention given to the valuation of ecosystem services is not due to lack of expertise in this field as there are many world class economic institutions in the country and a variety of valuation techniques (direct approach and indirect approach) for assessing the value of ecosystems are available and widely used in many developing countries (see appendix 1). Among the commonly used direct approach to assess ecosystem services is the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM), a technique that is used by asking people how much they are willing to pay for a resource. Despite CVM’s shortcomings, including problems of designing, implementing and interpreting questionnaires, the results of the various applications within Africa and in other developing countries elsewhere suggest that it is possible to do a contingent valuation survey among the poor, illiterate population and obtain reasonable and consistent answers. This can be a way of integrating the values of the poor and marginalized in the decision-making process. CVM has also proved to be an appropriate technique that could be applied to common property resources with ecological or other characteristics (Borgoyary, 2002).
The current paucity in assessing the value of ecosystem services in Ghana can be attributed to the slow pace of integrated approach to biodiversity conservation. There is a need for a better integrated accounting of the benefits and cost of biodiversity conservation. This will only occur when teams of natural and social scientist work together. Such integrated approach is currently providing new insights for a range of biophysical and social systems for a better understanding of the relationship between humans and ecosystems.
Furthermore, the pursuit of economic development, sustainable rural livelihoods and poverty reduction in Ghana largely depend on biological resources. About 50% of Ghana’s GDP is derived from sectors closely related to natural resources. Ghana’s economic policy and poverty reduction strategies have, therefore, over the years, favoured landscape conversion and unsustainable resource exploitation rates (with its negative impacts to biodiversity) which often yield immediate, tangible economic rewards. The tangible economic benefits have led many economists and policy makers to support economic activities that destroy biological resources. There is therefore the need to equip environmental advocates, government and civil society with sound ecosystem valuation results in order to diffuse the biased mental model toward economic development to the detriment of biodiversity and degradation of ecosystem services.
Generating a sound valuation of ecosystem services is greatly hindered by the general data gaps and information on genetic diversity of various life forms with the marine and aquatic ecosystems being the more profound in these gaps in Ghana. Bridging these gaps will require a well coordinated interdisciplinary research programme that aims to fill the current data deficiency and enhance data availability for valuation of ecosystem services.
d) Promotion of research and capacity building for the assessment of ecosystem benefits for human wellbeing
The growth in human populations, economic development and poverty reduction programmes translates into increased conversion of natural ecosystems to agricultural, industrial, or residential estate use. This growth also leads to increased demand for ecosystem inputs, such as fresh water, fibre, and soil fertility, as well as increased pressure on the capacity of natural ecosystems to assimilate our waste, including air and water pollution as well as solid waste. It is rare to find a linear causal path from changes in biodiversity, ecosystem processes, ecosystem services and human wellbeing as these interactions are generally complex, contested and incompletely understood. In addition, making the trade-off between the provisioning services that enhances human wellbeing but decreases regulating services, cultural services and biodiversity remain a challenge in assessing ecosystem services.
The environmental accounting analyses estimate that the current genuine savings rate, which is a measure of economic growth that takes environmental factors into account for Ghana, is in fact negative (World Bank, 2006a). The World Bank (2006a) estimates the mean annual cost of environmental degradation as nearly US $850 million (10.0% of GDP). The degradation of agricultural soils, forests and savanna woodlands, coastal fisheries, wildlife resources, and Lake Volta’s environment was estimated to be US$520 million annually (6.0% of Ghana’s annual GDP) and health costs account for nearly US $330 million (3.8% of GDP) and are related to water and air pollution. Health-related pollution issues have serious implications for the wellbeing of the majority of the population and in the long run may affect their contribution to economic growth.
In view of the fact that human well being is related largely to economic growth, current research and capacity needs of ecosystem services for human wellbeing in Ghana should focus on, as a starting point, sound valuation of nonmarket valued ecosystem services for key ecosystems and habitats in the country. This will provide the basis for setting up controls for ecosystem services themselves by addressing the effects of multiple drivers, structural factors including biodiversity and human feedbacks. Such research would directly address needs for information about how drivers and management interventions change ecosystem services. Research will help to evaluate not only the effects on human well-beings, but also the role of biodiversity in modifying the effects of drivers on ecosystem services. These effects are essential for understanding changes in ecosystem services and projecting the consequences of policies intended to improve human wellbeing.
e) Improving Agriculture
Farming is the primary occupation of majority of rural people who live close to biodiversity resources. In order to reduce the pressure on biodiversity it is important to adopt appropriate and sustainable farming methods that will prevent a decline in soil fertility and agricultural productivity. Soil degradation is the main cause of the rapid expansion of farmlands into fertile forest areas. There is the need to provide agricultural storage and processing facilities to ensure value addition. Intensive agriculture has to be promoted as against extensive farming practices, with emphasis on the use of high yielding varieties of food crops. The road network has to be improved to increase access to markets in the urban centres. Addressing problems associated with agricultural production, processing and marketing will ensure that farmers derive adequate income which may dissuade them from depending directly on biodiversity resources, including forest products, for supplementary income (Ghana Wildlife Society, 2006).
f) Promoting sustainable supply and use of wood fuel
It is expected that as people’s incomes improve they will shift to clean energy source such as gas. However, given the economic conditions in Ghana it is predicted that most rural and urban poor will continue to use woodfuel for many years. In the light of this reality, it is necessary to promote sustainable supply of woodfuel e.g. by establishing woodlots which will help tremendously to reduce pressure on natural forests (GEF/ SGP-Ghana). Energy efficient technologies (stoves) have to be introduced to households, commercial and industrial users of woodfuel to minimize the rate of tree harvesting.
Conclusions and key recommendations
The efforts by the Government of Ghana to promote sustainable utilization of biological resources have not had a significant impact on stemming the rapid rate at their depletion primarily as a result of very low public appreciation of the social, cultural, economic and ecological benefits that biodiversity provides. Although attempts are being made across the country through different projects to encourage local community participation in conservation, the negative perception and attitude of local people towards biodiversity have not changed much due to the limited understanding and knowledge of the importance of biodiversity. The intricate linkages between human well-being and biological resources have not been adequately established and effectively communicated to the general public to inform changes in behaviours. The situation is exacerbated by the limited capacity in the country for the economic valuation of ecosystem services to serve as basis for educating the public on the value of biodiversity. These are key issues that should be taken on board in the process of reviewing the existing National Biodiversity Strategy for Ghana
In the light of the above, it is recommended that:
• A national biodiversity conservation education strategic framework should be developed to create awareness about the social, cultural, economic and ecological benefits of biodiversity with the view of eliciting public support and co-operation in the conservation of biological resources.
• Biodiversity should be incorporated into the school curriculum at the primary, junior high and senior high levels of the formal educational system to ensure early exposure to the values of and threats to biological resources.
• Traditional knowledge on biodiversity and conservation practices should be properly documented and promoted to enhance local people’s appreciation of biodiversity. Unfortunately, totemic species, natural and cultural heritages which used to be protected strictly by traditional beliefs, norms, systems and technologies have come under siege from human activities with the advent of modernism. There is therefore the need to recognize and mainstream byelaws that conserve traditionally protected areas (sacred groves). This will require the development and strengthening of participatory institutional structures at the community level such as the Community Resource Management Areas (CREMA) being advocated and promoted by the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission.
• Local communities that depend directly on biodiversity resources should be supported to develop market-driven income generation schemes as alternatives to damaging land-use practices. These may include eco-tourism, agro-processing, honey production, and processing and packaging of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as herbal medicines and spices. Although it is important to help communities understand and appreciate the values of biodiversity and to involve them in making decisions about conservation, these are not sufficient in themselves to guarantee sustainable biodiversity utilization. Promoting sustainable livelihood activities is therefore one of the practical ways through which the value of biodiversity can be demonstrated to resource-dependent communities.
• Income and other benefits that are provided by biodiversity resources should be shared among all stakeholders equitably. This is critical because any group of stakeholders that is not fairly treated in the sharing of benefits will not be supportive of any conservation initiatives. For example, the issue of sharing water resources is emerging as a major source of conflict between communities and even countries.
• The capacity for economic valuation of ecosystem benefits should be strengthened. Environmental Economics should be taught at the nation’s universities as part of environmental and conservation related courses. Most biodiversity resources and environmental services are public goods that are freely available and are often undervalued. However, while economic valuation can be highly uncertain, putting a price on an otherwise priceless good is necessary for communities to start appreciating its value by further illustrating the benefits of conservation.
• The research capacity of all environmental management institutions should be developed to enable them carry out effective assessment of ecosystem services for human wellbeing in Ghana. This will provide the basis for setting up controls for ecosystem services themselves by addressing the effects of multiple drivers, structural factors including biodiversity and human feedbacks. Research is essential for understanding changes in ecosystem services and projecting the consequences of policies intended to improve human wellbeing.
References
Chapter Nine
POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK
Introduction
International agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the Convention on Wetlands of International importance as waterfowl habitats (Ramsar Convention), seek to promote the concept of sustainable use and conservation of biological resources.
Ghana has subscribed to all the seven (7) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of the United Nations. The 7th MDG entreats member states to “Ensure Environmental Sustainability” by integrating sustainable development principles into the country’s policies and programmes and to reverse loss of environmental resources. This commitment has direct bearing on sustainable use and conservation of biological resources.
CBD/COP Decision VI/26 reaffirmed the commitment of the CBD parties to the Convention “to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national levels as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”. Furthermore the 2005 World Summit entreated CBD parties to establish their own national targets and goal within the framework provided by CBD/COP Decision VII/30. Ghana was therefore required to review her 2002 NBSAP to reflect the framework of indicators and targets for assessment of progress towards the achievement of the 2010 Biodiversity Targets.
CBD recognizes the fact that, to translate the respective National Biodiversity Strategies into practical terms, the appropriate policy and legal frameworks must be put in place to provide the enabling environment for the sustainable use and conservation of the biological resources. Article 6 (b) of CBD entreats member states to take steps to ensure the integration of biodiversity considerations into relevant sectoral and national development plans. Ghana is therefore under an obligation to abide by this requirement of the Convention because she ratified CBD in August, 1994. The tenets of the Convention should be adequately integrated into Ghana’s biodiversity policy and legislative framework as a matter of urgency. This urgency is applicable to the domestication of other international agreements that are relevant to biological diversity. It is therefore absolutely imperative that a comprehensive policy and legal framework on biodiversity is developed for the implementation of these international conventions and agreements in the country. The policies and operational plans of the relevant institutions in Ghana have already been reviewed to ensure that they appropriately reflect the provisions of the Convention. They should now be backed by the necessary policy and legal framework to facilitate their effective implementation. .
Development of Ghana’s Biodiversity Policy and Legal Framework
Ghana currently has some relatively comprehensive sectoral policy and legal frameworks for sustainable management of land and other environmental resources (Birikorang, 2003) but these do not contribute significantly to sustainable use and conservation of biological diversity in the country. According to the World Bank Country Environment Report of 2006, the principles of sustainable use and good management of environmental resources, sustainable use of land, and restoration of the productive capacity of degraded resources are captured in most of the sectoral policies and action plans, including Ghana’s Environmental Policy, the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), the Soil Fertility Management Plan, the Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Development Strategy (AAGDS), and the recently formulated National Wildfire Policy and Water Policy. It also includes the Sustainable Land Use Management (SLUM) programme of the three northern regions and the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP).
The National Land Policy is recognized as a key policy framework which addresses land sector issues in Ghana. This policy aims at the judicious use of the nation’s land and other natural resources in support of the various socio-economic activities, and endorses the principle of sustainable resource management. Specifically, the Land Policy provides the framework for dealing with the issues of land ownership, security of tenure, land use and conservation of natural resources on a sustainable basis. The National Action Programme to Combat Drought and Desertification (NAP) provides a long-term strategy to address land degradation in affected areas of Ghana.
The over-dependence of industry and rural communities on biological resources necessitates appropriate regulatory interventions. To accomplish this objective it is imperative that an appropriate, comprehensive policy and legal framework is put in place and enforced to ensure the sustainable use and conservation of the biological resources of the country. Some of the components of the requisite comprehensive policy and legal framework are already available. For example Ghana’s 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy aims at the “conservation and sustainable development of the nation’s forest and wildlife resources for the maintenance of environmental quality and perpetual flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society” This policy is being implemented through the Forestry Sector Master Development Plan for the period 1996-2020. The appropriate legal instruments for the transformation of that policy into actions include the Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1971 (Act 685); the Wildlife Reserves Regulations of 1971 (L.I. 710), the Forest Protection Law (PNDC Law 142 of 1986), the Timber Resources Management Act, 1997 (Act 547) the Timber Resources Management Regulations, 1998 (L.I. 1649), the Forestry Commission Act, 1999 (Act 571) established in accordance with Article 269 (1) of the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana. Other sectoral policies and legal instruments are contributing to the protection of environmental resources but they are not enhancing sustainable use and conservation of the biological resources of this country. They include the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), the Land Policy, the Land Planning and Soil Conservation Act of 1957, and the Town and Country Planning Ordinance of 1945. Some others, such as the Minerals and Mining Law of 1986, contradict and undermine the sustainable use and conservation of biological resources.
The implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) developed by Ghana in 2002 was constrained by lack of effective coordination of the activities of the policy-making and the policy-implementing institutions.. The poor coordination has resulted in the significant loss of biological resources. . A report from a study has emphasized the need to integrate the legal and policy bases into the review of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of 2002. Specifically, the report has recommended that attention should be paid to the following:
1. Review the basis for integration of biodiversity issues into policies, programmes and plans of all sectors of the Ghanaian economy;
2. Assess the viability of biodiversity centre to promote biodiversity integration and reporting in national and international arenas;
3. Develop capacity needs for biodiversity integration in all sectors of the Ghanaian economy.
Institutional Coordination
Ghana’s economy is largely dependent on the exploitation of biological resources for the production of goods and services. About 70% of the country’s population, particularly the poor people in the rural communities, depend largely on biological resources for their livelihood and health needs (Birikorang, 2003). These resources also constitute the raw material base of several industries that produce food, clothing, shelter and pharmaceuticals. The loss of biological resources implies the removal of livelihood options and disappearance of health products for many people in Ghana. Currently there is no effective institutional coordination in policy implementation with a focus on the use of the biological resources of this country. There is an urgent need to put in place an institutional coordination mechanism that is capable of reconciling the resource base with the needs of the various stakeholders. Such a coordination mechanism will also help the various institutions that are responsible for the development and implementation of sectoral policies, programmes and plans to incorporate the sustainable use and conservation of biological resources into their operational plans.
Challenges
The implementation of the international agreements and national policies poses a challenge to Ghana. Sectoral interests override f the holistic approach to biodiversity conservation in Ghana. Although the principles of sustainable use and conservation of natural resources and the protection of the environment are upheld by these policies, most of them are not adhered to. This situation constitutes a major obstacle to the implementation of the 2002 NBSAP as enshrined in CBDCOP 8 Decision VIII/8 . The situation is attributable to a lack of both a viable institutional framework and political will as evidenced by inadequate budgetary allocation. . The delay in the establishment of the National Biodiversity Commission by the Government, as stipulated in the 2002 NBSAP, has contributed to the protracted development of the biodiversity institutional framework.
Inadequate political will
Currently, the National Biodiversity Committee which oversees the implementation of the NBSAP, has no legal basis . It has no specific budgetary allocation. It is therefore unable to take the required actions stipulated in the Strategy document. The Committee is unable to perform its functions fully and promptly . The poor budgetary allocation to the National Biodiversity Committee is largely attributed to the inadequate political support for the implementation of the 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy.
Policy failure and contradictions
No Ghanaian statutory organization is at the moment responsible for collation of information on biodiversity, monitoring, evaluation and reporting in the national and international arenas. The weaknesses in policies and the contractions as well as the failures need urgent remedial attention of relevant policy-makers and policy-implementers. For example, the policy on mining in forest reserves contravenes various national policies on sustainable use of natural resources as reported by the World Bank (2006). A section of the World Bank Country Environmental Report of 2006 is reproduced in Box……
In view of this there are no efforts to promote the regular review and appropriate integration of biodiversity considerations as they relate to these policies and international agreements in a coordinated manner. This has manifested in policy contradictions in the implementation of some of the national development programmes and plans.
Box 9.1………. An extract from World Bank Country Environmental Report of 2006
There has been significant debate on the issue of mining within forest reserves. Mining in forest reserves contravenes various national policies and the principles underlining the initial establishment of forest reserves in Ghana as protection reserves:
Section 4.4 Sub-section (b) of the National Land Policy 1999 states “All lands declared as forest reserves, strict nature reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and similar land categories constitute Ghana’s permanent forest and wildlife estates, and are “fully protected” for ecosystem maintenance, biodiversity conservation and sustainable timber production”.
Sub-section 4.5 (a) of the policy further states that “To ensure the conservation of environmental quality, no land with a primary forest cover will be cleared for the purpose of establishing a forest or tree crop plantation or mining activity.
The 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy states as its primary aim the ‘conservation and sustainable development of the nation’s forest and wildlife resources for the maintenance of environmental quality and perpetual flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society’.
There remains, however, significant concern that new mining will be allowed within forest reserves. In 1996, a ban was placed on mining in forest reserves. This was lifted in September 1997 because of the amounts invested by firms up to that point; 27 mining companies were subsequently granted rights to continue operations within forest reserves.
This situation still prevails with more forests being subjected to mining activities because the various institutions that are responsible for the implementation of these sectoral policies and plans have failed to pay due attention to the CBD provisions for sustainable use and conservation of biological resources in Ghana., There is an urgent need for a central institutional coordination arrangement with the appropriate expertise, policy and legal framework to ensure that considerations on sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity are not only appropriately reflected in sectoral policies but the necessary steps are taken to translate them into practical implementation. It is recommended that an institution such as the Biodiversity Centre be established within the proposed National Biodiversity Commission.
Capacity for Integration of Biodiversity Issues into all sectors of the Ghana economy
There is the need for an appropriate capacity building programme and establishment of the relevant institutional framework in order to integrate biodiversity issues into all sectors of the Ghanaian economy.
The following capacity needs have been identified:
1. Institutional arrangements to support effective and efficient cross-sectoral coordination of policies and regulations, particularly to strengthen controls and protection mechanisms in the sectoral plans and programmes related to biodiversity issues. This will ensure the elimination of the contraventions and contradictions in the implementation of sectoral policies and programmes and also enhance their appropriate harmonization. This should be established by the cabinet and at a level similar to the Natural Resource and Environmental Advisory Council. In this case The establishment of the National Biodiversity Commission in accordance with Article 269 of the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana should be highly appreciated .
2. Innovative conservation enterprises which are environmental friendly and capable of supporting the livelihoods of the local communities and reducing pressure on the natural ecosystems.
3. Innovative financing mechanisms such as payment for ecosystem services, and establishment of carbon markets;
4. Capacity for economic valuation of ecosystem products and services (resource economists);
5. Capacity for promoting the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems;
6. Establishment of a mechanism for ensuring equity and appropriate benefit sharing
7. Capacity for incorporating traditional conservation practices into conventional management approaches. This should include the capacity to develop and implement a separate National Strategy for the Management of Traditional Conservation Areas.
8. Capacity for promoting the concept of sustainable use of biological resources based on scientific recommendation;
9. Capacity for establishing and maintaining an integrated regional and national sustainable use and conservation planning system based on the ecosystem approach.
10. Capacity for effective and efficient monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity use and conservation activities and their impact.
References
Chapter Ten
THE WAY FORWARD
It has become obvious that with the shifting of the international focus on biodiversity strategy to the 2011-2020 UN Decade on Biodiversity, the strategy in Ghana must also automatically be shifted. It is considered that this period presents the best opportunity as a nation to put together thoughts and ideas to save, protect, sustainably utilize biodiversity and equitably share the benefits that accrue from the use of the nation’s natural biological heritage.
The lack of implementation of the previous national biodiversity strategy because of ineffective coordination of the policy-making and the policy-implementing institutions is well known. This constraint resulted in conflicts and unnecessary duplication of some efforts. It is also a well known fact that the implementation of several national development strategies including the MDGs, the GPRS I, GPRS II and other sectoral programmes were undertaken with little or no reference to the existing biodiversity strategy of 2000. Additionally many implementation schedules which were meant to reduce poverty among the rural poor, rather aggravated their predicament because they caused the loss of some important and dependable biological resources and ecosystem services through the degradation of their forests, lands and water bodies.
A report which was developed to facilitate a review of the current National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan provided the legal, policy, scientific, social (traditional knowledge), economic and environmental bases for the integration of biodiversity considerations into all sectoral and national programmes, plans and projects. From this report, the bases and need for the integration of biodiversity and ecosystem services issues into policies, programmes and plans of all sectors of the Ghanaian economy have been outlined. It has been concluded from this exercise that biodiversity is a very complex enterprise, providing mankind with insurance for existence and that from both developmental and environmental perspectives, biodiversity encompasses all the pillars of sustainable development for human well-being.
Some of the difficulties in integrating biodiversity issues into policies, programmes and plans have been attributed to lack of institutional coordination, inappropriate policy framework and conflicting sectoral priorities towards the environment and biodiversity-related conventions which Ghana has signed and ratified. The approach needed now is to integrate and mainstream biodiversity into all policies, programmes and projects for development.
It is a well known fact that Ghana’s economy is largely dependent on the exploitation of both the non-renewable and renewable resources (the biological resources for goods and services). Many of these resources, especially the renewable ones also constitute the raw material base for several industries such as food, clothing, shelter and pharmaceuticals. For these resources. An effective policy to regulate and an institutional coordination mechanism to reconcile the resource base with the needs of the various stakeholders should therefore be established.
In order to support the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity in Ghana, and to promote equity in the sharing of benefits from the use of genetic resources because of the over-dependence of industry and rural communities on the biological resources, the appropriate regulatory framework should be in place.
This reinforces the recognition that the CBD should have in the translation of national biodiversity strategies into practical terms by putting in place the appropriate legal and policy frameworks to provide the enabling environment. This is in line with the provisions of Article 6 of the CBD is concerned with the development of National Strategies and Action Plans (Article 6a) and the integration of these strategies and plans into existing sectoral plans (Article 6b) such as the Environmental Action Plans, Forestry Action Plans, Water Resources Action Plans, Fisheries Action Plans. To ensure sustainability, in particular through grass-root participation in decision-making processes, implementation of decisions and actions are critical. While these are being done, the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders must be properly defined. Also the framework for management processes and legal mechanism for conflict resolution must be provided and clearly spelt out
Reference to Article 11 of CBD can be made, which enjoins ‘each Contracting Party, as far as possible, to adopt appropriate, economically and socially sound measures that act as incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity’. This requires the ability of the Contracting Party to identify the correct measures to induce stakeholders of biological resources to change their attitudes and rather support the objectives of the NBSAP. The measures which are capable of supporting positive behavioural change could be socio-cultural, economic, legal or institutional. From an economics perspective, one might view an incentive as an influence on the profit-maximization of a stakeholder. From a sociological perspective, incentives might be social constraint on practices ehavior (e.g. those resulting from cultural or traditional institutions). In either case, the interest will be to determine which set of incentives provides the most effective results with least negative impacts on biodiversity. This exercise definitely calls for risk analysis.
It is believed and understood that the challenges of time frames, budget allocations, available human resources and the administration and political realities of the country which have previously characterised the slowing down of many important programmes, will have no effect on the implementation of this strategy and action plan. The belief stems from the knowledge that all sectors of the Ghanaian economy will be sensitized.
The provision of cost estimates for each action in the matrix is useful as it indicates in advance the implications associated with implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity at the national level. The central government (including the Ministries, Departments and Agencies) in consultations with the donor community, the private sector and other interested parties are all required to make plans to fund the activities.
References
-----------------------
[1] http;//en.wiki/biodiversity
................
................
In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.
To fulfill the demand for quickly locating and searching documents.
It is intelligent file search solution for home and business.