JUDAISM



BASIC ELEMENTS OF JUDAISM

A: History and Identity: major elements for consideration

1. TENAK (Torah {Pentateuch}, Nevi’im {Prophets}, Ketuvim {Writings}), Talmud (Mishnah and Gemara), Election and the Land.

2. The historical development of Judaism within the biblical period: Pre-exilic and Post exilic [The Babylonian Exile 587-537 BCE]: the Torah, the Shabbat, the Synagogue, the teaching of separation (Gen 1:1-2:4a – badal – to divide); Gen 18 – circumcision; Lev 11 – kashrut; Lev: priesthood and sacrifices, Feasts and fasts, the Law of Holiness; Ezra-Nehemiah: Torah and non-intermarriage). The proclamation of monotheism as opposed to monolatry (e.g. Ex 20:1-2; Is 45:7-13)

3. The Inter-Testamental period: divisions within Judaism and Jewish practices – the Pharisees, Sadducees and scribes, the Essenes, the Zealots etc. The witness of the New Testament (cf. Luke 4:16-22 – the oldest account of a synagogue service). Qumran and its collections.

4. The destruction of the Temple (70 CE), with the gradual canonization of the Scriptures and the development of the rabbinical authority.

5. The Mishnah (c. 200 CE) and Gemara (3rd-5th Century CE): the Talmud (Babli and Yerushalmi); the Halakhah (Hb: halakh – to walk) and the Haggadah (Hb: higgid – to relate); Masorah (Hb: to hedge round).

6. The Kabbalah (12th Century CE). The witness of the texts of the Cairo Geniza.

7. The Shulchan Aruch (1565 CE).

8. Ashkenazi and Sephardi. The development of the Hasidic

movements in the 18th and 19th centuries.

9. Categories of Ultra-Orthodox, Orthodox, Conservative, Reform and

Progressive. There are divisions also within these categories.

10. The Shoah and post-Shoah debates.

11. The creation of the State of Israel (1948) and the huge subsequent

developments.

B: Living Judaism today: major elements

1. The ‘branch’ of Judaism espoused colours the whole approach to the whole of life. The amount of halakhah followed demonstrates the branch to which one belongs (cf. Christianity where it is dogma that divides).

2. Feasts and celebrations: The High Holy Days (Rosh ha Shanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkoth, Simchat Torah) [Lev 23:23-36], Pesah [Ex 12:1-51, Shavuoth [Lev 23:15-22], Purim [Esther], Hannukah [I Macc 4:52-61].

3. Synagogue/Shabbat liturgy.

The Catholic Church and Judaism

1. Nostra Aetate (1965). The fifteen short Latin sentences of section 4 contain six major affirmations:

i) The special bond that links the Church with the Jewish people

ii) The special position of the Jewish people after Christ

iii) A joint looking forward to the last days

iv) The encouragement of mutual understanding and respect

v) The Jews are not collectively culpable for the death of Christ

vi) Anti-Semitism is condemned.

2. Guidelines and Suggestions for Implementing the Conciliar Declaration Nostra Aetate 4 (1974). This is divided into four sections: (i) Dialogue; (ii) Liturgy; (iii) Teaching and Education; (iv) Joint Social Action.

3. Notes on the Correct Way to Present the Jews and Judaism in Preaching and Catechesis in the Roman Catholic Church (1985).

This is the first Vatican document to acknowledge the issues connected with typology and more systematically examine promise-fulfilment categories. It is also the first Document to mention explicitly the State of Israel. The Document is divided into six sections: (i) Religious teaching on Judaism; (ii) Relations between the Old and New Testaments; (iii) Jewish roots of Christianity; (iv) The Jew in the New Testament; (v) The Liturgy; (vi) Judaism and Christianity in History. “The singular character and difficulty of Christian teaching about Jews and Judaism lies in this, that it needs to balance a number of pairs of ideas which express the two economies of the Old and New Testament:

Promise and fulfilment

Continuity and newness

Singularity and universality

Uniqueness and exemplary nature.

This means that the theologian and the catechist who deal with the subject need to show in their practice of teaching that:

Promise and fulfilment throw light upon each other

Newness lies in a metamorphosis of what was there before

The singularity of the people of the Old Testament is not exclusive and is open, in the divine vision, to a universal extension

The uniqueness of the Jewish people is meant to have the force of example.

4. We Remember (1998). This is specifically on The Shoah.

5. The Jewish People and their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible (2001). This has four major sections: (i) The Sacred Scriptures of the Jewish People are a fundamental part of the Christian Bible; (ii) Fundamental Themes in the Jewish Scriptures and their Reception into Faith in Christ; (iii) The Jews and the New Testament; (iv) Conclusions. There is an encouragement to acknowledge and respect the Jewish hermeneutic of the Hebrew Scriptures, to avoid all traces of substitution and supersessionism and to explore the continuity, recognise the discontinuity and note the progression rather than the rupture between the Testaments.

6. The role of St. John Paul II (1978-2005). He substantially and consistently advanced the dialogue and the relationship: ‘The Old Covenant never revoked’ (Mainz 17/11/1980); ‘Beloved elder brothers’ (Roman Tempio Maggiore 13/4/1986); ‘Anti-Semitism is sinful’ (Sydney 26/11/1986); the Fundamental Agreement (30/12/1993); the Day of Pardon (12/3/2000); the Kotel (26/5/2000).

7. Pope Benedict XVI continued the approach of John Paul II.

8. Pope Francis: ‘As Christians, we cannot consider Judaism as a foreign religion…God continues to work among the people of the Old Covenant and to bring forth treasures of wisdom which flow from the encounter with his word. For this reason, the Church is also enriched when she receives the values of Judaism.’ (EN 247-249).

9. A Reflection on Theological Questions pertaining to Catholic-Jewish Relations (2015). “It is easy to understand that the so-called ‘mission to the Jews’ is a very delicate and sensitive matter for the Jews…This question also proves to be awkward for Christians. The Church is therefore obliged to view evangelization to the Jews, who believe in the One God, in a different manner from that to people of other religions and world views. In concrete terms this means that the Catholic church neither conducts nor supports any specific institutional mission work directed towards Jews.” (par. 40).

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bemporad, J and Shevack, M. Our Age: The Historic New Era of Christian-Jewish Understanding. New York: New York City Press, 1996.

Bloch, Abraham P. The Biblical and Historical Background of the Jewish Holy Days. New York: Ktav Publishing Inc., 1978.

Boys, Mary and Lee, Sara Christians and Jews in Dialogue. Woodstock (VT): SkyLight Paths Publishing, 2006.

Cohn-Sherbok, Dan The Crucified Jew. Twenty Centuries of Christian Anti-Semitism. London: Harper Collins, 1992.

Fredericksen, Paula and Reinhartz (eds.), Jesus, Judaism and Christian Anti-Judaism. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002.

Kessler, Edward; Pawlikowski, John; Banki, Judith (eds.), Jews and Christians in Conversation. Cambridge: Orchard Academic, 2002.

Korn, E & Pawlikowski, John (eds.) Two Faiths, One Covenant? Jewish and Christian Identity in the Presence of the Other. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005.

Lux, Richard, The Jewish People, the Holy Land and the State of Israel. A Catholic View. New York/Mahwah (NJ): Paulist Press, 2010.

Sacks, Jonathan Faith in the Future. London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1995.

Schama, Simon The Story of the Jews. Finding the Words 1000 BCE – 1492 CE London: The Bodley Head

Sweeney, Marvin A., Reading the Hebrew Bible after the Shoah. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2008.

GOD (G-D)

A: There is no ‘theology’ as we understand it in Orthodox Judaism. G-d is not disputed: He exists, he is One, the Creator of everything, he is incorporeal, neither male nor female, omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, eternal, just and merciful, holy, perfect – as portrayed e.g. in the First Creation account (Gen 1:1-2:4a). He is the One who gives his Torah (Law, way of life) to Israel (especially in the Decalogue – Ex 20:1- 20). He is the Judge of all and full of love. The Book of Deuteronomy time and time again reminds the people of God’s love for them and the way they are called to love others (Dt 7:7-16). The Prophets alternate oracles of condemnation (e.g. Amos 1-2, Hosea 1-3; Isaiah 29) with oracles of salvation (Amos 11; Hos 11; Is 11). The Psalms too are full of expressions of God’s judgement but also his mercy and love to Israel and indeed to all. The word hesed (God’s merciful love) occurs 151 times in the Psalms.

Christians need to avoid stereotypical approaches that are Marcionite and ultimately supersessionist – that the God of the Old Testament is one of Law and judgement only and that the God of the New Testament is one of love.

B: Within Judaism the divine Tetragrammaton (YHWH) is never pronounced or written. G-d is written without the ‘o’ to show respect. The normal way of talking about G-d is HaShem (the Name), HaQadosh (the Holy One) and HaMaqqom (the Place) often followed by barukh hu (blessed be He). Within prayer, HaShem is often addressed as Melek-ha-Olam (King of the Universe) or Avinu Malkeinu (Our Father and King), Adonai (Lord).

C: 13 principles of Maimonedes (Rambam). These are recited by Orthodox and some other Jews daily.

Belief in:

1. The existence of the Creator, who is perfect in every manner of existence and is the primary cause of all that exists.

2. In God’s absolute and unparalleled unity.

3. In God’s non-corporeality, nor is he affected by any physical occurrences such as movement, rest or dwelling.

4. He is eternal.

5. The imperative to worship God exclusively and no false gods.

6. God communicates to man through prophecy.

7. The primacy of the prophecy of Moses our teacher.

8. Divine origin of the Torah.

9. The immutability of the Torah.

10. God’s omniscience and providence.

11. Divine reward and retribution.

12. Arrival of the Messiah and Messianic era.

13. Resurrection from the dead.

The world was created for the sake of the Torah and human beings so that they can fulfil its mitzvoth. Through these we can break through the chasm between God and humanity.

Not all Jews – at the time of Maimonedes or now – hold to the 13 principles or have the same interpretation of them. Reform and Progressive (Liberal) Jews can follow Higher Biblical Critical approaches and do accept that the Torah was composed over centuries. They also accept a development in Israel’s understanding of God – from a more primitive (as e.g. in the Second Creation account - Gen 2:4a onwards) notion that is similar in parts to ANE expressions of the deity (ies) to more particular Israelite notions during and after the Exile. They can accept, for example, that the doctrine of monotheism develops from monolatry (e.g. Ex 20:1-2 and Is 45:1-13).

They also question the actual meaning of the coming of the Meshiach and would tend to talk of a Messianic Age.

The Shema [Dt 6:4-6] (recited morning and night, on other occasions and at the moment of death) proclaims both that there is One God and that also He is One – a unity.

Shema Yisrael: Shema Yisrael Adonai elohenu Adonai ehad. Vaahavta ethAdonai eloheka vkol levavka uvkolnephsheka uvekolmodeka. Va haya hdevarim haeleh asher anoki mtsascha hayom al levaveka. Vshinamtam lavaneka vidabartam bshivteka bveiteka uvlechtecha vaderech uveshawchbcha uvkumecha. Ukshartam leot al yadecha, vhayu letotafot bein einecha. Uchtavtam al mzuzot beiteka uvesharecha.

Hear O Israel the Lord our God, the Lord is One. And you must love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your strength. And these are the words which I order today for your heart. And you shall repeat them to your children and say them to them at rest in your house, when you are walking in the way, when you lie down and when you rise. And you shall bind them on your hand as a sign and as a circlet on your forehead. And you shall write them on your doorposts of your house and on your gates.

This text is taken literally as the biblical injunction for mezuzahs (written inside of which are the Hebrew texts of Dt 6:4-9 and Dt 11:13-21) and phylacteries [tefillin] (with the texts of Dt 6:4-9, Dt 11:13-21 and Ex 13:1-16). Theses are worn for prayer along with the tallit with tzizit (knots/threads) [cf. Num 15:38].

MITZVOTH

The mitzvoth all come from the Divine Will, given in their entirety through Moses on Sinai. This is the Covenant. Orthodox Jews are completely fundamentalists about this.

Rabbis divide the 613 commandments between bein adam la-makom (between God and man) and bein adam lal-havero (between man and man). The latter are just as binding as the former. 365 are negative and 248 are positive.

Mitzvoth between man and God include:

Positive:

Love God

Know God

Study Torah

Remember the Sabbath (4th commandment)

Negative:

Do not profane God’s name

Do not worship idols

Mitzvoth between man and man include:

Positive:

Tzedekah.. Justice and giving 10 per cent of salary to works of justice

Honour father and mother

Bikkur cholim – visiting the sick

Gemilut Hassidim – acts of loving kindness

Chessed – kindness to others

Pekuach Nefesh – to save a life

Negative:

Do not commit adultery

Do not envy

Do not steal

Do not kill

Do not deal harshly with widows and orphans

Do not hold back a hired man’s wages.

They are the bridge between God and man. Rambam: their rationale is for the benefit and improvement of man. The mitzvoth are desgined to curb the violence in human nature through incessant exercise of moral discipline and to harness both the good and evil inclinations towards service to man and God. Many verses in the Torah express this teleology of the mitzvoth.

Rabbinic tradition accepts three kinds of mitzvoth: commandments, statutes and ordinances ‘all designed for your good.’ Dt 4:1; 10:13

Underlying these is an ethical imperative, pronounced in Ex 34:6.

There is a gradation of sin indicated by the severity of the form of punishment – death, whipping etc. Rabbinic tradition knows of 3 cardinal sins which a Jew should be prepared to give up his life rather than commit: murder, idol-worship, incest. For sins committed against one’s fellowman, in contrast to those committed against God, the only atonement is to earn forgiveness from the injured person.

3 objectives of mitzvoth

1. A blessing to man

2. Holiness

3. To understand the forbidden and the permitted

The mitzvoth are positive or negative: positive – to perform an act (mitzvoth aseh); negative – to abstain (mitzvoth lo taaseh).

The noun mitzvah occurs 180 times in the Hebrew Bible (LXX – entole).

Can man be educated to act morally? Yes, through the mitzvoth. E.g. Smoking is not good but ethical prescriptions of Kant etc. or of society will not stop it. But the mitzvah not to light up on Shabbat will.

Ben Azzai: ‘Run to do even a slight precept…for one good deed draws another good deed in its train…for the reward of a good deed is a good deed and the wages of sin is sin (Pirqe Aboth).

List of the categories of the 613 mizvoth:

God

Torah

Signs and symbols

Prayers and blessings

Love and brotherhood

The poor and unfortunate

Treatment of gentiles

Marriage, divorce and family

Forbidden sexual relations

Times and seasons

Dietary laws

Business practices

Employees, servants and slaves

Vows, oaths and swearing,

Sabbatical and Jubilee years

Court and judicial procedures

Injuries and damages

Property and property rights

Criminal laws

Punishment and Restitution

Prophecy

Idolatry, Idolaters and idolatrous practices

Agriculture and animal husbandry

Clothing

The firstborn

Kohanim and Levites

T’rumah, tithes and taxes

The Temple, the Sanctuary and sacred objects

Sacrifices and Offerings

Ritual purity and impurity

Lepers and leprosy

The King

Nazarites

Wars

The number 613 is not without dispute. Early texts do not mention this number. The number comes from the 3rd century CE when Rabbi Simlai mentioned it (Talmud Makkot 23b). Rambam collected the number together in the Mishneh Torah. Some of the mitzvoth only apply to the land of Israel (Eretz Israel) and others do not apply – e.g. about the Temple and criminal procedures. Biblical mitzvoth are referred to in the Talmud as mitzvoth d’oraita as opposed to rabbinical mitzvoth d’raabbbanan.

Some of the mitzvoth will be annulled in the Messianic era – but there is a debate about which ones.

The word Torah has the numerical value of 611 + the first two of the 10 commandments = 613.

There are six constant mitzvoth applicable at all times:

1. To believe in God and that he created all things

2. Not to believe in anything else other than God

3. To believe in God’s oneness

4. To fear God

5. To love God

6. Not to pursue the passions of your heart and stray after your eyes.

MITZVOTH AND FREEWILL

Judaism does not have a concept of ‘The Fall’ (not a term used in Genesis 3 but in Romans 5) or Original Sin or therefore of Concupiscence. The teaching from the sin of Adam and Eve is in the Yetzer ha tov (good inclination) and the Yetzer ha ra’ (evil inclination). Both battle within us and through the obedience to the mitzvoth the Jew opens up to the Yetzer ha tov. Disobedience to the mitzvoth allows the flourishing of the Yetzer ha ra. By doing a good deed tiqqun olam (the redemption of the universe) can be forwarded and by doing a bad deed it can be lessened.

Article on freewill by Jonathan Sachs (on line under freewill)

Ultimately he says freewill requires discipline or else we become a prisoner to our addictions etc. The first 5 of Pharaoh’s hardening of heart (Ex 7:14-9:7) were his own – then God strengthened him to keep freewill? Or God punished him in the second 5. We loose our freedom gradually often without noticing it. That is what the Torah has been implying almost from the beginning (cf. Gen 4:7). The maintenance of freewill needs willpower. Instinctive reaction can take the place of reflective decision.

The power of conformism is immense. Abram was told to leave his land, birthplace and father’s house (Gen 12:1). These are the 3 factors - culture, community and early childhood – that circumscribe our freedom.

Freedom in its deepest sense, the freedom to do the right and the good, is not a given. We acquire it or loose it gradually. Judaism is an invitation to freedom by resisting the idols and siren calls of the age.

SHEKINAH

The noun Shekinah is from the Hebrew shakan (LXX and NT skenoo) – to settle, inhabit or dwell. It is often used of birds nesting. The actual noun shekinah does not occur in the Hebrew Scriptures but the noun mishkan = dwelling place does e.g. Ps 132:5. In classic Jewish thought Shekinah refers to a dwelling or settling of the divine presence. It is held by some to be the feminine attributes of the presence of God in the Temple and tabernacle in Jerusalem and in acts of public prayer. It is clearly part of the debate about balancing the complete separation of God (transcendence) and his presence on earth (immanence) – although Judaism does not use these terms.

The Mishnah uses Shekinah twice – about 2 or 10 men gathering together and the shekinah being present. The Targum uses word – probably to show God is omnipresent and not in one place. The Targum also uses memra (word) and yekara (glory). The Prophets have special relationship to presence of God in the Temple. In Hassidic Judaism – the Kabbalah – the Shekinah has special significance.

The 17th century Amidah has ‘Blessed are you who returns his presence (shekinato) to Zion.’

In the Zohar (first appeared in Spain in the 13th century), the Shekinah plays an essential role in the birth of Moses.

There is no uniformity among the Rabbis in understanding the exact meaning and attributes of the Shekinah. Maimonedes regarded the Shekinah as a distinct entity, as a light created to be an intermediary between God and the world. Nahmanides sees it as the essence of God as manifested in a distinct form.

In more modern times Grofer saw the Shekinah (along with memra and yekara) as an independent entities – and the origin of the logos idea; Maybaum sees the Shekinah as an expression of the various relations of God with the world and intended to represent: (i) the dwelling of God in the midst of Israel; (ii) His omnipresence; (iii) His personal presence. Consistency is not found in the Targumim nor in the Talmud or Midrash since different people express different opinions.

In rabbinic tradition, the Shekinah was one of the five things lacking in the Second Temple period. Shunning the gentiles it rested solely among the Israelites and even there only when they numbered at least 2,002 myriads.

The Shekinah is present when 2 people are engaged with the Torah, when 10 pray, study the Law at night, reading the Shema, in benevolence, chastity, hospitality, prayer, peace and faithfulness in married life. Sins cause the Shekinah to depart. The Shekinah appears as light.

Many believe that the Shekinah continues to dwells on the Western Wall in Jerusalem – as the only part of the Temple that was not destroyed by Titus in 70 CE. There are signs proclaiming this near the Western Wall plaza. This is also the mention of the Creation of the World, the Aqidah (the binding of Isaac – Genesis 22), the purchase by David of the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite, the building of the First Temple by Solomon and the Second Temple by Zerubbabel.

The polemical attitude which the concept of the Shekinah portrays towards the NT – with its idea of logos (John) and the understanding of Jesus as the presence of God - is unmistakable.

MESHIACH

The coming of the Meshiach is part of Rambam’s 13 principles of faith. In the Shemoneh Esrei [the Amidah] (recited 3 times a day), Jews pray for all the elements of the coming of the Meshiach:

The ingathering of exiles; restoration of the courts of justice; an end of wickedness, sin and heresy; reward to the righteous; rebuilding of Jerusalem; restoration of the line of King David; restoration of the Temple service.

The Torah does not mention the Meshiach but contains references to the end of days which is the time of the Meshiach. The Christian concept of suffering and saviour, of an innocent, divine being has nothing to do with the Jewish understanding.

The Meshiach will be a great political leader descended from David (Jer 23:5) – well-versed in Jewish law, observant of his commandments (Is 11:2-5). He will be a charismatic, military leader who will win battles for Israel and a great judge who makes righteous decisions (Jer 33:15). But he will be a human being.

When will he come?

There are different opinions but most suggest that the conduct of mankind will determine it – the time most needed (because of sin) or most deserved (because the world is so good). Each of the following has been suggested as the time for the coming of the Meshiach:

1. If Israel repented a single day

2. If Israel observed a Shabbat properly

3. If Israel observed two Shabbats in a row properly

4. In a generation that is totally innocent or totally guilty

5. In a generation that looses hope

6. In a generation where children are totally disrespectful towards their parents and elders.

What will the Meshiach do?

Before his time there will be war and suffering (Ez 38:16) and then the Meshiach will bring about the political and spiritual redemption of the Jewish people by bringing them back to Israel and restoring Jerusalem (Is 11: 11-12; Jer 23:8; 30:3; Hos 3:4-5). He will establish a government in Israel that will be the centre of all world government both for Jews and gentiles (Is 2:2-4; 11:10; 42:1). He will rebuild the Temple and re-establish worship) [Jer 33:18] and restore the court system of Israel and establish Jewish law as the law of the land (Jer 33:15).

The Messianic Age

This is the Olam hah-bah (term also used for the after-life).

Olam hah-bah is characterized by the peaceful co-existence of all people (Is 2:4). Hatred, intolerance and war will cease. There are different opinions about Is 11:6-9 and the return to paradise. All of the Jews will come to Israel (Is 11:11-12; Jer 23:8; 30:3; Hos 3:4-5). The Jubilee law will be reinstated.

In the Olam hah-bah the whole world will recognize God as the only true one and the Jewish religion as the only true religion (Is 2:3; 11:10; Mic 4:2-3; Zech 14:9) No murder, robbery, competition or jealousy; no sin (Zeph 3:13). Sacrifices will continue to be brought to the Temple but they will be limited to thanksgiving offerings – there will be no need for others.

Fundamentalist Christians support all aspects of the State of Israel (including settlement activity) because they understand it as the prelude to the ultimate conversion of Israel and the coming of the Messiah with the Messianic Age. The position of the Catholic Church is that of acknowledging the State of Israel (1993 Fundamental Agreement) as in its pre 1967 borders – but this is nothing to do with Messianic understandings.

MOSHE RABBEINU

Moshe is the greatest of all the Prophets, the one to whom God spoke in the Burning Bush (Ex 3:1-6), face to face (Dt 34:10) and mouth to mouth (Nm 12:8). His biblical story is found in the Books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.

He was born 7 Adar 2368 (from creation) [1400 BCE], son of Amram and Yocheved (Ex 6:16-20). Named Chaver or Avigdor but his Egyptian name - Moshe (taken out) is the one by which he is known.

When he was 40 years old, he killed an Egyptian (Ex 2:11-13). But he is chosen and called by God to lead the people out of the slavery of Egypt (Ex 3:1 – 15:21. He is the intermediary in receiving the Covenant (Ex 19:3-25). But he is not allowed to go into the Promised Land because he struck the rock rather than merely speak to it as the Lord had commanded him (Num 20:11).

(A midrash says he was chosen because of his kindness to animals because he ensured that a little lamb was brought to water to drink.)

Moshe died in 2488, living until he was 120.

Moshe is expanded hugely in the tradition. He received not merely the Ten Words (ashere devarim, the Decalogue) [as in Ex 20:1-17 and Dt 5:6-21) but the entire Torah – written (Miqra) and oral (Mishnah) from God on Mt Sinai. He wrote down the five books of the Torah. He foresaw all the rest of the Prophets (Nevi’im) and Writings (Ketuvim)– in other words the whole of the Tenak. The belief in Moshe as the greatest of the Prophets is one of 13 principles of belief of Rambam. The phrase Moshe rabbeinu is numerically is 613.

BERIT - COVENANT

In the Scriptures, the word covenant (Hb: berit) – solemn agreement - is used on a human level, between human beings and are sealed with blood, either of the human beings or of animals (Gen 15:7-11).

The word is also used for the relationship of God with his people. Some covenants are unilateral (promissory) while others are bilateral (obligatory). In the first, God bestows the Covenant without the need of human response (e.g. Gen 15:18-21). In the latter, a response is demanded from human beings (e.g. Ex 20:1-17).

The Covenant at Sinai is the primordial one. Orthodox Jews are fundamentalist as far as the whole of the Tenak is concerned and in particular about the Covenant of Sinai. Jonathan Sachs argues that one cannot be really Jewish unless there is the belief that the whole Torah is minhashshammayim – i.e. from God.

The Noahide covenant (Gen 9:1-17) and covenants with Abraham (Gen 15:17-21; 17:1-27) precede the Sinai Covenant (Ex 20:1 onwards). The rabbinical tradition is that the Covenant with Noah is with all people – not just Jews. Gentiles enter the Noahide Covenant when they respect seven laws:

1. Do not deny God

2. Do not blaspheme God

3. Do not murder

4. Do not engage in incest, adultery, pederasty or bestiality

5. Do not steal

6. Do not eat a live animal

7. Establish courts or legal systems to uphold the law

The Covenant with Abraham is specifically with the Jews and involves circumcision of males. The latter was renewed at Sinai before the giving of the law when the people pledged to keep the Covenant (Ex 19:8). After the giving of the law, Moses sprinkles blood to signify the mystical union of Israel and God. Of this ‘everlasting’ Covenant the Sabbath is declared the sign forever (Ex 31:13-17).

Jewish tradition recognises four times when the Sinai Covenant was renewed: by Moses on the plains of Moab (Dt 29:1,9); by Joshua before his death (Josh 24:25); by the High Priest Johoida (2 Kgs 9:19); by Josiah (2 Kings 22:2-3). Jeremiah 31:31 is seen to be a renewal of the Sinai Covenant.

Every sacrifice was a renewal of covenant with God (Ps 1:5). After the Fall of the Temple, circumcision and the Sabbath were especially signs of the Covenant during the post- Exilic and Maccabean period as they still are today.

The Covenant remains central to the Orthodox and many Jews. It is renewed every Shabbat, at the three pilgrimage feasts (Passover – Pesach, Weeks – Shavuoth, Tabernacles – Sukkot), every morning at the putting on of the tefillin and at circumcision (Berit milah)

In the early to mid 20th Century some biblical scholars argued that the Decalogue and other law codes within the Scriptures were drawn from surrounding Ancient Near Eastern models – especially Hittite and neo-Assyrian treaties. These are between the over-Lord and his vassals and include stipulations of what the vassals must do. But while some elements of the format of Covenants of the Scriptures are similar, they are completely different in the fundamental idea as they are based upon the gratuitous love of God for his people (cf. Deuteronomy and Jeremiah – the books that most use the word Covenant). From a biblical critical point of view, the centrality of the idea of Covenant for Judaism developed during the Exile and post-Exilic period. Many Reform and Liberal Jews would hold this view.

Election

Along with the defining issue of the Covenant there is also the election of people by God. Both of these stem from Israel’s origins, providing the rationale for its existence and the form of government. The election of Israel goes hand in hand with the Covenant.

In the 19th century some Reformed Jews thought the election of Israel was too exclusive and talk about the mission of Israel to spread monotheism. In the second quarter of the 20th century Mordecai Kaplan – founder of Reconstructionism – suggested the abandonment of the chosen people doctrine and the replacement by a ‘doctrine of vocation.

THE PROMISED LAND – ERETZ ISRAEL

The history of the Jewish people begins with Abraham who is told to go to the land (Gen 12:1-4) which is then promised repeatedly to him and his descendants – along with the promise of an innumerable posterity and of God’s presence (e.g. Gen 15:1,5-6,18). The land of Israel is central to Judaism and the Tenak is full of the haggadah of the loss and gaining of the Land. Historically, the Northern Kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 721 BCE while the Southern Kingdom fell in 597 BCE. After that with the Persian, Greek and Roman occupations, the Jews lost their real independence although they stayed in the Land – other than the Diaspora in Babylon and Egypt and other cities (as witnessed by the New Testament). After 70 CE the majority was effectively expelled by the Romans and this lead to a wider Diaspora or galut (exile). As time went on, various distinctions grew between the Jews that ended up in Eastern Europe (Ashkenazim) and those who lived in Muslim countries (Sephardim). In many areas there were periodic persecutions and pogroms. The Church was ambivalent over the centuries – joining in the persecution but also attempting to separate and protect them in ghettos – first in Venice and then in Rome and elsewhere. Christians saw the Jews loosing the land and their perpetual wandering as a punishment for not accepting Jesus as the Messiah.

Throughout the centuries, Jews always prayed to be restored to the Land of Israel (as in the Shemoneh Esreh) – but this was often without any real hope of this being done before the arrival of the Meshiach. Neverthless, the Talmud discusses the Land and a substantial portion of the 613 commandments are tied to the Land.

With the Russian pogroms during the reign of Tsar Alexander II, small groups of Jews started to return to the Land. This eventually led to the late 19th century development of Zionism (that there should be a Land of Israel populated by Jews) under Theodore Hertzl. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 supported this. During the 1920s and 30s more Jews began to settle – particularly around Galilee – and buy land from Palestinians. But with the Shoah there was a ground-swell of support in favour of the UN voting for a Jewish homeland in Israel. The British Mandate ended and the State of Israel was declared in 1947.

Any Jew can claim Israeli citizenship. Some have declared it a mitzvah to take possession of the land and to live in it (Num 33:53). Going to live in Israel is called making aliyah – going up (cf. II Chronicles 36:23). Leaving Israel is called yerida – going down.

There is a wide variety of opinions today amongst Jews about the politics of the State of Israel. Of those who live in Israel and the occupied about 70% are secular Jews. Settlers (who might be orthodox) see is as their right to expand to the biblical borders – from Dan to Beersheva and beyond with all of Cis-Jordan. Others would favour a withdrawal to the pre 1967 borders.

OLAM HA-BAH

Traditional Judaism firmly believes that death is not the end. But because Judaism concentrates more on this life, there is not much dogma about the afterlife and there are lots of opinions: heaven, re-incarnation, awaiting the Messiah when resurrection occurs. There is no clear overall teaching. The fundamental idea is that whatever happens after death is in God’s hands and it is left to God to arrange.

However, from the Scriptures and the Talmud, more specific ideas of the Olam ha-ba are taught. Early biblical texts use the expression of being ‘gathered to his people’ after death (e.g. Gen 25:8). The expression ‘Sheol’ is also used - a shadowy place to which all go (cf. Is 14:9). Perhaps due to Persian influences after the Exile, richer ideas of the after life begin to occur. These develop even further with the persecution of the faithful and the flowering of the apocalyptic. A two fold idea of the after life develops: resurrection (T’chiyat ha metim) for the just and eternal punishment for the wicked, the persecutors (cf. Daniel 12:1-4). The Pharisees (the Chassidim who grow out of the Maccabean persecution) believed it and taught its basis from the Torah. Hellenistic Judaism concentrated more on the immortality of the soul after death (cf. Wisdom 3:1-12). Belief in the resurrection is fundamental for orthodoxy and forms part of Rambam’s principles. The second blessing of Shemoneh Esrei prayer contains several references to resurrection. The Reform movement has re-written this prayer. Resurrection and judgement (when body and soul are united) will take place in Messianic age – Olam ha-ba. When the Messiah comes, the righteous dead will be brought back to life. Some mystical schools believe that resurrection is an on-going process with forms of re-incarnation. Some Chassidic sects believe in this. They argue, for example, that the whole of Israel agreed to the covenant at Sinai – therefore all were there or unborn souls were present.

Judaism is, however, not focussed on how to get to heaven but on life and how to live it. The Mitzvoth are followed because it is a privilege and obligation – not to get to heaven or to escape hell. Not just Jews but righteous of all nations (obeying the Noahide laws) have a share in the olam ha-ba.

Olam ha-ba is often called Gan Eden (Garden of Eden) – a place of spiritual perfection. Only very righteous go straight to Gan Eden. The average person descends to Gehinnom but one spends only 12 months there. As for the very wicked there are differing opinions: the soul is destroyed or carries on in state of remorse.

SANCTITY OF LIFE

 

Orthodox Judaism holds to the sanctity of human life. This is to be preserved at all costs because the individual person is made in the image and likeness of God. The basic principles of this are found in the Torah/Talmud/Halakhah.

 

‘Whoever destroys one life is as if he destroyed a whole world and whoever preserves a life is as if he preserved the whole world.’ (Sanhedrin 4:5)

Abortion: Traditionally a foetus does not take on human characteristics until the fortieth day after conception (therefore there is more leniency of approach during this period) and is not characterized as a human being until birth. It is regarded as part of the mother’s body and not as a full human being. But a foetus is to be protected in its status as a potential human being. For the Orthodox, abortion is allowed only when the mother’s life is in serious danger (clear and substantial). It cannot be performed in the last stages of pregnancy and each case must be discussed by a competent rabbi. Abortions because of defects in the foetus or for the mental health of the mother (except if she is likely to commit suicide) are not allowed. Neither is abortion for ‘convenience’ or social reasons. As well as the sanctity of life, Judaism forbids abortion for the following reasons:

- it breaks God’s command to populate the world

- it destroys something made in God’s image

- it is destruction of part of God’s creation

- it destroys something that can become a being

- it is an unjustifiable act of wounding

- it is wrong to injure oneself 

The basic arguments among rabbis concern the extent to which a foetus is a human being or not.

There are no biblical texts that directly mention abortion.

IVF: there are three halakhic opinions:

1. IVF may be allowed but everything must come from the married couple (sperm, eggs, serums, uterus etc.). The process must be supervised by a third party – a trained Jewish person.

2. IVF may be permitted even if the components (semen and eggs) are from donors from non-Jewish sources.

3. IVF is not permitted because of the Torah’s prohibition about‘wasting a man’s seed’.

The command of the Lord to ‘be fruitful and multiply’ is one that some rabbis argue is more important than concerns about IVF.

Euthanasia: Orthodox Jewish halakhah forbids active euthanasia and sees it as murder.

‘The value of human life is infinite and beyond measure, so that any part of life – even if only an hour or a second – is of precisely the same worth as seventy years of it, just as any fraction of infinity, being indivisible, remains infinite.’ Lord Jakobovits.

Human life is sacred:

- our lives are not to be disposed of as we feel like

- all life is of infinite value because all beings are made in the image and likeness of God

- saving someone from pain is not a reason to kill them

Life is to be preserved at all costs, even in extreme pain. Doctors are not allowed to do anything that might shorten life.

But for passive euthanasia, however, if the person is dying (‘if there is something preventing the soul from departing’) doctors are not required to extend that dying e.g. a ventilator can be switched off if the person is being kept alive by it.

There is a debate about whether food and liquid are ordinary or extraordinary means of keeping someone alive if they are dying or in a PVS.

Suicide: This is not allowed under any circumstances. Life is always sacred and suicide, like euthanasia, breaks the commandment ‘Thou shalt not kill’.

 

 

 

PEKKUAH NEFESH

‘Rescuing a life’ takes precedence over all other commandments in Judaism. The Talmud cites Leviticus 18:5:

‘You shall therefore keep my statutes…which if a man do he shall live by them.’ The Talmud adds: ‘and not that he shall die by them.’

When life is involved all Sabbath laws may be suspended – pikkuah nefesh doheh Shabbat. Indeed, one is not permitted only but required to disregard a law that conflicts with life and health. (cf. The Maccabees fighting on Shabbat – I Maccabees 2:25-27).

‘It is a religious precept to desecrate the Sabbath for any person afflicted with an illness that may prove dangerous; he who is zealous is praiseworthy while he who asks questions sheds blood.’ (Shulchan Arukh Orah Hayyim 382:2).

This principle is also true for fasting. If not eating or drinking is dangerous (e.g. diabetes), then pekkuah nefesh applies.

Pekkuah nefesh has to relate to a specific identifiable human being (in other words not to a general group or a whole community). There must be a substantial and clear danger to life.

Specifically there are 3 exceptions to pikkuah nefesh:

1. Idolatry – some rabbis include the defamation of the name of Hashem.

2. Murder - this does not include self-defence.

3. Incest and adultery.

SYNAGOGUE AND SYNAGOGUE SERVICES

Name and origin: Synagogue is a Greek word (sun-ago = to gather together). It is used in the LXX to translate the Hebrew ‘edah (community gathered together). The Hebrew qahal (called together) is translated in the LXX by ekklesia {the basis of the word for Church}.

The gathering of the synagogue with the reading of the Torah on Shabbat probably began during the Babylonian Exile in order to try to keep the Jews together in a highly pagan environment. Nehemiah 8:1-18 witnesses to this immediately after the Exile. As with the first churches, the first synagogues were not buildings but gatherings of the people. The earliest buildings of synagogues are from the first century BCE/first century CE. Synagogues existed alongside Temple worship as witnessed in the New Testament.

The Hebrew term is Bet Kenesset (house of gathering). The Orthodox and Chassidic Jews use the term Shul (Yiddish). This emphasises the role of the building as a place of study – particularly of the Torah.

Conservative Jews use the term synagogue but the Reformed Jews (especially in the USA) use the term Temple. This is because they regard the synagogue as equivalent to the Temple in Jerusalem. This is offensive to the Orthodox.

The Plaza in front of the Kotel (Western Wall) in Jerusalem classes as a Synagogue – the largest in the Land of Israel.

Function: A synagogue is firstly a bet tefillah – a house of prayer. Jews can pray anywhere but certain services need 10 men (minyan) and this normally takes place in the building of the synagogue.

A Synagogue is also a Bet Midrash (house of study): This is where children learn Hebrew and basic Jewish studies but also where adults study Torah/Talmud and other texts. This means it houses lots of texts.

When texts are old and no longer useable, because they contain the name of God, they are not burned or destroyed but kept in a store attached to the Synagogue – the Geniza. Some of these – especially the one in Cairo – revealed (in the 19th century) very ancient texts.

Many synagogues have a social hall and a social welfare structure for the poor and needy.

Synagogues are run by a board of directors and this hires a rabbi and chazzan (cantor). These are not absolutely necessary. Services can be run by lay people.

Layout: Synagogues often face Jerusalem which is the direction for certain prayers. The most important item in the Synagogue is the Aron Kodesh (the Holy Cabinet) which holds the Torah scrolls. This is in the sanctuary area, often a recess in the wall. Inside the Aron is a curtain – the parokhet – like the Temple in Jerusalem. In front of the Aron is the ner tamid – the eternal light (cf. Ex 27:20-21). There is often also a menorah with six or eight branches – instead of the Temple’s seven.

In the centre of the floor space there is a raised platform called the Bimah where the Torah scrolls are placed when they are read. Ashkenazis lay the scrolls flat on the table whereas Sephardis stand them upright. Sometimes the whole service is led from the bimah and there is often a lower lectern – the Amud.

In an orthodox synagogue there is a separate section for women. This is often behind a screen and/or upstairs. There is a separate section for women at the Kotel.

In the synagogue, men always wear hats or yarmulkas and Orthodox married women wear hats over their wigs. Men also wear the Tallit – prayer shawl with its tzitzit– fringes for morning prayer cf. Num 15:38-40. These are kissed when the mitzvoth are mentioned and the tallit is used to touch the Torah scrolls as they pass in procession.

Synagogue services: There must be a minyan (at least 10 men) for the service to take place. On Shabbat, Festivals and Fasts there are three services. Most synagogues also have services on Mondays and Thursdays.

Daily prayers are in a book called the Siddur (Order). The order of the Service is:’

- Prayer of praise of the attributes of God

- Blessings of God beginning ‘Barukh atah Adonai Elohenu Melek Ha Olam’ – Blessed are you Lord our God King of the Universe.

- Various Psalms

- The Shema Yisrael (Hear O Israel…Dt 6:4-6)

- The Amidah – recited standing and silently. This is the prayer known as the Shemoneh Esre (Eighteen) now nineteen – blessings. After each has recited silently they are repeated aloud by the Leader, ending with Isaiah 6:3.

- The Reading of the Torah siddur. The scrolls are taken from the Aron and processed around the Synagogue to the Bimah. Ten men (with women in the conservative/progressive synagogues) read from the Torah portion. The whole Torah is read through annually in continuous sequential passages Shabbat after Shabbat ending at the Feast of Simhat Torah when the last section of Deuteronomy is read and Genesis is started again. A yad (Hb: hand) – a pointer – is used to follow the Hebrew text.

- The reading of the Haftorah – another part of the Tenak – normally from the Nevi’im, illustrating the Torah siddur.

- The Sermon

- The Musaf – additional service for Shabbat and Festivals. This repeats the Amidah with the extra section for the Feast in question. This is followed by the Kaddish prayer recited by mourners and prayers recalling rituals in the Temple.

- The blessing of the Kohanim (priests) – daily in Sephardi synagogues and in Ashkenazi synagogues on Feasts and Fasts not on Shabbat. The text is Num 6:23-26

- The Kiddush: Shabbat blessing over wine in the Synagogue Hall.

THE TALMUD

The Talmud (from lmd – to teach) consists of the written version (Miqra) of the oral law (Mishnah) and the rabbinical commentaries on it. The Mishnah was composed in the 2nd century CE and the commentaries (the Gemara) from the 2nd – 5th centuries CE. There are two versions of the Talmud – the Yerushalmi and the Babli – compiled in Jerusalem and Babylon respectively. The latter has greater authority. Talmud is also known as Shas – an abbreviation of shishah sedarim (6 orders of the Mishnah: Zea’im [Seeds], Mo’ed [Festivals], Nashim [Women], Nezekin [Damages], Kodashim [Holy Things] and Toharot [Purities]). The sedarim are divided into Masekhtot (Tractates). Judah Ha Nasi (from Tiberius and later Sepphoris) [135-219 CE] is the most influential rabbi in the formation of the Mishnah. The most important later commentaries on Talmud are by the 11th century Rabbi Shelomo Yitzchaki (Rashi) from Troyes and the 12th century Rabbi Moses Maimonedes (Rambam) from Cordova. Rambam also composed the Mishneh Torah. Joseph Caro in the 16th century wrote the Shulchan Arukh which codifies the Talmud and is widely used today.

Many Orthodox study a page of the Talmud each day (Daf Yomi), a practice urged by Rabbi Shapiro in 1923. Reading a page a day takes about seven and a half years. The Yeshiva (religious school) is where children study Tenak and Talmud. The first book of Tenak studied by the Orthodox is Leviticus. Hasidic men spend much of their days studying and discussing the Talmud. Reformed Jews tend to reject the authority of the Talmud and see its importance to be in understanding the historical development of Judaism.

Most importantly the Talmud gives the fullness of the Halakhah which spells out the commands of the Tenak. Jews are divided by how much they live out in daily life and in the home the rules of Halakhah. For the Orthodox, it dominates everything – daily prayer life, practices on Shabbat, Feasts and Fasts, ethical laws, marriage laws, purity laws, clothes, food and washing. It is a whole and complete culture which maintains a division between Jews and Gentiles.

TEFILAH (PRAYER)

The word Tefilah (from pll - to judge oneself) gives a central purpose of Jewish prayer – whether praise, thanksgiving, petition or confession – which is to spend time looking at oneself and understanding our role in relationship to God, the world and others. Observant Jews pray as often as possible and prayers can be found in The Jewish Prayer Book.

The mind set for prayer is called Kavanah (concentration or intent). The minimum level for this is an awareness of talking with God and the intention to fulfil the obligation to pray. Most Jews move their lips and recite prayers semi-audibly. Many Jews use liturgical chants in prayer and also sway moving the body (cf. Ps 35 - All my limbs shall declare, ‘O Lord, who is like you?’ The language of prayer for the Orthodox is always Hebrew.

In Judaism prayer is largely communal rather than individual so every Jew should try to pray with a group.

Berakhot (Hb: brk – knee) - Blessings are common prayers in Judaism, all beginning with the word barukh (Blessed). According to Jewish tradition one should recite 100 berakhot each day. Reciting the Shemoneh Esreh three times a day – as all observant Jews do – gives 57 of these. There are three types of berakhot – before enjoying a material pleasure (birkhot ha-na’ah), before performing a mitzvah (birkhot ha-mitzvoth) and ones recited at special times (birkhot hoda’ah). All praise God the source of all blessings.

Birkat Ha-Mazon: Grace after meals (bentsching in Yiddish). This is an important berakhah (cf. Dt 8:10) and consists of four blessings:

- Birkat Hazan – blessing for providing food

- Birkat Ha Aretz – blessing for the land

- Birkat Yerushalayim – blessing for Jerusalem – which includes rebuilding the city and the coming of meshiah

- Birkat Ha-Tov v’Ha Maytiv – the blessing for doing good and for being good.

In addition the Birkat Ha-Mazon includes some Psalms and extra prayers on certain days.

SHABBAT

Shabbat is treated as a ‘Queen’ with special ceremonies to mark her arrival and departure. Shabbat dress (not used during the rest of the week) is worn. For Chassidic men this includes the big Shabbat fur hat (shtreimel) and a silk coat.

On Friday evening in the home the Shabbat table should be set with at least two candles (symbolizing the remembering and the observing of the Shabbat), a glass of wine and at least two loaves of challah (symbolizing the dual portion of manna) covered with a cloth. The candles are lit by the mother or a woman of the house no later than 18 minutes before the beginning of Shabbat. She then waves her hands over the candles, covers her eyes to recite the blessing then looks at the candles.

The Evening Service (Kabbalat Shabbat and Ma’ariv) is then attended in the synagogue or performed at home before dinner. The Kiddush over a glass of wine then follows. Hands are washed and the challah is broken and distributed (Ha-Motzi) with the appropriate blessings. The meal then begins.

Shabbat is a day spent at home with the family, going to Synagogue (by walking if Orthodox), studying, talking with the family about the Shabbat and its mitzvoth, the Creation and the Exodus and not engaging with other work at all. In the Synagogue the morning Service - Shacharit followed by the additional Service of Musaf lasts three to four hours. The afternoon Service is the Minchah and this is followed by the Ma’ariv.

Havdalah (separation) ends Shabbat. This is celebrated in the home after Ma’ariv. It consists of four blessings:

• The blessing of the wine – this is not drunk until the end

• The blessing over spices – which all smell to revive the soul

• The blessing over fire – a multi-wick havdalah candle

• The blessing over distinctions - between the holy and secular, light and dark, Israel and other nations, Shabbat and other days.

The havdalah candles may be extinguished with the wine.

BIRTH RITES AND BAR/BAT MITZVAHS

At birth: After the birth, the mother is considered niddah and must be sexually separated from her husband for 7 days after the birth of a male and 14 days after a girl (Lev 12:2). The father can read the Torah passage (aliyah) at the next opportunity after the birth. The girl is named at that time.

Brit Milah (Covenant of Circumcision): This is kept by the majority of Jews, even the non-observant (Gen 17:10-14; Lev 12:3). Traditionally if a man is not circumcised he suffers the penalty of kareit – spiritual exclusion from the Olam Ha-Ba. Circumcision is on the eighth day after birth and performed by a mohel while the child is held by a sandek (often a grandparent or rabbi). If a child has been circumcised beforehand for any reason, a pinprick of blood is taken. The child is named at the ceremony. There is normally an ornate chair for Elijah who ‘presides’ over all circumcisions.

Pidyon ha-ben (Redemption of the First Born son): This happens at 31 days of age (Nm 18:15-16). Some money is given to a Kohen (priest). The ceremony is not performed if there is a girl born before the first born boy or after a Caesarean.

Bar Mitzvahs (Son of the Law) and Bat Mitzvahs (Daughter of the Law):

Boys at the age of 13 and girls at the age of 12 are obliged to obey the mitzvoth. A bar mitzvah is the public sign of this and means that the child can take part if synagogue services, be part of a minyan, to form binding contracts, to testify before religious courts and to marry. There is no Talmudic mitzvah about a ceremony and they have been around for only about 100 years. Normally today the child is called up (aliyah) to say a blessing before the Torah reading, to read either the Torah or the Haftorah and to lead certain prayers. Sometimes the child makes a speech and so does the father. In Chassidic and Orthodox Judaism there are no bat mitzvahs.

MARRIAGE

The Mishnah (Kiddushin 1:1) explains that a wife is acquired in three ways - through money, through contract and through sexual intercourse. The first is usually the ring and the second through the giving of the ketubah – the contract. This consists of obligations of the man towards his wife, inheritance when he dies, support of children and of the wife in case of divorce (get) – which is allowed in Judaism. The man has to initiate the divorce procedures.

Marriage occurs in two distinct stages. Kiddushin (from qds – holy) – betrothal is when the woman accepts the money and the contract. The marriage is binding but the couple do not live together for another year or so. Nisuin (elevation) completes the marriage when the man brings his wife home. Today the two ceremonies are normally celebrated together.

Before the wedding the bride and groom do not see each other for a week. Ashkenazi men read in the synagogue on the Shabbat of that week and there are exuberant celebrations. Traditionally the day before the marriage the bride and groom fast. The bride is veiled (cf. Rebecca at Gen 24:65). For the kiddushin the bride approaches and encircles the groom. Two blessings are recited over wine – one the normal one for wine and the other specifically for marriage mitzvoth. The man places the ring on the woman’s finger and says: ‘Be sanctified to me with this ring in accordance with the law of Moses and of Israel.’ The ketubah is then read aloud. For the nuisin the couple stand under the chuppah – a symbol of the home. They recite the seven blessings in the presence of a minyan. The couple then drink the wine and smashes a glass with his right foot – a symbol of the destruction of the Temple.

Not marrying in Judaism is considered unnatural. Marriage is firstly understood as for companionship (Gen 2:18) rather than procreation.

There is a whole range of prohibited relations in Judaism (cf. Lev 17 and the Talmud).

DEATH AND MOURNING RITES

Death and mourning rites have two purposes – to show respect for the dead (kavod ha-met) and to comfort the living (nihum avelim).

Death:

After death, the eyes are closed, the body is laid on the floor and candles are lit. The chevra kaddisha (volunteers for this purpose) wash the body and wrap it in a simple linen shroud. The body is not left alone until after the funeral and is watched by shomerim (keepers) who cannot eat, drink or perform a mitzvah in the presence of the body.

The presence of the dead is a source of ritual impurity, therefore kohanim cannot be present. Autopsies are discouraged but allowed when necessary. Burial of the body is always required.

After the death, close relatives tear their garments (keriyah) and recite a blessing. The family are exempt from positive mitzvoth until after the burial which should take place before the next sundown after death. A relative then prepares a meal of eggs and bread.

Mourning:

Shiva (seven) lasts for 7 days when the family sit on low stools and avoid pleasure. There is no working, cutting hair, shaving or pleasurable activities during this time.

Shloshim (thirty) lasts for thirty days and no pleasure is allowed.

Avelut is only for a parent and lasts for a year. Sons must recite the mourners’ kaddish every day for eleven months.

The Yahrzeit is the annual anniversary of the death.

Jewish law requires a tombstone so that the deceased will not be forgotten or the grave desecrated.

FEASTS AND FASTS

The High Holy Days (Lev 23:23-44).

Rosh ha-Shanah (New Year’s Day – Lev 23:23-25): this is heralded by the blowing of the Shofar as a call to repentance. It also is a day of joy when many go to synagogue. It is followed by ten days of self-reflection to repent of sins. Tashlich occurs the day after Rosh ha-Shanah. This is when dust from clothes and pockets is shaken off into water.

Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement - Lev 23:26; cf. Lev 16): ten days after Rosh ha-Shanah is Yom Kippur, the most solemn day in the Jewish calendar. This is a 25 hour fast and many spend the whole time in the synagogue in self-examination. There are five services on this day – Kol Nidrei (All my vows) on the eve, Shacharit (morning prayer), Musaf (additional service), Minchah (afternoon service) and Neilah (closing service). The shofar is blown at the end of the day.

Sukkot (Tabernacles – Lev 23:34): five days after Yom Kippur there is the beginning of the eight day celebration of Sukkot. During this time Jews live in a sukkah (booth) to celebrate the wandering in the wilderness and the citrus/grape harvest. The booths are decorated with fruits and open to the sky (where possible). The four species are held and waved – palm, myrtle, willow and etrog. The first three are known as the lulav. This is the ultimate eschatological feast of Judaism (cf. Is 4:6) and the Book of Qoheleth is read.

Hoshana Rabbah - the seventh and last day of Sukkot.

Shemeni Atzeret: the eighth day bringing the seven day festival of Sukkot to an end. There are prayers for rain on this day.

Simchat Torah (Rejoicing of the Law): in the synagogue the last verses of Deuteronomy are read and then immediately the beginning of Genesis. This marks the end of the annual cycle of the Torah sedarim and the beginning of the new one. The scrolls are carried in procession with rejoicing around the synagogue and outside in Israel and Jewish areas of cities.

The three Pilgrim festivals (Ex 23:14): The last of these is Sukkot. The others are:

Pesach (Passover): This commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. On the first night of Passover the family gather and celebrate the Seder reading from the Haggadah. The ritual foods (boiled egg, bitter herbs, spring greens, charoset, shank bone) are eaten with Matzah – unleavened bread. A large glass is set for Elijah and towards the end of the Seder the door is opened as Elijah’s return is proclaimed. There is the ritual drinking of five cups of wine, one after the meal which is eaten during a break in the Seder. The Son of Songs is read.

Shavuot (Pentecost): This is celebrated fifty days or (seven weeks) after Pesach and commemorates the giving of the Torah from Sinai. This originally also celebrated the barley harvest and the Synagogue is decorated with flowers and plants – following the legend that Sinai bloomed when the Torah was given. The Book of Ruth is read in the Synagogue and the Orthodox stay there all night studying the Torah.

Other Feasts

Chanuka (Dedication): This commemorates the re-dedication of the Temple in 164 BCE (1 Macc 4:52-59). It begins on the 14th Kislev and continues for eight days. The central element is the lighting of the chanukiah and the eating of oily food.

Purim: This celebrates the triumph of Queen Esther over Haman as told in the Book of Esther and the saving of the Jews from the first known pogrom. It is customary to wear fancy dress and to celebrate with abandon, like carnival.

Fasts: In addition to Yom Kippur, the Talmud (Tractate Rosh Ha Shanah 18b) discusses four fast days (cf. Zech 8:19) connected with the destruction of the First and Second Temple with two more discussed in later rabbinical literature. These are:

Ta’anit Bechorim (Fast of the First Born): observed only by first born males observed the day before Pesah.

Tzom Tammuz (Fast of the 17th Tammuz): commemorates the breaking down of the wall of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the cessation of Temple worship during the siege of Titus.

Tishah B’Av (Fast of the 9th Ab): this commemorates the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the First Temple and is the most important fast after Yom Kippur. On the eve of the fast it is customary to eat a boiled egg sprinkled with ashes.

Tzom Gedaliah (Fast of 3rd Tishri): This occurs after Rosh Ha-Shanah and commemorates the murder of the Judean governor Gedaliah.

Asarah B’Tevet (Fast of the 10th Tevet): again this commemorates the fall of Jerusalem.

Ta’anit Esther (Fast of Esther): this occurs on the day before Purim on 13th Adar.

Additional Fast days are:

Ta’anit Tzaddikim:

The Fast of Miriam – 10th Nisan

The Fast of Aaron – 1st Av

The Fast of Moses – 7th Adar

The Fast of Joshua – 26th Nisan

The Fast of Samuel – 28th Iyyar

Ta’anit Tzibur: these are fasts of a particular community in memory of a special deliverance or in memory of a particular leader.

Ta’anit Yachid: personal fasts performed in private for a particular request or need.

CHASIDIC, ORTHODOX, CONSERVATIVE, REFORM, LIBERAL, PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM

Movements (the Jewish name for different groups) are witnessed in the Scriptures – the Chasidim [Maccabees], the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots [the New Testament]

For many centuries from the Fall of the Temple in 70 AD there were no main differences in Judaism. But during the 9th century, groups developed called the Karaites who denied the Oral Torah, accepting only the written Torah.

Modern and Contemporary Movements

Chasidism: was founded in the 18th century by Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov. This revitalized Judaism in Eastern Europe and stressed the personal and mystical elements. Today there are several Chasidic movements and all have in common that they are led by a Rebbe – a leader who is considered an enlightened one. The largest movement today is the Lubavitcher. The chasidim are orthodox in their life-style. In Jerusalem and in New York, for example, they tend to live in ghettos. The most famous in Jerusalem is Mea Shearim (100 Gates). They dress mainly in 18th-19th Eastern European Jewish clothes.

Orthodox: these are very traditional Jews who follow the halakhah in its entirety but live and work more openly in wider society. They believe that the whole Torah – written and oral is minhasshammayim. 10% of American Jews regard themselves as Orthodox. There is segregation in Orthodox synagogues and only male rabbis. Most men wear black and grow the forelock.

Reform: This movement does not believe that the Torah was written by God and they accept biblical criticism. They are much less orthodox in their living out of the halakhah. Some Reform synagogues meet on Sunday rather than Saturday, have musical instruments in synagogue and worship and pray in English as well as Hebrew. They have women rabbis (as well as LGBT) as well as men. They believe that Judaism must adapt and are very concerned with justice and peace. They accept patrilinear descent for classing a child as Jewish and do not demand circumcision when dealing with converts. They tend to believe in a messianic era for the future rather than a personal Messiah. 35% of American Jews class themselves as Reform with 900 synagogues. In the UK Reform Judaism is less radical than in the USA and has about 40 autonomous synagogues. Rabbis are trained at the Leo Baeck College in London along with the Liberals.

Conservative: this grew out of the tension between the Orthodox and Reform and was formally recognised in 1913 in the USA. They hold the Torah to be written by God but also to contain human elements. They believe that the halakhah should change and adapt. There is a flexibility in Conservative Judaism. Men and women sit together in synagogue and some allow women rabbis but the Shabbat services are fundamentally the same as the Orthodox. 26% of American Jews class themselves as Conservative.

Liberal (Progressive): Liberal Judaism was founded in England by Lily Montagu and Claude Montefiore in 1902 to try to stem the drift away from Judaism. In beliefs and practice, liberal Judaism in UK is more radical than UK Reform Judaism. There are about 30 autonomous synagogues in the UK. They believe in Jewish tradition as in the written and oral Torah but adapt it e.g. they do not keep kashrut as a norm. However, they do keep circumcision and other rites. In synagogue there are women rabbis, women can read from the Torah and the prayer book – the Siddur Lev Chadash - uses inclusive language. They hold a ceremony of Kabbalat Torah at the age of 15/16 as well as Bar and Bat Mitzvah at 12/13. They accept a form of marriage for LGs but will not conduct mixed marriages. They allow cremation.

Reconstructionist: this is a relatively small group founded by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan (1881-1983). It is a liberal movement that weds Judaism with contemporary ideas.

The vast majority of Jews support the State of Israel (which for many is a ‘touchstone’ of being Jewish) - but liberal and many secular Jews tend to support peace movements between Arabs and Jews in the Land.

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