1 - Theses
UNIVERZITA PALACKÉHO V OLOMOUCI
Pedagogická fakulta
Katedra anglického jazyka
BOHUSLAVA POLÁCHOVÁ
IV. ročník – prezenční studium
Obor: anglický jazyk – německý jazyk
APPLICATION OF THE TOPIC “THE NAVAHO” TO ENGLISH CLASSES
Diplomová práce
Vedoucí práce: Alexandra Hubáčková, M.A., Ph.D.
OLOMOUC 2010
PROHLÁŠENÍ
Prohlašuji, že jsem diplomovou práci vypracovala samostatně a použila jen uvedených pramenů a literatury.
V Olomouci dne 12. 4. 2010
…………………………………………………
vlastnoruční podpis
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank my supervisor, Alexandra Hubáčková M.A., Ph.D., for her kind and helpful assistance and for all provided materials.
CONTENT
ABSTRACT 6
1 INTRODUCTION 7
2 HISTORY 9
2.1 Origin of the Navaho 9
2.2 Spanish period 9
2.3 Mexican-American period (till Treaty of 1868) 11
2.4 Development after Fort Sumner 13
2.5 The Navaho-Hopi Land Dispute 14
2.5.1 The 1882 Reservation 14
2.5.2 Livestock Reduction and New Resources on the Reservation 16
2.5.3 Jones vs. Healing 17
2.5.4 Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act 19
2.5.5 “Bennett Freeze” Repealed 21
3 CREATION 23
3.1 The First World 23
3.2 The Second World 24
3.3 The Third World 24
3.4 The Fourth World 25
3.4.1 First Man and First Woman 26
3.4.2 Separation of Sexes 28
3.4.3 The Coyote and the Water Monster 29
3.5 The Fifth World 30
3.5.1 First Death and Corn in the Fifth World 31
3.5.2 Creation of the Sun, Moon and Stars 32
3.5.3 Birth of Monsters 33
3.5.4 Monster Slayers 34
3.5.5 “Earth Surface People” 35
3.5.6 Clans 36
3.6 Navaho Pantheon 37
3.6.1 Changing Woman 38
4 SACREDNESS 40
4.1 Sacred Mountains 40
4.2 Earth and Sun 42
5 HOGAN 44
5.1 The First Hogan 44
5.2 Building of the Hogan 45
5.3 Inside the Hogan 47
6 INTRODUCTION TO THE PRACTICAL PART 49
7 LESSON PLANS 51
8 CONCLUSION 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY 77
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDICES
RÉSUMÉ
ANOTACE
ABSTRACT
Although the American history is taught in schools the issue of Native Americans is very often omitted and there is only little knowledge of this among pupils. This paper focuses on one of the tribes, the Navaho tribe. It presents the Navaho history and Creation and moreover some stories which are a part of the Creation Myth. Several possibilities of using the acquired information about the Navaho tribe in English classes are introduced. The topic of Native Americans appears to be very motivational by itself and that is why it could also be great means of learning English.
1. INTRODUCTION
This diploma thesis comments on the life and culture of a North American Indian tribe called the Navaho. The first impulse which aroused my interest in this topic was a lesson at University in which I learnt a little about the Native Americans. And thus, when few weeks later I came across autobiographical essays of an Indian author I did not hesitate to read them. But what I did not expect was that reading them would make me so shocked. It was not only because what I had learnt but also because I realized that I have studied English for such a long time and through the years I have read many times about the American history but I have never learnt or thought about the indigenous people in the way described in the essays. I have never thought about what happened with the people who had lived in America before it was discovered by Columbus. I have never realized how much life of the natives was influenced by arrival of the whites. I knew immediately that I do want to know more about the natives. And since the Navaho Nation is the largest Native American tribe I devoted my thesis just to it.
In the first part of my diploma project I deal with history of the Navaho tribe since its arrival into the southwest, or rather since the first encounter with Spaniards. But knowing only the history of the tribe is not enough to understand Navaho attitudes to life and world. That is why I also handle the story of the Navaho Creation and several stories connected with it. The stories are an essential part of Navaho everyday life and explain a lot of Navaho doing and their view of life as well. Through knowing the stories we can better understand the Navaho world.
In the practical part of my thesis I decided to demonstrate some possibilities of use of this topic in English lessons. The first thing which led me to deal with application of the topic into practice was my realization of its absolute omission from classes. The second impulse was my surrounding. When I started writing my thesis my whole family and all my friends asked me why I have chosen to write about the Navahos. Most of the people told me it is “an awkward topic which I can use neither at school nor anywhere else.” Nobody believed me when I said I can use it. And at that time I decided to persuade them that it is possible and that lessons devoted to this topic can be even more interesting and more beneficial to the pupils than following topics in textbooks.
I try to show that it is possible to use the topic “the Navaho” not only in lessons focused on history or cultural studies but also in ordinary English lessons. I want to prove that it is realistic to teach both grammar and vocabulary through this topic. I focus on development of all basic language skills, pupils´ creativity and imagination as well.
In addition, the practical part includes my reflection on lessons which I realized during my teaching practice at lower secondary school.
2. HISTORY
1. Origin of the Navaho
The name “Navaho” is not of Navaho origin. The Navahos call themselves in their own language “Diné” which could be translated as “The People”. The name “Navaho” comes from Spanish (originally “Navajo”), but there are speculations about the real origin (Kluckhohn and Leighton 23–24).
There are evidences that the Navahos came to the American southwest from the north, there are, however, no evidences proving the date of their arrival. Their appearance in the southwest “cannot be dated with any accuracy prior to A.D. 1500” (Ancestral Art). As Kluckhohn and Leighton mention, the earliest Navaho hogan found in New Mexico has been dated into the year 1540 (34). At the time of their arrival into the southwest the Navahos were hunters and it was the Pueblos who taught them to plant corn and take care of fields (Weiser, The Navajo Nation – Largest in the U.S.).
Since then the Navaho land (also called Diné Bikéyah) expanded into the states of Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico and covers the area as large as 27,000 square miles. Nowadays, the Navaho Nation numbers more than 250,000 members (The Navajo Nation, 2005).
2. Spanish period
“The first Europeans the Navajos encountered were Spaniards” (Austin 16). Kluckhohn and Leighton claim that as the first written mention of the Navahos the report of a Franciscan missionary from the year 1626 can be considered (35). However, according to Rieupeyrout, the first Spanish colonizers came to New Mexico as early as in 1540 (30). During the 16th century there were several attempts to conquer the New Mexico territory, to subdue and Christianize native tribes. In comparison with colonization in other parts of America most of the efforts in New Mexico were unsuccessful (35).
In 1598, a new colonizer, Don Juan de Oňate, came into the country. On 30th April, Oñate claimed possession over New Mexico in the name of Spanish King Felipe II: “In the name of the most Holy Trinity…I wish to take possession of the land today… in the voice and name of the most Christian King, our lord, don Felipe, the Second of this name…and for the crown of Castile…I take and seize one, two, and three times…the Royal tenancy and possession…at this aforesaid River of the North, without excepting anything and without limitation, with the meadows, glens, and their pastures and watering places…towns, cities, villas, castles, and strong houses and dwellings… the leaf on the mountain to the rock in the river and sands of it, and from the rock and sands of the river to the leaf on the mountain ” (Historical Text Archive).
Thus, when the Acoma pueblo “refused allegiance” Oňate commanded to subdue it immediately and he succeeded (Waters 29).
Not sooner than at the beginning of the 17th century the Navahos intervened. It was not only because the trade with the Pueblo tribe was endangered, but also because they were allured by the wealth of the Spaniards. The Navahos raided the Spanish colony continuously, they stole sheep, goats and also horses from them (Rieupeyrout 40). Horses enabled the Navahos to move fast and widely which made both the trade and warfare easier (Kluckhohn and Leighton 37).
During the 17th century the oppression of Native Americans (especially the Pueblo tribes) on the part of the Spaniards increased and so did the Indian resistance. This led to the Pueblo Rebellion in 1680 (Waters 29-30). Kluckhohn and Leighton assert that after this rebellion many Pueblo Indians sought refuge among Navahos. Just during this period “major alternations in the Navaho way of living occurred” (37). The Pueblos who learnt a lot from Spaniards taught the Navahos new methods of building houses, improved farming methods, to weave wool which sheep provided and the Navahos even adopted some of Pueblo beliefs (Rieupeyrout 56).
In the 18th century, attacks both on Spanish and Navaho part intensified. In 1805, the Spaniards, headed by Lt. Antonio Narbona, massacred over a hundred of the Navahos in Canyon del Muerto (Hartshorne).
3. Mexican-American period (till Treaty of 1868)
Between the years 1821 and 1846, New Mexico was governed by newly independent Mexico. At that time Mexican government was not strong enough to stop Navaho raids. The Navahos stole livestock, crops and even took captives. In 1846, at the beginning of the Mexican-American War, General Kearny invaded New Mexico. When the Americans came to the Southwest Kearny promised to take the raids under control: “The Apaches and the Navajos come down from the mountains and carry off your sheep and your women whenever they please. My government will correct all this” (National Park Service).
According to the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo 1848 which officially ended the Mexican-American war, Mexico had to cede New Mexico to the United States (The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco).
But the Navaho raids continued even when the area was ruled by Americans. Several treaties between the Americans and the Navahos were signed, nevertheless, to none of them was adhered. Mostly it was because of misunderstandings often caused by different social organization of both sides (Rieupeyrout 82-113).
The first military post within the Navaho territory, called Fort Defiance, was founded by Colonel Sumner to control the Navahos. Despite this, their attacks on settlements continued and later they raided even the fort itself.
Weiser mentions that in June 1863, the U.S. government ordered to Colonel Kit Carson to remove the Navahos from their land and devastate their houses, crops and livestock (Fort Defiance – Watching the Navajo). The plan was to make them farmers staying just at one place and to stop the raids on the settlements (Benedek 22). At the beginning of the year 1864, the Navahos, facing starvation, finally surrendered at Fort Defiance. On March 6, 1864, the “Long Walk”, as the Navahos call it, began. 2,400 Navahos were forced to trudge about 300 miles to Fort Sumner at Bosque Redondo [see appendix 1.1]. Gradually, over 8,000 Navahos were imprisoned there (Waters 69). Kluckhohn and Leighton explain that it was “a major calamity to The People” (41). The Navahos, people who were used to move without limitation and for whom their land has been sacred, were dying at Fort Sumner from illness and starvation. Waters asserts that only 7,200 Navahos returned from Bosque Redondo (70, 71).
In the summer of 1868, “Treaty between the United States of America and the Navajo Tribe of Indians” was reached. The Treaty stated that the warfare between the Navahos and the government shall stop. The Navaho tribe was given a piece of land where any unauthorized person should not be allowed to pass over or settle in. The Navahos, however, could not settle outside this area (New Mexico State University). The Navaho reservation set by the Treaty of 1868 extended across today’s Arizona and New Mexico border, reaching to Canyon de Chelly in the west. Since then the reservation gradually expanded (The Navajo Nation, 2007) [see appendix 1.2]. On the one hand the U.S. government promised to build a warehouse, agency building, carpenter and blacksmith shops, schoolhouse, and chapel on the reservation and also to provide some supplies and agriculture instruments to the Navahos returning from Fort Sumner, but on the other, the Indians agreed to send their children to school and to allow construction of roads and railroads across the reservation.
This was constituted in the Treaty of 1868 which was concluded at Fort Sumner between the U.S., represented by Commissioners W. T. Sherman and Samuel F. Tappan, and the Navaho Nation, represented by its Chiefs (New Mexico State University).
4. Development after Fort Sumner
Although the Navahos were freed from Fort Sumner and could even return to their homeland, it did not mean that all the hardship was over. They came back to a devastated land, their homes had been destroyed, livestock had been removed. The U.S. government, however, provided basic agricultural implements, seed and livestock and soon the Navaho tribe began to prosper and the population increased rapidly in number (Kluckhohn and Leighton 41).
But captivity at Bosque Redondo had also brought many new things into the Navaho way of life. Not only did their diet change but also their dress changed according to that of Spaniards. In addition, the Navahos learnt new methods which made their lives little bit easier and which also prevented their need to raid. They became familiar with a method of irrigation and a technique of silversmithing (Benedek 23).
According to National Park Service, the basis of Navaho economy after the return from Bosque Redondo was formed more by raising livestock and making jewellery than by agriculture. In this economy trading posts had an important role. In 1871, the first trading post was established. Blankets and silverwork were exchanged with white traders, especially for flour, sugar, and coffee (Kammer 25). One of the first and the most influential traders was John Lorenzo Hubbell. His business prospered and very soon he influenced the life on the entire reservation. The Hubbell’s Trading Post was run by Hubbell’s family until 1967 when it was sold to the National Park Service (Rieupeyrout 197).
Rieupeyrout points out that besides the traders there were other white men (Bureau agents) who influenced the development on the reservation after the Treaty of 1868. The agent was the administrator, judge and politician who organized the life on the reservation. He was considered to be the key persons in the communication between the government and the Navahos. (176).
Nonetheless, because of several enlargements of the reservation it was not easy for U.S. military and agents to control the whole area directly. And because the Navahos had no government, the U.S. Army or Bureau agents chose some of Navaho leaders, who were usually people respected among the Navahos, whom they could deal with. It was found out, however, that these “chiefs” had only little influence on “the People” and that is why BIA (the Bureau of Indian Affairs) continued in direct governing (Native American Studies 92).
5. The Navaho-Hopi Land Dispute
1. The 1882 Reservation
By the Treaty 1868 a certain piece of land was allocated to the Navahos. The growth of Navaho population was so rapid that, despite all enlargements, the land was soon too small for them (Native American Studies 79). That is why the Navahos often settled outside the 1868 reservation and gradually, they were encroaching on the land settled by the Hopi Tribe. Consequently the Hopi agent, Fleming, insisted on determination of the Hopi reservation. The real reason was different, though. The effort of the government to get Indian children in schools, which were very often far away from their homes, was constantly being disrupted by two “Anglos”. But it was not possible for Fleming to expel them from the reservation for there was no officially determined reservation. Hence Fleming insisted so strongly that in December 1882, an executive order which created a reservation “… for the use and occupancy of the Moqui [Hopi] and such other Indians as the Secretary of the Interior may see to fit settle thereon” was signed by the President Chester A. Arthur (qtd. in Kammer 27). As Rieupeyrout points out, it was not clear who “such other Indians” mentioned in the order were. But because around 300 Navahos lived in the area to which it was referred to, they considered themselves to be “the Indians” and that is why they had no intention to move out (256). This little inaccuracy in the order led to a dispute which caused many hardships and lasted almost a century (183).
Navaho families living inside the 1882 reservation that refused to leave their homes grew in number and their settlements were gradually approaching the Hopi villages on mesas. The Hopis complained about this repeatedly (Wren).
Despite the fact that in 1908 another enlargement in favour of the Navaho tribe was made, in 1911, the land was returned to the “public domain” because of complaints of white stockmen. In 1934, as a compensation for that land, the U.S. government added a piece of land to the Navaho reservation (Kluckhohn and Leighton 43). The Hopis claimed that the territory given to the Navahos included not only the Hopi village of Moencopi but also some of their sacred sites and they intended to struggle for it. This area became, in 1934, the source of the first land dispute between the Navaho and the Hopi Tribe (Wren).
In the year 1966, the BIA Commissioner, Robert Bennett, imposed an order, known as “Bennett Freeze”, which banned any constructions and development in the 1934 disputed area (Wren). The main intention of freezing the area was to stop building until the dispute over the land would be resolved. But the freeze prevented the Indian not only from building new houses in this area but also from repairing their homes, roads or getting electricity and water (The New York Times).
2. Livestock Reduction and New Resources on the Reservation
In 1922, when oil was discovered on the Navaho reservation the Navaho Council was formed. Members of this council represented the Navaho Nation at approval of oil leases but otherwise it did not have any power at that time (Native American Studies 93).
By the 1930´s both the number of the population and livestock had largely increased and the overgrazed land had been damaged by erosion. In 1933, the new commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Collier, decided to solve the situation. He presented his plan of reduction of Navaho livestock in order to improve its quality (Native American Studies 82). Collier also promised funds for roads, schools and dams on the reservation so that the loss of income from the livestock would be replaced by income from work on these projects. The plan was eventually accepted by Navaho Tribal Council (Kammer 34). There were two phases of the stock reduction, from 1933 to 1937 and from 1937 to 1941 (Native American Studies 83). While during the first phase, every herd was reduced by 10 percent, which affected especially the owners of small herds. In the second phase the council agreed with another reduction only on the condition that families owning fewer than a hundred head of cattle would be spared (Kammer 35).
In 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act was passed by the Congress. This meant a change for the Indians because they were allowed to form their tribal governments and write their own constitutions. John Collier was one of the main initiators of the Reorganization Act for he believed that without the tribes being organized the land dispute between the Hopis and the Navahos could not be settled (Benedek 126). But the Navahos refused to form a new government under the Indian Reorganization Act. Instead, “a set of rules” which was formed for the Navaho Tribal Council was written. This set of rules is called the Navaho Tribal Code (San Juan School District).
In 1936, the Hopis lost a large part of their territory when the 1882 Reservation was divided into eighteen grazing districts. There was only one district, the District 6, left exclusively for the use by the Hopis. The other seventeen districts, so-called “Joint Use Area” (JUA), could have been used both by the Hopi and the Navaho tribe. Because this division meant loss of a large area for the Hopi tribe, they objected strongly (Giese, Navajo-Hopi Long Land Dispute). Redhouse mentions that in early 1943, the District 6 expanded to 631,000 acres. Within the area added to the District 6 about 100 Navaho families lived. These families were forced to move outside the district.
3. Jones vs. Healing
The dispute over the JUA intensified when coal deposits were found on that part of land. In 1958, the Hopi Tribe entered into a lawsuit over this area with the Navaho Tribe (Redhouse). According to Redhouse, the decision in this case, known as Jones vs. Healing, was made in 1962 and the result was following: “District 6 was officially named the Hopi Indian Reservation… The Hopi tribal council was also given exclusive mineral rights to all of District 6… The Navajos and Hopis had joint, undivided, and equal rights and interests to the remainder of the 1882 Executive Order Reservation… income from these leases were to be split at the source and divided equally between the two tribes.” And moreover, the partition of JUA was deferred to Congress because the court stated it had no right to do that.
Nies stresses that in 1966 both the Navaho and Hopi tribal council signed leases to Peabody Coal Company for coal mining at Black Mesa. Coal mining on the reservation provided work for many Navahos, but only for few Hopis because there were no or only inconvenient access roads from the Hopi territory (Giese, Navajo-Hopi Long Land Dispute). The mining have had mainly detrimental impact on the area since the mining began, because both air and water have become very strongly polluted (Ancestral Art).
However, because the judgement of Jones vs. Healing did not actually solve the problem of JUA usage, the Hopi attorney, John Boyden, objected to the Jones vs. Healing decision and insisted on partition of the JUA which would, among others, mean relocation of several thousands of the Navahos. Boyden threatened that if the Hopis would not get half of the JUA, they would not agree with any mineral development in the area so that oil companies would make necessary steps for its division (Kammer 75, 77).
Boyden also pointed out that the JUA had been overgrazed by Navaho livestock and he suggested its reduction. After a survey showed up that the number of Navaho livestock overrates four times the capacity of the land, in 1972, the reduction to “half the carrying capacity of the JUA range within one year” was ordered (Kammer 84). And what is more, other hardship which the Navahos had to suffer was not long in coming.
4. Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act
Kammer asserts that just few years after the “Bennett Freeze” Congress passed the Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act. According to this act the Navaho and Hopi representatives should in the following six months find a solution to their dispute over the JUA. If they did not negotiate terms, which would be acceptable for both sides, the land would be equally divided between the two tribes. Any agreement was not reached. And so the land was divided in two parts same in size no matter that there were much more Navahos than the Hopis living on the 1882 reservation (129) [see appendix 1.3]. Benedek writes that after the partition of the land there were 342 acres per capita on the Hopi reservation, but only 121 acres per capita on the Navaho reservation (154). The Settlement Act caused that families living on “the other side”, on the land belonging to the other tribe, had to move to the area partitioned to their tribe (8). According to Kelley and Harris, there were between 2,500 and 4,000 Navaho families and about 30 Hopi families who had to move out (55). But other sources, as for instance Giese (Navajo-Hopi Long Land Dispute), Wren, or Benedek (8) speak about 10,000 Navahos and 100 Hopis who were to be relocated. Kammer asserts that the act also promised financial provisions in order to support those who had to move out (130).
When the Settlement Act was passed the Navajo-Hopi Indian Relocation Commission was established. It was responsible for the relocation of families living on the land partitioned to the other tribe. The plan was supposed to be finished by 1981 and the relocation was to be completed by the year 1986 (Kammer 14). Benedek claims that by fall 1985, about a thousand of families had been relocated. There were families, though who refused to leave their homes, especially at the Big Mountain, which, according to the 1974 Settlement Act, belonged to the Hopi tribe. The Navaho people claimed that the Big Mountain area had a special religious significance for the Navaho Nation (Henry and Sills). Although the Hopis admitted that the area of Big Mountain was uninhabited by members of their tribe they insisted on relocation of the Navahos. The Hopis used this location mainly for getting wood, hunting, and for religious practices (Kammer 74).
An attorney, Lew Gurwitz, representing the Navahos in the fight against the relocation tried to persuade Congress that the 1974 Settlement Act was pushed through by coal mining companies who attempted to remove the Navahos from their land because of rich deposits found in that area. This was, however, not proved (12).
Benedek argues that there were several attempts on the Navaho part to get possession over the land partitioned to the Hopis, in exchange both for money and for land in another area. All of these efforts were unsuccessful. It was mainly because the Hopis were not willing to any negotiation (180, 181).
The first real progress came with the 1980 Amendments which provided 250,000 acres of extra land to the Navaho Nation and 150,000 which could be purchased. Moreover, so-called “life estates” had been granted for some elder Navahos who were allowed to stay at their homes until their death. Through these amendments the Relocation Commission was also allowed to arrange some land exchanges between the two tribes so that the number of the Navahos who were forced to relocate would minimize (218).
In 1985, William Clark, Secretary of the Interior, put all his effort into solving the issue between the Navahos and Hopis. Clark suggested that any settlement which would be negotiated would include not only the 1934 disputed area but also any other yet unsettled suits. He discussed the situation with the President and together with the counsellor, Richard Morris, tried to persuade both tribal chairmen to settle the dispute through negotiation and without Congress intervention. The main reason of failure of these negotiations seemed to be the Hopis who refuse to make any compromise (177-179, 191-193).
In January 1988, the Navaho attorney, Lee Philips, brought a lawsuit to the Federal District Court. He claimed that the 1974 Settlement Act prevents the Navahos from practising their religion and thus, the First Amendment right is violated (396). In October, he requested to stop relocation, stock reduction and to lift the freeze on any construction. In 1989, his request was rejected. The court ruling on the First Amendment case came to a conclusion that: “… the United States do not protect the exercise of religion if that worship is tied to a particular physical site” (388).
In 1991, the court set a mediator who was responsible to help both tribes to settle the case, as Benedek argues. Negotiations started in June 1991 and just at the very beginning the Hopis listed several conditions on which they were willing to negotiate. But when in 1992 the Hopi Tribal Council stopped any operating there was no one to negotiate with (389).
5. “Bennett Freeze” Repealed
In September 1992, The New York Times wrote that the U.S. District Court had lifted the Bennett Freeze which meant that the Navahos living in the 1934 disputed area were allowed to build or do any reparations again. The court also divided the land between the Navahos and the Hopis. The larger part was given to the Navaho Nation because only the Navahos lived in that area. The Hopis complained because several of their sacred sites were situated within the land which was made part of the Navaho reservation.
In 1995, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals acknowledged that the decision of the lower court about access to the sacred places was wrong and thus, from that date on, Hopi access to the sacred sites within area given to the Navahos was allowed. The Court also states: “The district court had no authority to lift the freeze… The order lifting the freeze is vacated. The freeze remains in effect for the lands 'in litigation'.” The lands “in litigation” were considered to be those where the Hopi religious sites were situated (U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeal).
By 2000, the Navaho and the Hopi Tribes were negotiating to settle the dispute. In 2006, the negotiations came to the end. The Hopis got the area around the village of Moencopi and the rest, around 1.5 million acres, was given to the Navahos. On 8 May, 2009, the U.S. President, Barack Obama, repealed the Bennett Freeze (Donovan). The Navaho Nation President, Joe Shirley, Jr., had earlier said: “We’ve lost a lot of elderly, we have lost a lot of medicine people, a lot of young people to the metropolitan areas because they couldn’t build on the frozen land”, and he added, “It’s getting back to living.” (The Navajo Nation, 2006).
3. CREATION
In the first chapter I was dealing with the origin of the Navaho Nation from the perspective of the Whites. In this chapter I would like to follow the same topic but from the perspective of members of the Navaho tribe. As Kluckhohn and Leighton explain, the story of Navaho Creation is an equivalent to the Christian Bible (194). Although there are several versions of the story the core remains the same (183). It is said that ancestors of the Navahos came to this world from worlds below this one (180). The number of the lower worlds differentiates according to source. O’Bryan explains that: “the Four Worlds were really 12 worlds, or stages of development; but different medicine men divide them differently according to the ceremony held” (11).
1. The First World
O’Bryan asserts that in the worlds below ours there was no sun. The First World is sometimes called “Dark Earth” (1) and is red (Zolbrod 39). Inhabitants of this world were not ordinary people. People living in the First World are often referred to as “Mist People” or as “Air People” (Zolbrod 347). Among the inhabitants dwelling in this world there were dark and red ants, yellow and black beetles, dragonflies, locusts, bats, and five others. These dwellers did not move on foot, but flew. The day in this world was marked by white coming from the east and the night by the black coming from the north. The blue coming from the south was considered the day, too and the yellow in the west signified that the night was coming (Matthews 63).
The people in this world quarrelled a lot, struggled among themselves and committed adultery. When big water came to them from all directions and flooded the earth surface the people flew up to the sky. They did not have any place to land and they were saved only when a blue face which appeared in the east showed them a hole which brought them to a world above, to the “Blue World” (Zolbrod 37-39).
2. The Second World
The blue one which showed them the way into the “Blue World” belonged to the Swallow People who dwelled there. It is said that their houses, which were all round, were to be entered through a hole leading through the roof. When the Air People (Mist People) explored the world in all directions, they found out that there is nothing to the east, the south, to the west and the north. This world was completely bare. And because there was resemblance between the Air People and the Swallow People they agreed that they would live together in this world. Their friendship lasted for twenty-three days until one of the Air People seduced the wife of the chief of the opposite tribe. That was why the Air People were expelled from this world (Rieupeyrout 11). And because there was nowhere else for them to go they flew up to the sky. And just like in the First World, after some time a head appeared, this time in the south and pointed to a hole through which the people came to the surface of the Third World which was yellow (Matthews 65).
3. The Third World
In the “Yellow World” which was dwelled by the Grasshopper People everything went in the same way like in the world below. After exploring the country and finding out that there was nothing in there the Air People befriended with the Grasshopper People and lived with them for twenty-three days. When on the twenty-fourth day the chief of the Grasshoppers found out that his wife was seduced by one of the newcomers he could not stay them any longer in his country and so the people had to leave the “Yellow World”. While circling above the surface they heard a voice telling them to fly to the west. There, through a hole, they came to the Fourth World whose surface was a mixture of black and white. It is said that also four grasshoppers flew with them into the higher world. One of them was white, the other was blue, one was yellow and one black. That is why we can find grasshoppers of these colours even in today’s world (Matthews 67).
4. The Fourth World
Rieupeyrout explains that this “Black-White World” was black because it missed the sun, the moon and stars and white because in the four cardinal directions it was possible to see peaks of four mountains covered by snow (12). And again, just like in the other worlds, they started with exploration of this country. Always two of them were sent in one of the cardinal directions to explore the land. The explorers returning from the east, as well as those coming from the south and west, did not find anything and met nobody. However, the explorers who went northwards came back with a different message (Zolbrod 46). “…they said they had found a race of strange men, who cut their hair square in front, who lived in houses in the ground and cultivated fields. These people… treated them very kindly and gave them food to eat” (Matthews 68). The following day the Air People were visited by two members of the people inhabiting this world. This tribe was called “Kiis´áanii” (Zolbrod 46). O´Bryan mentions that these people are the “the ancients of the Pueblo People” (6).
The Air People became friends with the inhabitants of the fourth world. The people were given food by the “Kiis´áanii” and also corn seeds and instructed how to plant them. The “Kiis´áanii” advised the people how to cross the red river, which was flowing in this world, without being injured. The Air People in return for their hospitality decided to behave well and avoid any inappropriate action towards their host as it happened in the previous worlds (McPherson 81).
Everything went well between the Air People and the “Kiis´áanii”. But after some time, suddenly, in the east four figures appeared, each of different colour: white, blue, yellow, and black. As they approached to the people they tried to explain something to them but because they explained it without words the people could not understand. After a while these visitors left, only the black one stayed. This figure explained to the Air People in a language they could understand that they are the “Holy People” and that they decided to create people who would resemble them. That means who have arms and feet, mouths and teeth. And the figure ordered to the people to clean themselves, so that they would not smell bad any more. This they had to do until the next visit of the Holy People which would occur in twelve days (Matthews 68, 69).
Here is how Kluckhohn and Leighton describe the Holy People: “They travel about on sunbeams, on the rainbow, on the lightnings. They have great powers to aid or to harm Earth Surface People… The Holy People are not portrayed as all-knowing or even as all-powerful. They are certainly not depicted as wholly good... the relationship between them and the Earth Surface People is very different from what Christians think of as the connection between God and man” (180).
1. First Man and First Woman
On the twelfth day, when the four gods, the “White Body” who is nowadays called “Talking God”, the “Blue Body” called also “Water Sprinkler”, the “Yellow Body” which can be also called “Calling God” (sometimes called “House God” as well) and the “Black Body” or “Black God”, approached the Air People the people were clean (Zolbrod 48).
The gods brought two buckskins and two ears of corn with them. Onto the first buckskin they lay the corn, one yellow, one white, so that the narrow ends of each ear of corn pointed to the east. Under each ear of corn there was an eagle feather and this all was covered by the other buckskin. After all this was arranged the “White Wind” came from the east and the “Yellow Wind” came from the west and they both blew between the buckskins. As soon as they uncovered the upper buckskin, the “First Man” created from the white corn and the “First Woman” created from the yellow corn appeared there (Rieupeyrout 13).
Nevertheless, some authors, as for example O’Bryan (1) or Goddard (127), describe the creation of the First Man and the First Woman differently than the formerly mentioned. They speak about merging blackness and whiteness together from which the First Man came up. Then there was yellow and blue cloud whose merging together formed the First Woman.
It is also said that in four days the First Woman gave birth to twins, hermaphrodites. In the next four days a girl and a boy were born. They got mature just during four days and afterwards they lived as a man and a woman. Meanwhile, the First Man and the First Woman got another twin babies who, again, got mature in four days (Matthews 70).
Later, the First Man and the First Woman were taken by the Holy People to the eastern mountain, the dwelling of the gods. After four days, when they came back their children were taken to the same place. As soon as they returned, after four days, the brothers and sisters who lived as a husband and a wife separated. They found their new partners among the “Mirage People”, who had participated in the creation of the First Man and the First Woman, among the “Kiis´áanii”, and among the people who had come to the fourth world from the worlds below. These new couples bore children who reached their maturity in four days and in this way the people grew fast in number (Matthews 70).
According to Zolbrod, the people lived peacefully in the Fourth World for several years, they invented many useful implements, the gods taught them how to hunt and the First Man who had become the leader of all people, apart from “Kiis´áanii”, taught them the names and all about the mountains situated in the four cardinal directions. (53, 57-58).
In those days two new inhabitants appeared in the fourth world. It was the Coyote and the Badger who came up to this world by touching the earth with sky, it is said (Matthews 71). Another version says that these two were created while the white from the east touched the yellow from the west and when the blue from the south touched the darkness.
Besides the Coyote and the Badger two other figures were created. It was the Yellow and the Blue Fox who, however, belong to the Pueblos (Stephen 96). The third version I have met with is that: “the Coyote was made from an egg, which… was formed from the mists, Dawn and Yellow Twilight hatched the egg” (Fishler 10).
2. Separation of Sexes
It is said that after eight years of living men and women together a big quarrel occurred between the First Man and the First Woman for she accused him of hunting and doing all the work just in return for sex with her. She claimed that women were able to live happily without men and their help. That was why the First Man decided to cross the river together with all the other men and live there to prove the women that they needed men, that they were not able to survive just on their own (58, 59). And the “Kiis´áanii”, who got their own chief, joined the men on the opposite river edge but they took their wives and children with them (McPherson 81).
The men lived across the river for four years. They planted corn and prospered while the women got year after year less and less crops and when the fourth year came they were starving. During these years some women died from hunger, some of them drowned in the river when they had tried to cross it. When one of the men found out that the women on the opposite river bank are starving and dying, he reported this to the First Man. He came to a conclusion that: “They have learned their lesson by now” (Goddard 129).
And so the women were brought across, they washed as well as the men did, they both dried themselves with the cornmeal, the men with the white and the women with the yellow one. From that time on they lived together (Goddard 129, 130).
Goddard’s (128) or O’Bryan’s (6) present different reason for the separation of sexes, though. They claim the separation occurred because the First Man found out that his wife was “untrue” to him.
3. The Coyote and the Water Monster
After the reunion of the men and women the Coyote stole two babies of the “Water Monster” and hid them under his coat. Some sources say that it was when the people were looking for two lost girls in the house of the Water Monster (Matthews 74), but some other sources say that it was when the Coyote lifted the babies out of the whirlpool in the river (Goddard 130, Klah 44).
Four days after the babies had been stolen something strange could be seen in the east. The Locusts were sent to find out what it was. When they came back they warned the people that big water came from the east. All people, the “Kiis´áanii” too, ran up to the highest hill where they hoped they would be in safety. However, water rose higher and higher and the people grew desperate. Suddenly, an old and a young men appeared there. The old one brought seven bags of soil from the seven sacred mountains, as he explained. The young one planted with usage of the soil thirty-two reeds which joined into one tall (according to Goddard, it was the First Man who planted the reed (130). In the reed there was a hole where the people hid. The reed grew higher and higher until it reached the sky. There was no hole, however. And that is why the Great Hawk was sent to find out what could be done. He tried to scratch through the sky but he did not completely succeed (Matthews 75).
It is said that the first one who scratched through to the Fifth World was the Locust. When he came through the hole a white bird flew to him from the east. As soon as he was near enough he said to the Locust that he can stay in this world only if the Locust can do what he did and so prove his power. And afterwards he swallowed one of arrows he brought with. Then the Locust took the arrow and led it throughout his heart. When the bird saw that he flew away. The same repeated with the blue bird who came from the south, the yellow bird from the west and the white bird from the north (Klah 47).
The Locust returned to the people and reported that he had got through the hole into the world above where there was an island in the middle of a lake and he told them everything about the birds. No sooner had they emerged into the Fifth world than the Badger widened the hole for all the people (Link 13). The world they emerged to is sometimes called the “Changeable Earth” (O’Bryan 1). ).
5. The Fifth World
As the people emerged into this world they found themselves on the island in the middle of the lake. Had it not been for help one of the Holy People, the Blue Body, and the “Smooth Wind” who made the water to flow away and dried the mud at the bottom of the lake, perhaps the people would have never reached the other shore (Zolbrod 81).
Water from the lower world had kept rising, however and the people wondered what the reason was until they found out that the Coyote had been hiding the babies of the Water Monster under his coat. Just as they discovered it they took the babies and threw them into the hole they came through to this world. As soon as the Water Monster got its babies back, the water stopped rising (Klah 50).
1. First Death and Corn in the Fifth World
Because the people wanted to find out what their fate in this new world was one of them threw a hide-scraper into the stream and declared that if it sank they would die, but if it floated they all should go on living. The hide-scraper floated. But the Coyote wanted to repeat the same act and so he took a stone, through it into water and claimed that if it floated they would all live forever, but if not they all would sooner or later die. Of course, the stone sank. And that is why the people have died ever since (Zolbrod 82). And the first death was not long in coming. The people found out that one of the hermaphrodite twins stopped breathing. They decided to lay its body between rocks. But when they returned to the place later they were to learn that the body had disappeared. Meanwhile, two hunters were walking near the hole the people had come to the Fifth World and when they looked down they could see the dead twin in there. That scared them a lot and they hurried to tell the story to the others. But what happened next scared the people even more. These two men who had looked down into the Fourth World died within the next four days. And that is why the Navahos always avoid looking at dead bodies or spotting a ghost (Matthews 78).
McPherson mentions that the people had not had enough foresight, in comparison with the “Kiis´áanii”, to bring corn from the lower world. They wanted to get some from the “Kiis´áanii” and after a short dispute they were offered to choose one half of an ear of corn. While the people were considering properly which half is the better one, the Coyote grabbed the tip and ran away (82). However, the seeds on the tip of corn are not as big and there are not as much seeds as on the other half and that is how it is explained: “…why the Pueblo Indians have always grown better corn than the Navajos to this very day” (Zolbrod 86). The “Kiis´áanii”, of course, did not like the way they had been treated by the people and so they decided to move away and to live separately. That is why the Navahos and the Pueblos do not live together even today (McPherson 82).
It is said that in the Fifth World the First Man and the First Woman created the First Hogan, seven Sacred Mountains and last but not least the sun, the moon and the stars (Rieupeyrout 13-14, 23). By most of the Navahos the First Man is considered to be the Creator of the universe (Kluckhohn and Leighton 182).
2. Creation of the Sun, Moon and Stars
The First Man and the First Woman found the world to be too dark and that was why they began with Creation of the sun and the moon. The sun was round and made of clear stone. Around it there were pieces of turquoise, lightning and snakes. The moon was made of crystal stone. Instead of turquoise the white shell and holy water was around the moon. After the sun and the moon were created two men who were supposed to carry them in the sky were chosen. They are called the “Sun Bearer” and the “Moon Bearer” and “all who died would be close to them” (Link 41, 42).
For there still was not enough moonlight in some nights the stars were to be created. They were made of mica. The First Man and the First Woman intended to put the stars in a fixed order in the sky. Just when they began the Coyote, who came along, blew on the stars which had not their place in the sky yet and they spread over the heaven without any order (Link 42).
3. Birth of Monsters
It is said that after the lights were made in the Fifth World the people began the exploration of this world. Their first journey led to the east. But something strange happened on the way. One of the women bore a child which did not look like any other child. It looked rather like a creature for it was round and had no head. This child was a result of a sin the woman had committed in the lower world when the women had been separated from the men. The people were frightened and so they abandoned the baby and continued in their journey to the east. The next day the same thing happened. A young woman gave birth to a baby. But this baby was a creature, too and it too was a consequence of woman’s sin during the separation. This repeated the following two days during which three other children looking like creatures were born. It was because the last woman got twins. All of them the people left behind hoping they would die. All these children survived, however, and they became monsters known as the “Horned Monster”, the “Monster Eagle”, “The Monster Who Kicks People Down the Cliffs” and the “Monsters That Kill with Their Eyes” (Zolbrod 94-97).
The Monsters followed the people on their way and they killed many of them. And so the people moved from place to place, trying to escape the Monsters, but always they were found and more of them were killed (Rieupeyrout 17). Nevertheless, four people survived. It was a family of mother, father and two children, a boy and a girl. These people had a small turquoise figure of a woman which they treated were carefully. One day the “Talking God” visited them and told them to take the turquoise figure and after twelve days come to the top of the mountain “in the center of the world”. And so they did. As soon as they arrived the Holy People, who had already awaited them, started another process of creation. This process was very similar to that one by which the First Man and the First Woman had been created. But now, beside the two ears of corn there were laid two figures of women on the buckskin, one of turquoise brought by the people and one of white shell brought by the gods. After many songs were sung the buckskin was uncovered and on the place of the white shell the “White Shell Woman” and on the place of the turquoise the “Turquoise Woman”, more often called the “Changing Woman”, lay. And on the place where the white corn and the yellow corn had lain before “White Corn Boy” and “Yellow Corn Girl” lay now.
As everybody had left the mountain the White Shell Woman and the Changing Woman were the only ones who stayed there. One day while the Changing Woman” was lying in the sun, the White Shell Woman went to a near waterfall. Four days after both of these women gave birth to a child, a boy. It is said that it was the sun rays falling upon the Changing Woman who made her pregnant and that it was water from the waterfall that made pregnant the White Shell Woman (Link 24-26).
4. Monster Slayers
The boys grew unbelievably fast and within four days when they went into running competition with the gods they were as big and as strong as twelve-year old boys and soon they became grown-ups. But it did not last long time when the Monsters learnt about them and wanted to kill them too, especially “Yéitso” (according to Link (26) called also the “Giant Monster”) who was the most fearsome of all the Monsters. One day, early in the morning, the two boys set out to find their father hoping that maybe he could help them. On their way they came across a place where the “Spider Woman” lived. She gave them advice on their way to their father, the Sun, and also gave them some magic things which would protect them against all danger and help them to get into the house of their father. After a long and dangerous journey they reached the house of their father. But other danger, namely trials they had to undergo to prove that they really are the children of the Sun, waited for them. They stood all of the trials and so the father promised to help them and provided them with weapons with which they could kill the Giant Monster, although it turned out that the Giant Monster” was one of the Sun’s children as well (Matthews 110-113).
They descended to the ground over the rainbow. They came to the spring where “Yéitso” usually drank and waited for him to come. As he came to drink he spotted them and the fight began. With help of the weapons from their father they slew “Yéitso”. One of the boys cut off his scalp. He was called “He Who Cuts Around” since then. The other boy got a name “Slayer of the Alien Gods” (Matthews 115-116).
Even today one can find tracks of this fight around Mount Taylor where that all happened (O’Bryan 84).
Rieupeyrout points out that later the two slayers killed all the other monsters as well. When they tried to kill the enemies called “Old Age”, “Cold”, “Poverty”, and “Hunger” they learnt that although all of them were enemies they could not be killed because they were an important part of people’s lives (19).
5. “Earth Surface People”
One day the Sun met the Changing Woman. He asked her to make a home for him in the west, so that after the whole day in the sky he would have a place to rest. She agreed only on condition that he would build a house for her that would be on water, far from the edge, decorated with turquoise, white shell, jet and agate and moreover, there would have to be a lot of animals, too. As she left to the west, her sister, the White Shell Woman decided to go eastwards, to the “Emergence Place” and built her home there. “Slayer of the Alien Gods” and “He Who Cuts Around”, accompanied her as far as to the valley of the San Juan River.
The White Shell Woman felt lonely there and so she started thinking of creation some human beings. The next day the Talking God visited her and when he learnt about her loneliness he promised to come back after four days. When he returned the other gods and the Changing Woman came along. As soon as all of them gathered a ceremony during which a boy and a girl were created occurred. It was the wind who gave them life, it was the wind who gave them breath, it is the wind we can see in our fingertips even today. The people created by this ceremony are known as “Earth Surface People” and are the direct ancestors of the Navahos (Zolbrod 273-288).
6. Clans
The boy and the girl stayed with the White Shell Woman and in four days they became mature. On the fourth day, the Talking God accompanied by the “Mirage Boy” and the “Ground-heat Girl” returned. These two married the first two of “Earth Surface People”. Both these couples got children and thus, the first clan began to grow in number. As soon as the group was large enough they moved to the “White Standing Rock” where they lived for the next thirteen years and within that time they did not meet any other person similar to them. When suddenly, one night they beheld fire on the horizon and they decided to find out who dwelled around this fire. They had been looking for it for several days until they finally found it. In the canyon where the fire burnt people like those of the first Navaho clan dwelled. And so these two clans united.
Later on another two clans joined the Navahos and they all moved to the Chaco Canyon where they were joined by another group. Afterwards their way led to the valley of the San Juan River where they settled.
It is said that one day the White Shell Woman left the people. She said it was because the gods had sent for her. But she would always come back in the form of gentle female rain (Matthews 137-141).
Many various groups kept joining the Navahos. Among them there were the descendants of the Mirage People, some of the clans who came were even considered to belong to the Holy People because they survived while the Monsters had killed all the others. Among the groups who joined the Navahos there was also a group of twelve couples. These couples had been created from skin of the Changing Woman (Zolbrod 299-339).
Over the years as new clans kept coming, many of them stayed to live with the Navahos and that is how they “became bonded into a single Navajo tribe, it is said” (Zolbrod 335).
6. Navaho Pantheon
At the beginning of this chapter I compared the Navaho Creation story to the Christian Bible. The principle of Navaho beliefs is, however, very different from Christianity. The basic difference between Christianity and the Navaho beliefs is that there is no God who would be considered to be more important or being above the others. Matthews compares the Navaho system of gods to their social structure. As there is no (or for a long time there was not) main chief of the tribe, there is no main God. Just like the people the gods are all on an equal level (33). If we think about the story we could also tend to compare the First Man and the First Woman to Adam and Eve. But here are significant differences between these two pairs too. For instance as Adam and Eve died the First Man and First Woman are still alive “in some form”, they are immortal and divine (38). The First Man and the First Woman, as well as the Changing Woman, He Who Cuts Around, Slayer of the Alien Gods, the Coyote and others who somehow influenced the Creation after Emergence into the Fifth World, belong to the Holy People (Griffin-Pierce 30).
1. Changing Woman
This part I would like to devote to the Changing Woman because she is the most beloved figure among the Holy People. “Changing Woman is identified with both creation and protection. She is described in terms of fertility and reproduction” (Rissetto, Adriana C. Changing Woman: Myth, Metaphor, and Pragmatics).
Link clarifies that she has got the name “Changing Woman” because she changes constantly. As time goes on she changes from a young girl into an old woman and then turns back into the young girl again. And this is a never-ending cycle (24).
The story says that she has got a sister, the White Shell Woman, and that both of them gave birth to a child, being impregnated by the sun and water. But there is also another version of the story which says that the Changing Woman and the White Shell Woman are one and the same. That would mean the born children were twins (Link 24).
There is a ceremony of great importance for the Navahos which is connected with the Changing Woman, called “Blessing Way”. Kluckohohn and Leighton assert that it was: “…a ceremonial held by the Holy People when they created mankind…” (212). It is believed that after “Earth Surface People” had been created, there was a gathering where the people were taught all the skills and rituals and how to keep balance of nature. The Changing Woman had an important position at that meeting. Nowadays, this ceremony is one of the most important for the Navahos and is mainly held when protection is needed (Kluckhohn and Leighton 212).
4. SACREDNESS
One thing which is really important to the Navahos is the land they live on. Chauncey Neboyia, a Navaho man, says: “The earth is truly our mother. Whatever she has she gives and that becomes our bodies” (Seasons of a Navajo). Carmean explains that Navaho beliefs are closely connected with their land (57). They believe that the Creator put them just on that land and that they cannot leave it because they cannot live anywhere else (Benedek 19). Different places remind them of events which happened when this world was created. These places became sacred to the Navahos and if one wants to approach these sacred places, a song, prayer or an offering is needed (Carmean 57).
According to their beliefs everything in this world has its place and nothing is random (58). Each Navaho must take care of keeping balance of the world (Monroe and Williamson 17). The Navaho people also believe that everything in the world is either male or female and that these two “complete each other” (Kluckhohn and Leighton 311).
1. Sacred Mountains
The Navaho land is bordered by four mountains which are sacred to the Navahos. George Blueeyes says: “These mountains and the land between them are the only things that keep us strong. From them, and because of them, we prosper…” (McPherson 16). Just like everything in the Navaho world these mountains too can be distinguished to be male or female. While the western and southern mountains are considered to be female, the eastern and the northern are male (17).
The four sacred mountains were created soon after the emergence of the people from the Fourth World into the Fifth one. Waters stresses that the people brought soil from the same mountains in the lower world and put it on the very same place as they had been in the world below (173).
The First Man placed the first of the mountains to the east. The Navaho call this mountain “Sisnaajiní”, which is Sierra Blanca Peak. This mountain was fastened to the ground with lightning and was adorned with white shells, white corn and dark cloud giving male rain. The eastern mountain was covered with daylight. On the top two eggs of dove were placed. That is why doves live on that mountain even today. At this mountain the “Rock Crystal Boy” and the “Rock Crystal Girl” dwell.
Then the southern mountain was created. This one is called “Tsoodził”, or Mount Taylor. It is fastened with a great stone knife to the ground. Turquoise and dark mist were placed to the mountain. This mountain is covered with blue sky. Two eggs of bluebird were placed to the top and that is why these birds dwell there. From the southern mountain female rain comes and the “Boy Who Is Bringing Back Turquoise” and the “Girl Who Is Bringing Back Many Ears of Corn” dwell there.
In the west there is the mountain called “Dook´o´oosłííd”, or also San Francisco Peak. It was a sunbeam that fastened the mountain to the ground. The western mountain was adorned with abalone and black clouds which give the harsh male rain. There is a yellow cloud too which provides a covering to this mountain. On San Francisco Peak there are two eggs of yellow warbler are and that is why these birds live there ever since. Beings dwelling at San Francisco Peak are the “White Corn Boy” and the “Yellow Corn Girl”.
The northern mountain is called “Dibé nitsaa” which is Big Mountain Sheep (according to McPherson this mountain is called Hesperus Peak (15). The mountain in the north was decorated with black beads and also different plants and animals. There was mist and so female rain comes from the north. Two eggs of blackbird were given to the top of this mountain and that is why blackbirds live there. This all was covered with darkness and the “Pollen Boy” and the “Pollen Girl” became the dwellers of the northern mountain (Zolbrod 86-89).
These four Sacred Mountains represent the four supportive poles of a hogan with the sky as its top and thus, border the area which is considered to be the Navaho home. Only inside the borders determined by the Sacred Mountains ceremonies can be held and rituals can work (Carmean 59).
Although McPherson (15) writes about two other Sacred Mountains, Matthews and Carmean argue that there were not two but three mountains created in the middle of the land. Besides Gobernador Knob which is, according to Carmean, the place of birth of the Changing Woman, and Huerfano Mesa, the home of the First Man and the First Woman, there is Hosta Butte, the home of the “Mirage Stone Boy” and the “Mirage Stone Girl” (65).
2. Earth and Sun
As already the title of the book by Griffin-Pierce reveals, the Earth is considered by the Navahos to be the Mother and the Sky their Father (some sources refer to not to the Sky but to the Sun as to the Navaho Father, e.g. Carmean or Waters). That means the Earth is female and the Sky is male. Without unity of the Earth and the Sky, there could not be harmony in the world. While the Earth gives life, provides food and female rain for people, the Sky (the Sun) gives the male rain and is the source of energy (Hausman 13, 14). But, of course, people must treat both the Earth and the Sky with respect and they also have to respect each other. If they steal, lie, are greedy or if they harm the Earth, Sky or each other in any way, they will be punished and the Earth and Sky will stop providing their help (McCarty 13).
From the Navaho point of view, the Mother Earth and the Changing Woman are one and the same (Waters 192). Hausman explains that just like Mother Earth changes during seasons, from spring which is full of life through summer and autumn to winter when everything is frozen back to spring which brings all life again, the Changing Woman changes from being young and fertile, through adulthood into the old age and then turns to be young again (13).
The Changing Woman, just like the Mother Earth, symbolizes fertility and protection (Rissetto, Changing Woman: Myth, Metaphor, and Pragmatics). Both the Mother Earth and the Changing Woman are life-giving.
The Changing Woman being impregnated by the Sun gave birth to “He Who Cuts Around” and “Slayer of the Alien Gods” (or at least to one of them). These two enabled the people to live on the earth surface because it was just them who killed the Monsters (Carmean 66). She also created the twelve original couples of which the twelve clans originated (Zolbrod 299-339).
Carmean explains that unlike beliefs of many white people who thinks we have to control nature as much as possible, the Navahos believe that we cannot fight ature or to try to dominate it, but we have to live in agreement with it (66).
5. HOGAN
In this chapter I would like to deal with the traditional Navaho dwelling, called hogan. Besides being a home to the Navahos, the hogan has another important function and that is its religious function. As Rissetto stresses, the hogan is: “… center of religious ceremonies”. Monroe and Williamson explain that nowadays most of the Navahos do not live in hogans anymore, but usually they still have some used mainly for ceremonies. There are still some old Navahos who prefer to live in the hogan though (25).
How important the hogan is to the Navahos shows the following quote: “The hogan is a sacred dwelling. It is the shelter of the people of the earth, a protection, a home, and a refuge. Because of the harmony in which the hogan is built, the family can be together to endure hardships and grow as a part of the harmony between the Sacred Mountains, under the care of 'Mother Earth' and 'Father Sky'” (Griffin-Pierce 94).
1. The First Hogan
It is said that the First Hogan was created by the First Man not long after the emergence into the Fifth World. It was built just on the place of emergence. The First Hogan was a place where the First Man and the First Woman planned the creation of the universe. (Monroe and Williamson 21).
Monroe and Williamson describe that at the beginning a round pit was dug and this was the floor. Afterwards the First Man put a large pole made of turquoise into a hole which was in the southern part of the hogan. The second pole was placed to the west and was made of abalone. And then in the north there was a third large pole made of jet. All these three poles were leaned one against each other. The door faced the east and was made of two smaller poles of white shell. In the walls there were smaller logs, adobe and straw. As a covering of the hogan the sunbeams and rainbows were used. And then the blessing followed: “He [the First Man] entered the Hogan, placing a pinch of cornmeal on each of the jeweled logs, East, South, West, and North. He said: 'May our home be sacred and beautiful, and may our days be beautiful and plenty'” (22). On the floor there was a rug of abalone, jet, turquoise, and white shell. In the entranceway the First Man and First Woman placed a curtain of dawn, skyblue, evening twilight, and darkness. And then a song which is still sung even today was sung (22, 23).
Each of the poles placed into the east, south, west, and north belong to one of the gods. The eastern pole belongs to “Earth Woman”, the southern pole to “Mountain Woman”, the western pole is the pole of “Water Woman”, and the pole of “Corn Woman” is in the northern side (Kluckhohn and Leighton 102).
2. Building of the Hogan
Nowadays, when a new hogan is built the same technique with which the First Man built the First Hogan is followed (Monroe and Williamson 21). The First Hogan built by the First Man was a five-pole hogan (24).
Griffin-Pierce mentions that originally, hogans were forked-pole and conical in shape [see appendix 2.1], but later they have been built rather six- or eight-sided [see appendix 2.2]. The former one is considered to be the male and the latter is the female hogan (21).
According to Mindeleff´s description, at the beginning of construction of the cone–shaped hogan one must secure five timbers and three of them must be forked. When necessary measurements are made, digging the floor inside the hogan can start. After the floor is dug out, the northern and the southern timber are placed in the right position. As soon as the forks of these timbers fit together the western timber is placed and all the forks are bound together. Subsequently, the two remaining timbers which are supposed to form the doorway are positioned to the eastern side. When this is ready it is necessary to fill the walls with smaller timber and then to built the frame of the door by two forked timbers and an extra timber to form the upper part of the entranceway [see appendix 2.3]. The roof of the doorway is usually left open and used as a smoke hole. When the frame is finished the cedar bark is laid on it and finally this all is covered by earth which makes the hogan water- and windproof (489-493).
Giese asserts that the other type of the hogan, the six- or eight-sided hogan was built for the first time as early as at the beginning of the 20th century. The walls of these hogans have been formed by wooden timbers laid horizontally (Hogan: Diné (Navajo) Traditional House). The roof is of these hogans is dome-shaped and in the centre of the roof there is a smoke hole [see apendix 2.4].
The largest hogans are seven or eight metres in diameter and the door always faces the east (Monroe and Williams explain that this is: “…in order to be open to the kindly influences of the God of Dawn” (25). Some hogans have the walls made of stone instead of wood and sometimes there are even windows (Rieupeyrout 268).
After the hogan is finished, it is blessed with the Blessing Way Ceremony or at least, by spreading the sacred corn pollen on the poles of the hogan (Kluckhohn and Leighton 89).
As mentioned in Seasons of a Navajo, it is usual that Navaho families own at least two houses, one for summer and one for winter. This is, however, no luxury but rather necessity because they need to move where there is just enough grazing for their sheep. In the summer they move down to the canyon where they have their summer hogan and where they have also their fields for planting corn. Kluckhohn and Leighon assert that Navaho summer houses are usually just “rude brush shelters” (87).
It is not usual that there is only one hogan without any other structure around. Generally, next to the main hogan there is one or two hogans where adolescent children live or which is used for food storage. Besides the hogans there is a sheep corral and a shelter protecting against the sun or a fence against the wind (Rieupeyrout 269). Moreover, there is usually a sweat-house, which is practically the three-forked hogan without the smoke hole and which is not only important for the daily Navaho life but also for various religious ceremonies (Mindeleff 499).
Hausman asserts that despite the fact that the hogan is built by the man it belongs, just like all structures surrounding it, to the woman (15). The Navaho society is matrilineal (Seasons of a Navajo).
3. Inside the Hogan
There are several rules which must be followed inside the hogan. The Navaho who enters the hogan must move from the left side around the centre to the right side. That means s/he should copy the way of the sun through the sky (Monroe and Williamson 25).
Each person has also his/her position in the hogan. Women have their place on the south side of the hogan, men sit on the north side, and children are usually around their mothers. The “medicine man” has its place on the west side. That is the seat of honour (Kluckhohn and Leighton 90). The hogan has to be kept tidy and clean otherwise the Holy People would not come and hear the Navaho prayers (Benedek 18).
In the summer some members of the family usually sleep outside. Children sleep together and babies sleep near their mother. No matter if inside or outside but it is important not to step over a sleeping person because it is said that the person would be befallen by evil (Kluckhohn and Leighton 91).
As I have already mentioned in the chapter “Creation” the Navahos fear the death and avoid any look at dead bodies. If someone dies inside the hogan, he may be buried inside, but in this case the doorway must be blocked so that nobody enters (Rieupeyrout 269). When the dead is buried outside he must be removed from the hogan through a hole which is made in the north side (this is the evil direction) and then the hogan is left (Kluckhohn and Leighton 89).
6. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRACTICAL PART
In the practical part of my thesis I would like to introduce some possibilities of teaching English through the topic “The Navaho”. I believe that English language needn’t to be taught through same topics again and again. As I could see during my observation and teaching practice, and of course, from my own experience, during English lessons at grammar school which I attended, most of teachers are used to follow only topics in textbooks and very rarely they include something new in their lessons.
In my opinion, the pupils always appreciate any change and it always catches their attention and raises their motivation. And that is what I try to do through my diploma thesis. I intend to bring a change into the classroom. I am trying to show that it is possible to teach English even through such an unusual topic as “the Navaho” is.
In my thesis I focused on the language level A2 which should be probably the 9th grade. At that stage the pupils should already be able to read and to understand short, simple texts and to express themselves in simple sentences (Europass).
The practical part begins with lesson plans for three classes which I realized during my teaching practice and which are ended by short reflection on these classes. Afterwards other six lesson plans as a possible follow-up of the previous lessons ensue.
The whole practical part is divided into three sections. The first section, the lessons which I realized, is focused on basic facts about the Navaho tribe and its Sacred Mountains. The pupils should learn new vocabulary regarding the topic as well. And thus, the learners are supposed to use both new learnt information and new vocabulary in the following lessons.
The second section focuses on the Navaho Creation Myth and its main aim is to support and develop pupils´ speaking and writing skills. The stress is laid on pupils´ imagination and creativity and also their ability to present their work to the others. Cooperation between the pupils and their ability to accept opinion of the others is an essential part of these lessons as well.
The third section connects history of the Navaho tribe with grammar. In these lessons the pupils are supposed to learn new grammar, namely the Passive Voice, through some very basic facts from the Navaho history. The pupils are never given complete overview of new grammar rules, but they are always asked to derive them step by step by themselves. I believe that it makes it easier for them to remember.
The last lesson is devoted to revision of all what the pupils have learnt so far, both the knowledge connected with cultural studies and language knowledge which means new grammar and vocabulary.
Throughout all the lessons four basic language skills: reading, writing, speaking, and listening, are practised.
7. LESSON PLANS
I. LESSON PLAN
Date: 14.10.2009
School: ZŠ Moravský Písek
Class: IX.
Number of pupils: 11
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho
Aim: the pupils should: - know some basic information about the tribe
- learn new vocabulary
Motivation: hanging man, mystery at the beginning, topic in itself (I would say something very new for them)
Teaching aids: work sheets, the text, questionnaires, dictionaries
Skills: reading, speaking, listening
Stages of the lesson
1. Introduction of the topic – I mark on the board a number of letters of a word the pupils are supposed to guess (hanging man). At the same time the word they should discover is the topic of the lesson. When the topic is revealed I do not ask or say anything because I do not want to influence their thoughts or opinions in any way before they think the topic through while doing questionnaires.
2. Questionnaires – the pupils write a very short “test” [see appendix 3.1] exploring their knowledge of the topic (multiple choice). There are just three very simple questions. The learners can ask about words they do not understand and they have also dictionaries at their disposal.
3. Eliciting – I am trying to get as much information regarding the topic as possible. I ask the learners questions as e.g. if they know who the Navahos are, where they live, what they eat, what they do for living etc. I tell the pupils that they are allowed to provide information which they not only know but also just suppose or are not sure about. Simply everything which come to their mind when they hear “the Navaho”. I write all the acquired information on the board so that at the end we can check they are true or not.
4. New vocabulary –from the text I am going to read [see appendix 3.2] I write unknown vocabulary on the board and the pupils write it into their exercise books. Then everyone or each pair gets a word to look up in the dictionary and tell the others its meaning.
5. Listening
Before listening - the pupils get a set of questions [see appendix 3.3] regarding the text they will listen. They have few minutes to go through the questions on their own and ask if there is something unclear. They will hear the text twice.
During listening - they are supposed to answer the questions and note down if they catch some additional information.
After listening - after the first listening they have opportunity to ask if there was something in the text which was not clear. After the second reading I ask the pupils to answer the questions. The rest of the class says if the answer is correct and if they know some extra information which was said.
6. Checking – in cooperation with the whole class we go through the information written on the board (eliciting). We check if we have learnt they are true or not. If there is something which was not proved in the class, the pupils are supposed to find out if it is true or false.
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 3 min.
2. stage – 5 min.
3. stage – 5 min
4. stage – 5 min.
5. stage – 20 min.
6. stage – 5 min.
Ending the lesson
Reflection
I was surprised how great the lesson was. The pupils cooperated all the time. I would say it was because the first 15 minutes they were quite mystified. They discovered the topic, but they did not know what to imagine when they heard “the Navaho”. And moreover they were supposed to write “a test” they were not prepared for. There was only one boy in the class who had heard about the Navahos before, but he did not know any specific information about the tribe.
The pupils learnt new vocabulary during this lesson and because at the end there was little time left we played a game through which the learners practised the vocabulary.
II. LESSON PLAN
Date: 16.10.2009
School: ZŠ Moravský Písek
Class: IX.
Number of pupils: 11
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho – Sacred Mountains
Aim: the pupils should: - know some basic information about the tribe
- be able to show the location of the Navaho reservation on the map
- be able to say very shortly some facts about the Navaho Sacred Mountains
- be able to use new vocabulary actively
Motivation: presentation, group work, game with new vocabulary
Teaching aids: map of North America, PowerPoint presentation, computer, interactive board, the text, dictionaries
Skills: speaking, reading, listening
Stages of the lesson
1. Small-talk and eliciting – at the beginning I ask the pupils about the topic of the last lesson and try to get as much information concerning the topic as possible. I use a map of the USA to show the pupils location of the Navaho reservation. I write keywords on the board.
2. PowerPoint presentation – I show the pupils some pictures regarding what they already know (e.g. Navaho housing, clothing, art…). I comment on the pictures [see enclosed DVD].
3. Sacred Mountains – the pupils get a text [see appendix 3.4] concerning Navaho Sacred Mountains. At the beginning, there is some general information which we read together. I write unknown words on the board and try to explain their meaning to the pupils.
Group work – there are four groups, each of them gets a part of the text. The pupils read it and then they are supposed to present basic information to the rest of the class. There is not just one speaker for the whole group but each pupil is supposed to say one piece of information so that everyone gets the possibility to speak.
If there is something in the text the pupils do not understand they have always the possibility to ask the teacher or to look up an unknown word in the dictionary.
4. Vocabulary – practising new vocabulary (also from the previous class). The learners work in pairs. I call words and the first one from the pair who translates the word can stand up. And so it continues until there is just one left and he is the winner.
5. Setting homework – the pupils should look up where the four Navaho Sacred Mountains are situated and they should be able to show them on the map.
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 5 min.
2. stage – 15 min.
3. stage– 15 min
4. stage – 5 min.
5. stage – 3 min.
Ending the lesson
Reflection
I must say that I was really surprised how much the pupils remembered from the last lesson. They were able to recall quite many facts which were said last time. The only problem they had was with the new vocabulary. They remembered some new words, but they mispronounced many of them. I tried to use these words during my presentation as much as possible and I always stressed them so that they heard them several times which, in my opinion, made it easier for them to remember.
The timing of the lesson was great as well. We managed to do all the planned work and just as we finished the last activity planned for this class, the lesson was over. I was satisfied with the lesson and I believe the pupils enjoyed it as well.
III. LESSON PLAN
Date: 21.10.2009
School: ZŠ Moravský Písek
Class: IX.
Number of pupils: 11
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho – focused on revision
Aim: the pupils should: - know some basic information about the tribe
- be able to convey very shortly facts about the Navahos
- be able to use actively new vocabulary
Motivation: watching a document, music activity
Teaching aids: CD-player, CD, DVD, computer, interactive board, test questions, work sheets, dictionaries
Skills: speaking, reading, writing, listening
Stages of the lesson
1. Music activity – there is music playing in the class and the pupils are walking around. As soon as the music stops, they should find the nearest partner and tell him some fact they have learnt about the Navahos. This repeats several times. After this activity I ask the pupils if there is still something they know about the Navahos and did not say during the activity.
The aim is to give the pupils possibility to recall all the facts they know about the tribe and by changing the information with their partner they not only practise speaking but they also regain knowledge of what they have already forgotten.
2. Test – the pupils write a “test” similar to that one which they wrote in the first lesson of talking about the Navahos. By comparing it with the previous test I can find out what they have learnt and what causes difficulties to the pupils. This test is little bit wider because I expect that also their knowledge of the topic is wider now.
After finishing the test we go through the question together so that the pupils find out the correct answers.
3. Watching a film – they watch a part of a documentary by Rudolf Dörl [see enclosed DVD] about North American National parks. This document is partly about the area the Navahos live in (Arizona) but also about other natural parks of USA and Canada. I believe that seeing closer the region the Navahos live in makes the pupils understand better what they have learnt so far.
Before watching – the learners get a set of questions [see appendix 3.5] they are supposed to answer while watching the documentary. The pupils read the questions one by one so that they both practise reading and can ask before watching if there is something they do not understand. Thus, I know that the pupils do not just guess the answer but they really understand it.
During watching – the pupils focus on answering the questions.
After watching - they have little time to compare their answers with their neighbour and discuss if their answers differ. Afterwards I ask the pupils about the correct answers and also what else they have learnt from the documentary. I try to make the pupils speak. I focus mainly on the content of their speech and do not interrupt them to correct mistakes while they are speaking.
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 8 min.
2. stage – 12 min.
3. stage– 23 min
Ending the lesson
Reflection
The pupils had a very positive attitude to work. They were only quite surprised and confused when I told them they would write the test. What quite disrupted my intention was when the teacher told the pupils that maybe they will get marks for the test. I meant the test just for my usage to see how much the pupils have learnt about the Navahos and also to give the pupils possibility to organize all new information. But on the other hand, maybe it was just the awareness of getting mark which made the pupils to make even greater effort when completing the test.
Unfortunately, the document we watched was available only in Czech. But at least I could be sure the pupils understood well and caught all the facts which were said in the film. Thanks to the questions they were asked to answer they were attentive during the film.
The pupils liked especially the music activity. In my opinion, it was mainly because they could move around the class and they were speaking just to their partner and not in front of the whole class which, I guess, made them more comfortable and they were not shy to speak. The music made the atmosphere very pleasant.
IV. LESSON PLAN
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho - Creation
Aim: the pupils should: - learn cooperation
- be able to express their ideas and thoughts (both in spoken and written way)
- develop their imagination
Motivation: crossword, the game “being a creator”
Teaching aids: crossword, sheets of paper, dictionaries
Skills: speaking, writing
Stages of the lesson
1. Introduction of the topic – each pupil gets a work sheet with a puzzle [see appendix 3.6]. The pupils have few minutes to complete it and find the solution which is at the same time the topic of the lesson. As they are ready I ask them about the correct answers which they write on the board so that they practise the spelling as well. This is not only introduction of a new topic but also revision of already known vocabulary and facts.
2. Small-talk – as soon as the pupils discover the topic of the lesson, I ask them about the word which was the solution of the puzzle – if they know what the word means and what comes to their mind in association with the word “creation”. Afterwards I ask the pupils about the Creation Myth as believed by the Christians and try to make the pupils to recall that story because in my opinion, that helps them to realize the real meaning of the word “creation” (I have chosen Christianity because I believe that the pupils in our country are most familiar with this religion).
3. Creators – at this stage the pupils form groups of four. I explain them that now they are the Creators of the world and that they have unlimited supernatural power. I would like them to describe the creation under their supervision. That means they should answer questions as e.g. how would they create the world, what would be created as the first and what would come later. The only limits are words [see appendix 3.7] which I give them and which have to be included in the story. I also announce the pupils that later they are supposed to present and explain their ideas to their classmates. They have dictionaries at their disposal.
4. Ending the lesson – I pick the pupils´ work and keep it by the next lesson.
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 5 min.
2. stage – 10 min.
3. stage – 25 min.
4. stage – 3 min.
V. LESSON PLAN
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho - Creation
Aim: the pupils should: - learn cooperation
- be able to express their ideas and thoughts (both in spoken and written way)
- develop their imagination
Motivation: the game “being a creator”, group work
Teaching aids: the poster, dictionaries
Skills: speaking, writing, listening
Stages of the lesson
1. Follow-up – I remind the pupils what we did in the last lesson because this lesson is considered to be its follow-up. I remind them the words which should be included in their stories. Then they form the same groups as in the previous lesson.
2. Preparation – the pupils have about 10 minutes to complete the ”Creation” and to prepare for their presentation.
3. Presentation - each group presents its “creation story” to the rest of the class. After each presentation there is a short pause for questions.
4. Navaho Creation Myth – when all the groups finish their presentations I will present the main points of the “real” Navaho Creation story. For visual support of my presentation I prepare simple poster [see appendix 3.8]. After the lesson I stick the poster together with the pupils´ stories on a wall in the classroom.
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 3 min.
2. stage – 10 min.
3. stage – 20 min.
4. stage – 10 min.
VI. LESSON PLAN
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho – History
Aim: the pupils should: - be able to form the past participle form of regular verbs
- be able to understand the very basic rules of passive formation
- learn basic facts about the Navaho history
Motivation: discovering the rules – immigrant story
Teaching aids: the texts, list of irregular verb forms, dictionaries
Skills: speaking, listening, reading
Stages of the lesson
1. Matching – at the very beginning of the lesson the pupils form work pairs. Each pair gets a sheet of paper with important dates from the history of the Navaho tribe and also a text describing events of those years cut in pieces. Their task is to look at it and try to match the events with the correct dates.
Afterwards I am going to read a text where all the dates and events are mentioned and the pupils should check if they matched them correctly. Then I ask them about the results.
The text the pupils get contains mostly past simple passive forms [see appendix 3.10] while the text I read contains mainly verbs in active voice [see appendix 3.10]. This could help the pupils to notice and better understand the difference between these forms and enable them to deduce the rule.
2. Work with verb forms – in the following task the pupils should try to find all the verbs in text. I let them think about the form of these verbs and if they remind them of something (I try to make them see the similarity between these forms and simple past forms). Then I explain them that there are verbs with a regular or irregular past participle form and that the regular forms are formed in the same way as the past simple forms.
I want them to tell me the rule for formation of simple past forms and I write them on the board.
The following task is to go through the text again and distinguish between the regular and irregular verb forms. The pupils should also discover the infinitive form of these verbs (that is why I used such verbs in the text which are similar either to their infinitive or to their simple past form).
3. Discovering the rules – at this stage I make the pupils to imagine that they have just come as immigrants to the USA. But if they want to stay there they have to pass an exam where, among others, their knowledge of the American history will be tested. But to be able to understand the text about the history well they should find the rules for usage of passive because the historical texts are written mainly in passive voice. Afterwards I let them to go quickly through the text and try to deduce the rule of its formation (be + Past Participle). I also let them translate a passive verb phrase into Czech which could be helpful for better understanding the usage of passive voice. I write the rules which the pupils deduce on the board (eventually complete them) and ask the pupils to write them into their exercise books.
4. Irregular verb forms – at the end of the lesson we return to the irregular verb forms and I explain that there is no rule for their formation and that the only possibility is to learn them by heart and that is why it is the pupils´ homework to learn some of them. I specify which ones [see appendix 3.11 – 1. set].
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 11 min.
2. stage – 13 min.
3. stage – 15 min.
4. stage – 4 min.
VII. LESSON PLAN
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho – History
Aim: the pupils should: - understand the difference between the present and past simple form of passive
- be able to form passive of both the present and the past simple tense
- be able to change passive forms of the simple present into the simple past and vice versa
Motivation: crossword, the test of American history
Teaching aids: texts, set of questions, dictionaries
Skills: writing, reading, speaking,
Stages of the lesson
1. Crossword – before the beginning of the lesson I prepare a crossword [see appendix 3.13] on the board and just when the lesson begins I explain the pupils that they have to put the given verbs into the past participle form. I invite them one by one to the board to complete the crossword.
2. Rules – at this stage of the lesson the learners get the same text as in the previous lesson and they are supposed to recall the rules of passive formation. I write them on the board. I explain the pupils that according to the form of the auxiliary verb to be we distinguish between simple present and simple past. I let them guess which of these two can be found in the text and let them explain why they think so. As soon as they understand the formation of the past simple passive I provide them with examples from the text which I change into the present simple passive form so that the pupils can compare them. I clarify the differences between them.
3. Present Simple vs. Past Simple – the pupils are supposed to change the past passive forms from the text into the present passive forms. The class works together. I ask gradually all the pupils, the rest of the class and the teacher provide immediate feedback.
4. Questions and answers – it is announced to the pupils that when in the previous lesson they were expected to discover the rules for usage of the passive because of learning for the test of the American history, they are now supposed to write the test (of course this is not a real test).
Each pupil gets a set of questions regarding the text [see appendix 3.12]. The questions are in the active form. The beginning of each answer is marked only the verb form is missing. The pupils are supposed to fill in correct verb forms in passive. They have to use tense which is used in a given question.
5. Homework – the learners have to learn other ten irregular verb forms [see appendix 3.11 – 2. set].
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 5 min.
2. stage – 12 min.
3. stage – 10 min.
4. stage – 14 min.
5. stage – 2 min.
VIII. LESSON PLAN
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho – History
Aim: the pupils should: - distinguish between active and passive voice
- be able to change the active verb form into passive
- know some irregular verb forms and be able to use them
Motivation: competition, worksheet with pictures, the “translators” game
Teaching aids: cards, worksheets, dictionaries
Skills: speaking, writing, reading, listening
Stages of the lesson
1. Competition – the following competition is focused on practising irregular verb forms. At the very beginning the pupils are divided in two teams and the teacher is the judge. There are always two pupils (one for each team) competing with each other. The points they win belong to their team.
I have prepared small cards with verbs in their infinitive form. I show a card to a competing pair and that one who is able to tell me correctly the past simple and past participle form of the given verb gets a point for her/his team. Then it is another pair’s turn. In this way the competition goes on and on until there are no cards left. At the end, points are counted and the team who gets most of the points is the winning team.
2. Active x Passive – at this stage I would like the pupils to realize differences between the active and the passive form.
I write two sentences on the board, one in active and the other in passive (e.g. Columbus discovered America. x America was discovered by Columbus). Then I ask the pupils to explain me the difference between these two sentences - which of them is the active and which is the passive form. My following questions are: What did happen? What changed in the sentence? How can we change the active form into passive? I ask them about the subject in both sentences and if it somehow changed. Through similar questions I try to lead the pupils to discover the rule for changing a sentence from active into passive and vice versa. As soon as the pupils derive the rule I write it on the board. Afterwards I write other two sentences but this time in present simple form and I want the pupils to tell me if the same rule as with the simple past can be applied.
3. Translators – I announce the pupils that now they are on an expedition to the Navaho tribe. They are very important members of this expedition because they are the only people who understand what the Navahos say. That is because the Navahos use only sentences in active form which the other participants are not able to understand. The aim of the expedition is to find out some information about life of the Navahos. They have to translate what the Navahos say.
The pupils are given a worksheet with sentences written in active voice. They are supposed to change the sentences into their passive form. They have to begin each sentence with a word depicted in a picture below the sentence [see appendix 3.14].
There are sentences both in simple present and simple past form. I warn the pupils to be careful about it when “translating”. For better understanding I help the pupils to change few sentences.
4. Homework – the learners have to learn other ten irregular verb forms [see appendix 3.11 – 3. set].
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 8 min.
2. stage – 12 min.
3. stage – 20 min.
4. stage – 3 min.
IX. LESSON PLAN
Level of the pupils: A2
Topic: The Navaho – revision
Aim: the pupils should: - be able to change the active verb form into the passive form (simple present, past)
- know some basic irregular verb forms and be able to use them
- revise what they have learnt about the Navaho tribe
Motivation: board game, group work
Teaching aids: game board, cards, dices, cards with verbs, sheets of paper, dictionaries
Skills: speaking, writing, reading, listening
Stages of the lesson
1. Game – the following game is focused not only on practising the irregular verb forms but also on revision of knowledge of basic facts about the Navaho tribe. The pupils work in groups of four or five. Each group gets a board [see appendix 3.15], a dice, and cards with questions (two different sets of cards – one set for fields marked N, one for those marked V) [see appendix 3.16.1 and 3.16.2]. Moreover, each pupil needs some small piece for moving around.
The start/finish field is marked yellow on the board. Red colour marks fields where one can stay without answering any question. All the other fields have either the letter N or V on it. N means that the pupils has to answer a question regarding the Navaho tribe, V means that the pupil has to say the past simple and past participle form of a given irregular verb. If there are both of these letters on a field (marked blue) the pupils can choose which of the questions s/he wants to answer (either the Navaho question or the irregular verb forms). A pupil who answers the given question correctly can stay where s/he is, but a pupil who does not know the answer has to move back to the field where s/he was before. At the beginning each pupil throws the dice and who gets the highest number that one can start.
The pupil who begins throws the dice and moves forwards according to the number s/he got on the dice. S/he has to answer a question according to the field s/he stands on and then s/he can either stay or has to move backwards. The other playmates are supposed to observe if the answers are correct. If there is any problem with the answers or any other misunderstanding the pupils can always ask the teacher. The winner of the game is the person who is the first in the FINISH.
2. Passive – the pupils are supposed to practise the passive forms. They work in the same groups again. Each group gets a pack of cards [see appendix 3.17]. In the cards there are written regular or irregular verb forms in infinitive. Each pupil also gets a sheet of paper. When everything is prepared each pupil takes a card. And the task is: everyone has to think up an active sentence in indicative and moreover, s/he has to use the verb which is in his/her card. I announce the pupils that the first sentence should be in the present simple form. When everybody is ready I ask them to give their sheet of paper to the partner on their right.
The following task is to change the sentence of their partner into passive and then to take another card again. I announce that the new sentence should be in active and indicative again, but this time in the past simple. The exchange with their neighbours and changing the sentences into passive follows. In the third round they can choose either the simple present or past for their sentence.
As soon as the pupils have finished their work we start checking the sentences. I ask the pupils randomly to read their sentences and I expect from the rest of the class to tell me if the sentence is correct, eventually to correct it.
3. Homework – the learners have to learn other ten irregular verb forms [see appendix – 4. set].
Timing
Greetings, book register record – 2 min.
1. stage – 23 min.
2. stage – 17 min.
3. stage – 3 min.
8. CONCLUSION
Despite the fact that nowadays the Navaho Nation is the largest Native American tribe whose reservation spreads across three states, its appearance in the southwest occurred probably not as long time ago as it could seem. Since then the Navaho way of life has changed a lot, mostly because of influence of Europeans coming to America, though there was a strong influence of the Navaho neighbours, the Pueblos, too. The Creation Myth presented in the thesis is of great importance to the Navahos and it, too, has influence on many of Navaho doings.
Although Native Americans and their culture is a significant part of the American history, this issue is rarely or only partly mentioned in English or History classes. But through introduction of the topic “Native Americans”, namely “the Navaho”, to English classes I found out that this subject was of great interest to the pupils. Even the learners who normally did not care much about English were attentive and actively cooperated. The topic was so attractive to the pupils that it seemed they often did not realize they are actually learning English.
When I mentioned the Navahos in an English lesson for the first time, only one boy was able to answer the question who they are, even though only in Czech. But after three lessons of dealing with this topic each pupil in the class was able to answer basic questions about the tribe using new vocabulary. Although some pupils mispronounced new-learnt words in the beginning, through practising them over and over again they used correct pronunciation in the last lesson devoted to this topic.
I believe that lesson plans presented as a possible follow-up of the lessons which were put into practice would be equally beneficial to the pupils and I believe that maybe even more interesting because many game-like activities are included and special attention is paid to pupils´ imagination and creativity.
Although in this paper I present several suggestions of including this topic into ordinary English classes, in my opinion this would be a perfect topic for a long term project as well.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Austin, Raymond Darrel. Navajo Courts and Navajo Common Law. Dissertation [Electronical version], The University of Arizona, 2007.
Benally, Clyde, Andrew O. Wiget, John R. Alley, and Garry Blake. Dinéjí Nákéé´ Nááhane´: A Utah Navajo History. Monticello, UT: San Juan School District, 1982. Utah American Indian Digital Archive. Web, viewed on 15 March 2010.
Benedek, Emily. The Wind Won’t Know Me: A History of the Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992.
Carmean, Kelli. Spider Woman Walks This Land: Traditional Cultural Properties and the Navajo Nation. Altamira Press, 2002. Google knihy. Web, viewed 10 March 2010.
Fishler, Stanley A. In the Beginning: A Navaho Creation Myth. The University of Utah. Anthropological Papers, no.13, 1953. Internet Sacred Text Archive. Web, viewed on 3 March 2010.
Goddard, Pliny Earle. Navajo Texts. The American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Papers, Vol. 24, 1933. Internet Sacred Text Archive. Web, viewed on 1 March 2010.
Griffin-Pierce, Trudy. Earth Is My Mother, Sky Is My Fater: Space, Time, and Astronomy in Navajo Sandpainting. University of New Mexico Press, 1992. Gogole knihy. Web, viewed on 8 March 2010.
Hausman, Gerald. Mediations With the Navajo: Prayers, Songs, and Stories of Healing and Harmony. Vermont: Bear & Company, 2001. Google knihy. Web, viewed on 13 March 2010.
Kammer, Jerry. The Second Long Walk: The Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1980.
Kelley, Klara B., and Harris Francis. Navajo Sacred Places. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994. Google knihy. Web, viewed on 20 Feb 2010.
Klah, Hasteen. Navajo Creation Myth. BiblioBazaar, 2008. Google knihy. Web, viewed on 3 March 2010.
Kluckhohn, Clyde, and Dorothea Leighton. The Navaho. Revised Edition. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books / Doubleday & Company, 1962.
Link, Margaret Schevill. The Pollen Path: A Collection of Navajo Myths. Walnut: Kiva Publishing, CA, 1998. Google knihy. Web, viewed on 3 March 2010.
Matthews, Washington. Navajo Legends. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1897. Scribd. Web, viewed on 23 Feb 2010.
McCarty, T.L. Of Mother Earth and Father Sky: A Photographic Study of Navajo Culture. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Press, 1983. Navajo Curriculum Center, Rough Rock School. Web, viewed on 13 March 2010.
McCullough-Brabson, Ellen, and Marilyn Help. We´ll Be In Your Mountains, We´ll Be In Your Songs: A Navajo Woman Sings. University of New Mexico Press, 2001. Google knihy. Web, viewed on 15 March 2010.
McPherson, Robert S. Sacred Land, Sacred View: Navajo Perceptions of the Four Corners Region. Brigham Young University: Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, 1995.
Mindeleff, Cosmos. Navaho Houses, pages 469-518: Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895-1896. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1898. Scribd. Web, viewed on 12 March 2010.
Monroe, Jean Guard, and Ray A. Williamson. First Houses: Native American Homes and Sacred Structures. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993.
Nabokov, Peter, and Robert Easton. Native American Architecture. Oxford University Press,1989. Google knihy. Web, viewed on 15 March 2010.
Native American Studies. Economic Development in American Indian Reservations. Development Series No. 1. University of New Mexico, 1979.
O’Bryan, Aileen. The Diné: Origin Myths of the Navaho Indians. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 163. Washington, D.C. 1956. Internet Sacred Text Archive. Web, viewed on 23 Feb 2010.
O´Callaghan, Bryn. An Illustrated History of the USA. Longman Group UK, 1991.
Rieupeyrout, Jean-Louis. Dějiny Navahů. Indiánská sága 1540-1990. Translated by Helena Beguivinová. Praha: Argo, 2000.
Stephen, A.M. Navajo Origin Legends. Journal of American Folk-Lore. Vol. 43, pp. 88-104, 1930. Internet Sacred Text Archive. Web, viewed on 2 March 2010.
Waldman, Carl. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. Hong Kong, 1988.
Waters, Frank. Masked Gods: Navaho and Pueblo Ceremonialism. New York: Ballantine Books, 1970.
Zolbrod, Paul G. Diné bahane': The Navajo Creation Story. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1991.
INTERNET SOURCES
Adams, Don, and Teresa A. Kendrick. Don Juan de Oñate and the First Thanksgiving. Historical Text Archive. 2009, Web, viewed on 9 Feb 2010.
Donovan, Bill. Obama signs Bennett Freeze repeal. The Navajo Times. 14 May 2009, Web, viewed on 22 Feb 2010.
European language levels - Self Assessment Grid. Europass. 2002 – 2010, Web, viewed on 27 March 2010.
Giese, Paula. Navajo-Hopi Long Land Dispute. 20 March 1997, Web, viewed on 19 Feb 2010.
Giese, Paula. Hogan: Diné (Navajo) Traditional House. 16 May 1997, Web, viewed on 12 March 2010.
Hartshorne, Shedy. The Navajo Nation: Monument Valley and Canyon de Chelly. Gonomad. Web, viewed on 9 Feb 2010.
Henry, Helen, and Marc Sills. Relocation: Dine Communities Continue to Resist. View From the Hogan. Web, viewed on 21 Feb 2010.
History Page. The Navajo Nation. 2005, Web, viewed on 2 Feb 2010.
Information on Navajo Culture. Ancestral Art. 31 Dec 2003, Web, viewed on 2 Feb 2010.
Judge Lifts U.S. Ban, Allowing Navajos to Build on Disputed Land. The New York Times. 29 Sept 1992, Web, viewed on 21 Feb 2010.
Muzzey, David Saville. The Mexican War. The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco. Web, viewed on 10 Feb 2010.
Navajo Attorney General says Treaty of 1868 still relevant 139 years after Navajos´ release from Bosque Redondo. The Navajo Nation, Office of the President & Vice President. 5 June 2007, on-line, viewed on 11 Feb 2010.
Navajo Nation Council overwhelmingly approves Bennett Freeze Inter-governmental Compact to lift 40-year-old Bennett Freeze; now moves to Hopi Tribe. The Navajo Nation, Office of the President & Vice President. 26 Sept 2006, on-line, viewed on 22 Feb 2010.
Navajo Nation Tribal Code. San Juan School District. 2003, Web, viewed on 8 March 2010.
Navajo NM: An Administrative History. National Park Service. 22 Jan 2001, Web, viewed on 10 Feb 2010.
Nies, Judith. The Black Mesa Syndrome: Indian Lands, Black Gold. View From the Hogan. Web, viewed on 22 Feb 2010.
Redhouse, John. Geopolitics of the Navajo-Hopi ‘Land Dispute’. View From the Hogan. Web, viewed on 19 Feb 2010.
Redish, Laura, and Orrin Lewis. Navajo Tribe. Native Languages of the Americas. 2009, Web, viewed on 10 Oct 2009.
Rissetto, Adriana C. Changing Woman: Myth, Metaphor, and Pragmatics. University of Virginia. 1997, Web, viewed on 9 March 2010.
Rissetto, Adriana C. Sacred Mountains as a Hogan. University of Virginia. 1997, Web, viewed on 9 March 2010.
Treaty between the United States of America and the Navajo Tribe of Indians. New Mexico State University. 2008, Web, viewed on 11 Feb 2010.
Tribe, Thomas. Photos Native American and Cowboy. Fine Art For Kids.
23 Apr 2009, Web, viewed on 16 March 2010.
U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeal. MASAYESVA v ZAH No. 93-15109. FindLaw. 1995, Electronical document, viewed on 21 Feb 2010.
Weiser, Kathy. The Navajo Nation – Largest in the U.S. Legends of America. Jan 2010, Web, viewed on 8 Feb 2010.
Weiser, Kathy. Fort Defiance – Watching the Navajo. Legends of America. Jan 2009, Web, viewed on 10 Feb 2010.
Wren, Paul. The Two Navaho-Hopi Land Disputes. Wanna be an Anthropologist. 2005, Web, viewed on 19 Feb 2010.
FILMS
Národní parky USA a Kanady. Dir. Rudolf Dörl. ABCD video. 2009. DVD.
Seasons of a Navajo. John Borden. Peace River Films, 1985. Videocassette.
LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Maps
1.1 Routes of the Long Walk
1.2 Border expansion
1.3 Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute
2. Pictures
2.1 Conical hogan
2.2 Hexagonal hogan
2.3 Forked-pole
2.4 Six-sided hogan
3. Work Sheets
3.1 The Navaho – questionnaire
3.2 The Navaho – basic information
3.3 Listening task
3.4 Sacred Mountains
3.5 Questions to the film
3.6 Puzzle
3.7 Words for “Creators”
3.8 Creation poster - draft
3.9 History – text
3.10 Matching exercise
3.11 Homework – irregular verbs
3.12 Questions about the history
3.13 Crossword – irregular verb forms
3.14 Translators
3.15 Game board - draft
3.16 Game Cards
3.16.1 Navaho questions
3.16.2 Irregular verbs
3.17 Regular + irregular verbs – cards
APPENDICES
1. Maps
1. Routes of the Long Walk
(McCullough-Brabson and Help 56)
2. Border expansion
[pic]
(Benally, Clyde, Andrew O. Wiget, John R. Alley, and Garry Blake 160)
3. Navajo-Hopi Land Dispute
[pic]
[pic]
(Benedek 2)
2. Pictures
1. Conical hogan
(Nabokov 329)
2. Hexagonal hogan
[pic]
(Tribe)
3. Forked-pole
[pic]
(Nabokov 325)
4. Six-sided hogan
[pic]
(Nabokov 325)
3. Work Sheets
1. The Navaho – questionnaire
Choose the correct answer:
1. What or who is the Navaho?
a) a person who travels a lot
b) a member of a Native American tribe
c) a famous American actor
2. In which area of the USA can we find the Navaho?
a) the south-west of the USA
b) near the Great Lakes
c) Florida
3. What is a hogan?
a) a kind of fish living only in America
b) the highest tree in the USA
c) the traditional house of American Indians
2. The Navaho – basic information
The Navahos, who call themselves Diné ("The People“), are the largest Native American tribe in the North America. Today they number about 250,000. The Navaho country extends into the states of Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. The area is called the Four Corners because there is the only point where four states touch: Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. In four cardinal directions four Navaho Sacred Mountains are situated (see chapter 2).
The Navahos live on a reservation, which is land that belongs to them and is under their control. The Navajo Nation has its own government, laws, police, and services, just like a small country (Redish).
The traditional house is a "hogan." It has six or eight sides and is made of logs, brush, and mud. The door faces east towards the rising sun. Today, most of the Navaho people live in modern houses just like you. However, hogans are still built and used for family ceremonies and some older Navahos still prefer to live in hogans (see chapter 5).
The dress of the Navaho men consists of blue denim, pants, bright shirts and scarves, and large felt hat. Women wear long, fluted skirts and velveteen blouses. Some older people wear moccasins (Kluckhohn and Leighton 86).
The principal food is meat, usually mutton or goat, and corn prepared in many ways. Bread made by Navahos resembles the Mexican tortilla (Redish).
3. Listening task
Answer the question according to what you hear:
1. Who are the Navahos?
2. Which states does the Navaho country cover?
3. Do the Navahos have their own government?
4. What is a hogan?
5. What do they use it for?
6. What do the Navaho men wear?
7. What do the Navaho women wear?
8. What do the Navahos eat?
9. What do you know about Navaho Sacred Mountains? (how many? connected with?)
10. What do Navaho men and women do? (typical jobs)
4. Sacred Mountains
One of the things which are really important to the Navahos is the land they live on. The Navaho land is bordered by four Sacred Mountains which form the basis of Navaho beliefs. It is said that the Creator placed the Navahos on the land between these Sacred Mountains and the Navahos have never left this land. The Navahos believe that everything in the world is either male or female and so are the mountains. In each of these mountains there are the “Holy People” which are there to gather the clouds and answer prayers. There is a sacred object and colour representing each of the four cardinal directions.
Blanca Peak – it is the sacred mountain of the east. The sacred object placed in it is white shell and the symbolic colour is white. This mountain stands in Colorado and the male rain comes from there.
Mount Taylor – this is the mountain of the south. From this direction the female rain always comes. Mt. Taylor is represented by turquoise and the colour for this mountain is blue. You can find this mountain in New Mexico.
San Francisco Peaks – this is the sacred mountain of the west. It is symbolized by abalone and the yellow colour. The mountain is situated in Arizona. This mountain gives the male rain.
Hesperus Peak – this is the mountain of the north. The sacred object placed in this mountain is jet and the colour is black. Hesperus Peak gives us the female rain. The mountain is found in Colorado (see chapter 4).
5. Questions to the film
Answer the question according to what was said in the document:
1. What is the name of the Indian dwelling built in the 12th century?
2. What is the name of the so called “town of millionaires”?
3. Which of the Navaho Sacred Mountains was named in the film?
4. What is the width and the length of the Grand Canyon?
5. Who were the first Europeans in the Grand Canyon?
6. Who did the first map of the Grand Canyon?
7. When has the Grand Canyon become the national park?
8. What is the name of the valley where the Navaho reservation spread? Why is it called like this?
9. Why do not the Navahos cut their hair?
10. What are Navaho rugs made of?
1 Puzzle
Unscramble each of the words. Copy the letters in the numbered cells to other cells with the same number. Next to the puzzle there are clues to help you to find the correct words.
1. Land is ______ to the Navahos.
2. The Navaho is the North American Indian _____.
3. Everything in the Navaho world is either male or ______.
4. The traditional Navaho house is called_____.
5. The Navaho reservation covers the states of New Mexico, Arizona, and ____.
6. Nowadays, the Navaho traditional house is mainly used for __________ (plural).
7. The region the Navahos live in is called Four _______.
8. The Navaho reservation is bordered by four Sacred _________.
Results
1. Land is SACRED to the Navahos.
2. The Navaho is the North American Indian TRIBE.
3. Everything in the Navaho world is either male or FEMALE.
4. The traditional Navaho house is called HOGAN.
5. The Navaho reservation covers the states of New Mexico, Arizona, and UTAH.
6. Nowadays, the Navaho traditional house is mainly used for CEREMONIES (plural).
7. The region the Navahos live in is called Four CORNERS.
8. The Navaho reservation is bordered by four sacred MOUNTAINS.
6. Words for “Creators”
• FIVE WORLDS
• AIR PEOPLE
• FLOOD
• MONSTERS
• FOUR MOUNTAINS
7. Creation poster - draft
Fifth World = our world ( Changeable
• sun, moon, stars created
• Sacred Mountains and the First Hogan
• Monsters
Fourth World
• inhabitants: “Kiis´áanii”
• first people created
• magic reed
Third World
• inhabitants: Grasshopper People
• bad behaviour( escape in the west
Second World
• inhabitants: Swallow People
• bad behaviour( escape in the south
First World
• inhabitants: Air People
• bad behaviour( escape in the east
(
(see chapter 3)
8. History – text
On 3 August 1492, an Italian sailor, Christopher Columbus, sailed from Spain westwards to discover a new way to Asia. In October, 1492, he discovered an island which he thought was the Indies and that was why he called the inhabitants “Indians”. This was, however, a new land. Today, we call it “America”.
Other European nations sailed later to America as well and settled colonies there (O´Callaghan 4, 11).
The first Europeans the Navahos met were Spaniards. It was in 1626.
In the 17th century the Navahos raided Spaniards and stole their horses, sheep or goats. That made the Spaniards angry. In 1805, the Spaniards massacred a hundred of the Navahos in Canyon del Muerto. Despite this, the raids continued. In 1863, the Americans devastated the Navaho land and in 1864, thousands of the Navahos had to walk 300 miles to Bosque Redondo. Many of them died there. They returned to homeland in 1868 after they signed a treaty with the Americans. Afterwards they planted corn and raised livestock (see chapters 2.2; 2.3).
9. Matching exercise
Match the dates with events related to it:
1492 America was discovered by Christopher Columbus and its inhabitants were called “Indians”.
1626 the first Navahos were seen by the Spaniards.
1805 over a hundred of the Navahos were massacred by the Americans because Spanish settlements were attacked and livestock was stolen by them.
1864 thousands of the Navahos were taken to Bosque Redondo and were kept there.
1868 a treaty between the Americans and the Navahos was signed and the Navahos were left free. Livestock and corn was raised.
1933 Navaho livestock was reduced because there was not enough food for it.
10. Homework – irregular verbs
1. set
BE
BECOME
BEGIN
BREAK
BRING
BUILD
BUY
CATCH
CHOOSE
COME
2. set
COST
CUT
DO
DRAW
DRINK
DRIVE
EAT
FALL
FEEL
FIND
3. set
FLY
FORGET
GET
GIVE
GO
HAVE
HEAR
KNOW
LIE
LEARN
4. set
LEAVE
LOSE
MAKE
MEET
PAY
PUT
READ
RIDE
RUN
SAY
2 Questions about the history
Complete the sentences. Use passive:
1. Who discovered America?
America _________________ by _________________.
2. How did Christopher Columbus call the inhabitants of America?
The inhabitants of America ________________ __________.
3. What happened in 1805?
In 1805, the Navahos _________________ (massacre) by Spaniards in Canyon del Muerto.
4. What did the Navahos at Bosque Redondo?
The Navahos ______________ (keep) at Bosque Redondo for 4 years.
5. Why was the year 1868 important?
In 1868, the treaty between Navahos and the Americans ____________ (sign).
6. What happened when there was not enough grass for the livestock?
In 1933, the Navaho livestock ___________________ (reduce).
11. Crossword – irregular verb forms
Complete the crossword. Write the past participle forms of given verbs:
Across
3. BREAK
6. CHOOSE
7. BUILD
Down
1. COME
2. BE
3. BUY
4. CATCH
5. BEGIN
12. Translators
Write sentences in passive. The new sentence has to begin with words in pictures. Be careful about the correct tense.
Many Europeans settled in America.
[pic]______________________________________________________
(North America (Reference Map) 2002, University of Texas Libraries. Web, viewed 6 Apr 2010. )
The Navahos raided Spanish settlements.
[pic]_____________________________________________________
(Vikings. Fen Ditton Community Primary School. Web, viewed 6 Apr 2010. )
The Navahos raise livestock.
[pic]______________________________________________________
(Protection from unwarranted regulation, or a political power grab? The Ohio Liberty Council. Web, viewed on 6 Apr 2010. )
The Navahos make rugs.
[pic]_______________________________________________________
(Navajo Rugs and Weavings. Anderson’s Americana Indian & Western Shows. Web, viewed on 6 Apr 2010. )
The Navahos plant corn.
[pic]_____________________________________________________
(Kukurica. Genius loci – Prameň. 2008, Web, viewed on 6 Apr 2010.
)
The Navahos stole horses.
[pic]____________________________________________________
(Carr, Karen. Poseidon. Portland State University. 2009, Web, viewed on 6 Apr 2010.
)
The Navahos build hogans.
[pic]_______________________________________________
(Navajo Mission Trip. Central Christian Church. 2010, Web, viewed on 6 Apr 2010.
)
The Navahos eat a lot of meat.
[pic]_____________________________________________________
(Maso. Dietologie. 2008, Web, viewed on 6 Apr 2010.
)
13. Game board - draft
[pic]
14. Game Cards
1. Navaho questions
|Who are the Navahos? |In which part of the USA do|How do we call the Navaho |What do the Navahos do for |Say something about the |
| |the Navahos live? |house? |living? |Navaho Creation Myth. |
|Name one of the Navaho |Who were the first |Were the Navahos friends or|How did the Navahos |Everything in the Navaho |
|Sacred Mountains. |Europeans who the Navahos |enemies of Spaniards? Why? |travelled? |world is either |
| |met? | | |M--- or |
| | | | |F----- |
|Which states does the |If you say “Diné” what do |Name anything connected |What is the Navaho hogan |Who discovered America? |
|Navaho reservation cover? |you mean? |with the Navaho Sacred |mainly used for? |When? |
|Name one. |What do you use that word |Mountains. | | |
| |for? | | | |
2. Irregular verbs
|BE |BEGIN |BREAK |BRING |BUILD |
|BUY |CATCH |CHOOSE |DO |DRAW |
|FIND |EAT |COME |FALL |FIND |
|FORGET |GET |FLY |HAVE |HEAR |
|GO |KNOW |LIE |BECOME |COST |
15. Regular + irregular verbs – cards
|BRING |BREAK |BUILD |CATCH |CHOOSE |
|BUY |EAT |GIVE |LEARN |CUT |
|FIND |COOK |OPEN |VISIT |DISCOVER |
RÉSUMÉ
Tato diplomová práce je zaměřena na indiánský kmen Navahů, který je v současné době největším kmenem v severní Americe.
První část je věnována historii tohoto kmene od setkání se Španěly v 16. století až po současnost. Dále je zde popsán mýtus o stvoření tak, jak jej znají Navahové. Právě tento příběh objasňuje spoustu jejich zvyků, a také jejich postoj k životu a celému světu.
V praktické části této práce je uvedeno několik způsobů uplatnění poznatků o tomto kmeni při výuce angličtiny na 2. stupni základních škol. Součástí jsou také reflexe na vyučovací hodiny uskutečněné během souvislé pedagogické praxe na Základní škole v Moravském Písku.
Během výuky zaměřené na kmen Navahů se ukázalo, že reakce žáků na dané téma jsou velmi pozitivní. Již samotné téma bylo pro většinu žáků motivující a tak bylo poměrně snadné udržet jejich pozornost. Žáci nejenže získali základní informace o kmeni Navahů, ale také obohatili svou slovní zásobu. Žáci byli schopni jednoduchými větami prezentovat nově získané poznatky a to jak písemně, tak ústně.
ANOTACE
|Jméno a příjmení: |Bohuslava Poláchová |
|Katedra: |Katedra anglického jazyka |
|Vedoucí práce: |Alexandra Hubáčková, M.A., Ph.D. |
|Rok obhajoby: |2010 |
| | |
|Název práce: |Využití tématu „Navahové“ v hodinách anglického jazyka |
| | |
|Název v angličtině: |Application of the topic “The Navaho” to English Classes |
|Anotace práce: |Tato diplomová práce pojednává o životě a kultuře severoamerického kmene Navahů. |
| |Teoretická část, která vychází z poznatků z odborné literatury, je zaměřena především|
| |na historii a mýtus o stvoření tohoto kmene. V praktické části je uvedeno několik |
| |možných postupů uplatnění poznatků prezentovaných v teoretické části práce při |
| |hodinách anglického jazyka na 2. stupni základních škol. Součástí práce je také |
| |reflexe na vyučovací hodiny, které již byly uvedeny do praxe. |
|Klíčová slova: |Indiáni, Navahové, Diné, původní Američané, jihozápad |
|Anotace v angličtině: |This diploma thesis comments on the life and culture of a North American Indian |
| |tribe, called the Navaho. In the theoretical part, which is based on relevant |
| |background literature, the Navaho history and Creation Myth are presented. In the |
| |practical part several possibilities of using this topic in English classes are |
| |introduced. There are also reflections of those lessons which were put into practice.|
|Klíčová slova v angličtině: |Indians, Navaho, Diné, natives, southwest, Four Corners |
|Přílohy vázané v práci: |24 příloh |
|Rozsah práce: |85 s., 23 s. příloh |
|Jazyk práce: |AJ |
-----------------------
Solution = topic of the lesson = CREATION
Solution: CREATION
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