USDA
Ecological Site Description
Ecological Site Characteristics
Site Identification
|Site Type: Forestland |Site ID: F162XY500HI |MLRA: 162 |
|Colloquial Site Name: Ohia-Lama-Pandanus Coastal Forest |
|Official Site Name: Metrosideros polymorpha-Diospyros sandwicensis-Pandanus tectorius/Asplenium nidus |
Physiographic Features
This ecological site occurs on lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes. Lava flows are `a`a (loose, cobbly) or pahoehoe (smooth, relatively unbroken). Volcanic ash flows range from very shallow to deep on the underlying lava.
|Landform: (1) `a`a lava flow |Minimum |Maximum |
|Landform: (2) pahoehoe lava flow | | |
|Landform: (3) volcanic ash flow | | |
|Elevation (feet): |20 |1200 |
|Slope (percent): |3 |25 |
|Water Table Depth (inches): | | |
|Flooding: | | |
|Frequency: | | |
|Duration: | | |
|Ponding: | | |
|Depth (inches): | | |
|Frequency: | | |
|Duration: | | |
|Runoff Class: |slow |slow |
|Aspect: (1) E | | |
|Aspect: (2) NE | | |
Climatic Features
Average annual precipitation ranges from 100 to 160 inches. Most of the precipitation falls from November through April, with December being the wettest month. Average annual temperature is about 66 to 72 degrees F. The climate can be generally classified as udic and tropical in nature.
Climate Chart
| |Minimum |Maximum |
|Frost Free Period (days): |365 |365 |
|Freeze Free Period (days): |365 |365 |
|Mean Annual Precipitation (inches): |100 |160 |
|Monthly Precipitation (inches) and Temperature (0F) |
|Month |Jan |
Influencing Water Features
There are no water features influencing in this ecological site.
Representative Soil Features
Typical soils are highly decomposed plant materials in `a`a or on pahoehoe. Landscape surfaces in this ecological site are young (generally 400 to 1,500 years old). Soils are well to somewhat excessively drained. Available water capacity in most soils ranges from 1 to 4 inches. Available water capacity refers to the volume of water available to plants in the upper 40 inches of soil, including rocks, at field capacity. Permeability is rapid. Runoff potential is low to XXX. Moist colors range from black to dark brown. Soil reactions (pH in CaCl2) range from slightly acid to extremely acid in surface horizons and slightly acid to extremely in subsurface horizons. Soil temperature regimes are isohyperthermic. Soil moisture regime is udic (in most years, not dry for as long as 90 cumulative days).
|Predominant Parent Materials: |Surface Texture: (1) |
|Kind: highly decomposed plant materials or volcanic ash |Surface Texture: (2) |
|Origin: |Subsurface Texture Group: |
|Surface Fragments 3" (%Cover): 0-50 |Rock Fragments >3" (%Volume): 0-95 |
|Drainage Class: well |Permeability Class: rapid |
| |Minimum |Maximum |
|Depth (inches): |10 |20 |
|Electrical Conductivity (mmhos/cm): |0 |2 |
|Sodium Adsorption Ratio: |0 |0 |
|Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (percent): | | |
|Soil Reaction (1:1 Water): | | |
|Soil Reaction (.0-1M CaC12): | | |
|Available Water Capacity (inches): | | |
Plant Communities
Ecological Dynamics of the Site
This ecological site occurs on a variety of substrates in wet, warm regions of Hilo and Puna districts of the Island of Hawai`i. Plant communities evolved without the presence of large mammals or the regular occurrence of fires. The original forest plant community is now disturbed and fragmented due to fires, timber cutting, domestic and feral ungulate foraging, establishment of introduced pasture grasses, and alien species invasion. Most areas of this ecological site bear little resemblance to their original appearance. Vegetation on unmanaged lands consists of either forest dominated by alien species or shrubby grassland dominated by alien species under a regime of periodic fires.
State and transition diagram
State 1 – Native Forest
Plant Community 1
This state represents the Historic Climax Plant Community. The general aspect is a forest with a tall (to about 80 feet), closed to open overstory of ohia trees, a secondary canopy of diverse trees species 25 to 40 feet tall, an open tree fern canopy 10 to 15 feet tall, and a diverse understory of shrubs and ferns. Vines are moderately abundant, particularly `ie`ie, both on the ground and on trees. Large bird’s nest ferns are common on trees and on the ground. The mid-canopy is dominated by pandanus trees near the coast; this species becomes less common with distance from the coast. Pandanus seems to be moderately invasive, and may be more common on previously disturbed sites or where it was encouraged by Hawaiians in the past. The forests of this ecological site have standing live timber of 500 to 8000 cubic feet per acre, with a representative value of about 1500 cubic feet per acre.
Joseph Rock described some of this area in the early 20th Century. He said, “Diospyros (lama tree) in lowland forest is especially common back of Hilo along the road to Olaa” (=Keaau). “Immediately back of Hilo is a somewhat mixed forest composed of species of trees peculiar to the dry and wet regions.”
Pathways from this state/plant community
To State 2, Mixed Native/Alien Forest, via “A&B”:
A = gradual weed invasion; B = feral pig damage.
Very aggressive weeds species are able to invade intact native forest, gradually replacing native species. This invasion is facilitated by feral pigs that damage native plants, disturb the soil, and spread weed seeds.
To State 4, Grassland, via “G&H”:
G = land clearing; H = pasture establishment.
Native Forest can be converted to Grassland by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable pasture species. Native forest may be cleared gradually by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that pasture grasses will thrive. On shallow soils over lava substrates, underlying lava rock often is ripped and crushed by heavy machinery. Ripping and crushing produces some fine mineral particles and small, abundant gaps between the rock fragments. When this is done on organic soils, about 50% of the soil organic matter may be lost in the process due to exposure to air and higher temperatures.
Plant species listed in the following tables have been observed in the course of field work or are derived from reliable records.
Abbreviations:
Origin: n = native (endemic or indigenous); a = alien (introduced by humans).
Type: t = tree; tf = tree fern; s = shrub; h = herb (forb); v = vine; f = fern; g = grasslike (grasses, sedges, rushes).
Composite representation of State 1, Plant Community 1, Native Forest.
|Scientific name |%Canopy cover by height class (ft) |Total | | |Origi|Type | |
| | |Cover |Local |NRCS |n | |NRCS |
| | | |common name |common name | | |Code |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |4.6 - |13.1 - |40.1 |80.1 | |
| |2 |4.5 |13 |40 |- |- | |
| | | | | |80 |120 | |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |
| |2 |4.5 |
| | |Overstory Canopy Cover Percent |
| | |50 |70 |90 |
|`ohi`a lehua (seedlings & saplings) |Metrosideros polymorpha |1 |tr |0 |
|kopiko (seedlings & saplings) |Psychotria sp. |5 |1 |1 |
|pandanus (seedlings & saplings) |Pandanus tectorius |5 |5 |1 |
State 1, Plant Community 1, Native Forest plant community.
State 2 – Mixed Native/Alien Forest
This state consists of one plant community. Native ohia trees still dominate the overstory. However, alien trees, shrubs, vines, and ferns make up a large portion of the lower parts of the plant community. Alien ferns (especially scaly swordfern), melastome shrubs, and strawberry guava produce a dense layer of low vegetation that severely inhibits reproduction of native species. This brings about eventual loss of native overstory, midstory, and tree fern canopies as well as smaller plants. Most native species are still present in this plant community but are much less abundant than in the Native Forest plant community. Activity of feral pigs further reduces native plant abundance and produces bare, disturbed soil patches.
Pathways from this state
To State 1 – Native Forest, via “C&D”:
C = feral pig exclusion; D = weed control.
It is possible to restore Mixed Native/Alien Forest to a plant community resembling Native Forest. Pig-proof fence and removal of pigs is necessary. Intensive weed control must then be carried out. In some cases, this may entail removal of large amounts of weed biomass from the site.
To State 3, Alien Forest, via “A&B&E”:
A = gradual weed invasion; B = feral pig damage; E = lack of native plant reproduction.
Aggressive, fast-growing weeds inhibit reproduction of native plants and gradually replace them. This process is accelerated by feral pigs directly damaging native plants and promoting the spread of weeds by disturbing the soil and spreading weed seeds.
To State 4, Grassland, via “G&H”:
G = land clearing; H = pasture establishment.
Mixed Native/Alien Forest can be converted to Grassland by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable pasture species. Native forest may be cleared gradually by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that pasture grasses will thrive. On shallow soils over lava substrates, underlying lava rock often is ripped and crushed by heavy machinery. Ripping and crushing produces some fine mineral particles and small, abundant gaps between the rock fragments. When this is done on organic soils, about 50% of the soil organic matter may be lost in the process due to exposure to air and higher temperatures.
Composite representation of State 2, Plant Community 2, Mixed Native/Alien Forest.
|Scientific name |%Canopy cover by height class (ft) |Total | | |Origi|Type | |
| | |Cover |Local |NRCS |n | |NRCS |
| | | |common name |common name | | |Code |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |4.6 - |13.1 - |40.1 |80.1 | |
| |2 |4.5 |13 |40 |- |- | |
| | | | | |80 |120 | |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |
| |2 |4.5 |
| | |Overstory Canopy Cover Percent |
| | |50 |70 |90 |
|albizia |Falcataria moluccana |10 |1 |tr |
|bingabing |Macaranga mappa |5 |5 |5 |
|miconia |Miconia calvescens |5 |5 |5 |
|melastoma |Melastoma candidum |20 |10 |5 |
|Koster’s curse |Clidemia hirta |20 |10 |5 |
|scaly swordfern |Nephrolepis multiflora |30 |10 |5 |
State 2, Plant Community 2, Mixed Native/Alien Forest plant community. A partially cleared experimental site with native ohia trees and `ie`ie vines and dense alien undergrowth.
STATE 3 – Alien Forest
Plant Community 3
This state consists of one plant community dominated by alien species in both the overstory and understory. Some tall ohia trees may persist for a long time, and a few native species including kopiko, tree ferns, pandanus, and bird’s nest ferns are able to reproduce and maintain low populations. The diversity of weedy trees, shrubs, vines, ferns, and herbs is high. The alien species present on different sites varies, but strawberry guava, melastoma, Koster’s curse, and albizia are usually present. Albizia rapidly grows very tall and is able to overtop all other trees. Ironwood trees are more common near the coast. Miconia and bingabing are able to grow in dense shade and may become codominant with strawberry guava.
Pathways from this state/plant community
To State 4, Grassland, via “G&H”:
G = land clearing; H = pasture establishment.
Alien Forest can be converted to Grassland by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable pasture species. On shallow soils over lava substrates, underlying lava rock often is ripped and crushed by heavy machinery. Ripping and crushing produces some fine mineral particles and small, abundant gaps between the rock fragments. When this is done on organic soils, about 50% of the soil organic matter may be lost in the process due to exposure to air and higher temperatures.
Composite representation of State 3, Plant Community 3, Alien Forest.
|Scientific name |%Canopy cover by height class (ft) |Total | | |Origi|Type | |
| | |Cover |Local |NRCS |n | |NRCS |
| | | |common name |common name | | |Code |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |4.6 - |13.1 - |40.1 |80.1 | |
| |2 |4.5 |13 |40 |- |- | |
| | | | | |80 |120 | |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |
| |2 |4.5 |
| | |Overstory Canopy Cover Percent |
| | |50 |70 |90 |
|albizia |Falcataria moluccana |10 |1 |tr |
|bingabing |Macaranga mappa |5 |5 |5 |
|strawberry guava |Psidium cattleianum |40 |40 |40 |
|miconia |Miconia calvescens |5 |5 |5 |
|melastoma |Melastoma candidum |20 |10 |5 |
|Koster’s curse |Clidemia hirta |20 |10 |5 |
|scaly swordfern |Nephrolepis multiflora |30 |10 |5 |
State 3, Plant Community 3, Alien Forest. This example is near the coast. The overstory is mostly ironwood, although octopus trees are now becoming part of the overstory. Bingabing trees are present. The understory is dominated by scaly swordfern and paederia vine.
STATE 4 - Grassland
This state consists of two plant communities. These plant communities arise from clearing forests and planting introduced pasture grasses. Continuous grazing weakens desired species relative to undesired species, resulting in weedy pastures with reduced capacity to produce forage.
Pathways from this state
To State 5 – Alien Weedy Meadow, via “I or K”:
I = continuous grazing; K = pasture abandonment.
Grassland degrades to Weedy Pasture by long-term continuous grazing. Remnant desirable forages are grazed out and replaced entirely by weedy grasses, forbs, shrubs, and small trees.
Plant Community 4 – Humid Mid-Grassland
Dominant grass species in this plant community are nutritious and preferred by cattle. Desired pasture grasses are pangolagrass, Baron’s grass, limpograss, and Californiagrass, in mixture with desmodium legume species. Dominance of desired forage species is maintained by prescribed grazing techniques that allow desired species time to recover from grazing and trampling, but includes periods of grazing of sufficient intensity to suppress invasion of weedy shrubs and trees. Invasion by weedy beardgrass and broomsedge is minimized by liming and mowing.
Pathways from this plant community
To Plant Community 5, Weedy Humid Mid-Grassland, via “I”:
I = continuous grazing.
Poor Condition Pasture degrades to Weedy Pasture by long-term continuous grazing. Remnant Californiagrass, pangolagrass, and forage legumes are grazed out and replaced entirely by low-value forage grasses. Weedy forbs and shrubs such as Koster’s curse, sourbush (hairy fleabane), and tarweed begin to increase.
Composite representation of State 4, Plant Community 4, Humid Mid-Grassland.
This list of plants and their relative proportions are based on near-normal years. Fluctuations in species composition and relative production may change from year to year depending upon precipitation or other climatic factors.
|Common/Group Name |Scientific Name |Symbol |Functional |lbs./acre |% Comp |
| | | |Group | | |
|GRASSES |
|Naturalized Warm Season Mid-Grasses | |1 |2550-3000 |85-100 |
|Californiagrass |Urochloa mutica |URMU |1 |2550-3000 |45-100 |
|pangolagrass |Digitaria eriantha |DIER |1 |2550-3000 |45-100 |
|Baron's grass |Ischaemum digitatum | |1 |2550-3000 |45-100 |
|limpograss |Hemarthria altissima | |1 |2550-3000 |45-100 |
|Wainakugrass |Panicum repens |PARE3 |1 |T-60 |T-2 |
|dallisgrass |Paspalum dilatatum |PADI3 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|narrowleaf carpetgrass |Axonopus fissifolius |AXFI |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|smooth crabgrass |Digitaria violascens |DIVI2 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|Hilograss |Paspalum conjugatum |PACO14 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|Vaseygrass |Paspalum urvillei |PAUR2 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|smutgrass |Sporobolus indicus |SPIN4 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|green kyllinga |Kyllinga brevifolia |KYBR |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|Oahu flatsedge |Cyperus hypochlorus |CYHY2 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|Glenwoodgrass |Sacciolepis indica |SAIN |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|yellow foxtail |Setaria parviflora |SEPA10 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|bushybeard bluestem |Schizachyrium condensatum |ANGL2 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|broomsedge bluestem |Andropogon virginicus |ANVI2 |1 |T-30 |T-1 |
|FORBS |
|Naturalized Forbs | |2 |150-300 |5-10 |
|honohono |Commelina diffusa |CODI5 |2 |30-90 |1-3 |
|bamboo orchid |Arundina graminifolia |ARGR6 |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|kaimi clover |Desmodium incanum |DEIN3 |2 |T-60 |T-2 |
|Spanish clover |Desmodium sandwicense |DESA81 |2 |T-60 |T-2 |
|greenleaf desmodium |Desmodium intortum |DEIN2 |2 |T-60 |T-2 |
|three-flower beggarweed |Desmodium triflorum |DETR4 |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|scaly swordfern |Nephrolepis multiflora |NEEX |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|Japanese tea |Chamaecrista nictitans |CHNIG |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|sensitive plant |Mimosa pudica |MIPU8 |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|ageratum |Ageratum conyzoides |AGCO |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|tarweed |Cuphea carthagenesis |CUCA4 |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|joee, owi |Stachytarpheta cayennensis |STDI8 |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
|Jamaica vervain |Stachytarpheta jamaicensis |STJA |2 |T-30 |T-1 |
Composite representation of State 4, Plant Community 4, Humid Mid-Grassland.
This list of plants and their relative proportions are based on near-normal years. Fluctuations in species composition and relative production may change from year to year depending upon precipitation or other climatic factors.
|Common/Group Name |Scientific Name |Symbol |Functional |lbs./acre |% Comp |
| | | |Group | | |
|SHRUBS |
|Naturalized Shrubs and Half-Shrubs | |3 |30-150 |1-5 |
|hairy fleabane |Pluchea symphytifolia |PLSY |3 |T-30 |T-1 |
|guava |Psidium guajava |PSGU |3 |T-30 |T-1 |
|strawberry guava |Psidium cattleianum |PSCA |3 |T-30 |T-1 |
|Clidemia |Clidemia hirta |CLHI3 |3 |T-30 |T-1 |
| | | | | | |
|Annual Production lbs./acre | | | | | |
|Above Normal |6,000 | | | | |
|Normal |3,000 | | | | |
|Below Normal |1,000 | | | | |
|Percent Ground Cover | | | | | |
|Plant |60 | | | | |
|Litter |30 | | | | |
|Cryptogams |0 | | | | |
|Bare ground |10 | | | | |
State 4, Plant Community 4, Humid Mid-Grassland, dominated by desirable forage species with minimal weed cover. Pasture in background has been heavily invaded by broomsedge and beardgrass.
Plant Community 4 – Weedy Humid Mid-Grassland
This plant community is dominated by grasses of low forage value such as narrowleaf carpetgrass and Hilograss. Desirable forage legumes have been grazed out. Weedy herbs, such as tarweed, and shrubs, such as Koster’s curse, are increasing.
Pathways from this plant community
To Plant Community 4, Humid Mid-Grassland, via “D&J”:
D = weed control; J = prescribed grazing.
Weedy Humid Mid-Grassland can be converted to Humid Mid-Grassland by prescribed grazing. A prescribed grazing plan provides for intensive but temporary grazing of pastures that ensures that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and allows preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. Desirable grass species are competitive and able to recover with proper management. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing. Weed control may be necessary to eliminate some weedy species. Broomsedge and/or beardgrass are controlled by increasing soil pH through lime applications and by mowing before seed set.
Composite representation of State 4, Plant Community 5, Weedy Humid Mid-Grassland.
| |%Canopy cover by height class (ft) |Total | | |Origi|Type | |
| Scientific name | |Cover |Local |NRCS |n | |NRCS |
| | | |common name |common name | | |Code |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |4.6 - |13.1 - |40.1 |80.1 | |
| |2 |4.5 |13 |40 |- |- | |
| | | | | |80 |120 | |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |4.6 - |13.1 - |40.1|80.| |
| |2 |4.5 |13 |40 |- |1 -| |
| | | | | |80 |120| |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |4.6 - |13.1 - |40.1|80.|Total cover|
| |2 |4.5 |13 |40 |- |1 -| |
| | | | | |80 |120| |
| |0.1 - |2.1 - |
| |2 |4.5 |
| | |Site Index |Cubic Feet |Other Units |
| | | |(CMAI) | |
| | |Low |High |
| | | |
|Very Shallow Wet Ohia/Uluhe Thicket |F162XY504HI |Tree/matted fern savannah on very shallow young soils adjoining |
| | |this ecological site. |
|Shallow Wet Ohia-Olapa Forest |F162XY503HI |Wet forest bordering this ecological site to the west on young, |
| | |shallow, mostly mineral soils. |
Similar Sites - none
|Site Name |Site ID |Site Narrative |
| | | |
State Correlation
There are no correlations to ecological sites in other states.
Inventory Data References
|Data Source |Sample ID |
| |Number |Year |State (FIPS) |County (FIPS) |
|HI Forest ESD field sheet |4 |2004 |HI |Hawaii |
|HI Forest ESD field sheet |5 |2005 |HI |Hawaii |
|HI Forest ESD field sheet |6 |2006 |HI |Hawaii |
|HI Forest ESD field notes |2 |2004 |HI |Hawaii |
|HI Forest ESD field notes |2 |2005 |HI |Hawaii |
|HI Forest ESD field notes |2 |2006 |HI |Hawaii |
|HI Forest ESD field notes |1 |2007 |HI |Hawaii |
|NRCS-Range-417 |1 |1995 |HI |Hawaii |
|Hawaii-Range-1 |5 |1995-2002 |HI |Hawaii |
Type Locality
| |Site #1 (NAD83 Datum) |Site #2 |Site #3 |
|Latitude: |N19d25m12.0s | | |
|Longitude: |W154d57m7.9s | | |
|State: |HI | | |
|County: |Hawaii | | |
|General Description |Hawaii County, Island of Hawaii, USGS | | |
| |Quad: Pahoa South. From Pahoa drive south| | |
| |5.5 miles on Hwy. 130. Park at | | |
| |intersection of highway with Upper Puna | | |
| |Road. Walk 0.13 mile east into Keauohana | | |
| |Forest Reserve. | | |
Relationship to Other Established Classifications
| |Jacobi, J.D. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawai`i, Maui, Moloka`i, and Lana`i. Technical Report 68. |
| |Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawai`i at Manoa and National Park Service. |
| |Ripperton, J.C. and E.Y. Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawai`i. Hawai`i Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60. |
| |U.S. Dept. of Interior-U.S. Geological Survey. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawai`i. Final Report and Data. |
Other References
| |Armstrong, R.W. 1973. Atlas of Hawai`i. University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu. |
| |Mueller-Dombois, D. and F.R. Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. |
| |Palmer, D.D. 2003. Hawai`i’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu. |
| |Pratt, H.D. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawai`i’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu. |
| |Rock, J.F. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan. |
| |Sohmer, S.H. and R. Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawai`i. University of Hawai`i Press, Honolulu. |
| |Wagner, WL, DR Herbst, and SH Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai`i. Bishop Museum Special Publication 83, University of Hawaii |
| |Press, Honolulu. |
Site Description Approval
|Author |Date |Approval |Date |
|David Clausnitzer |7/8/08 |David Clausnitzer |7/8/08 |
|Joseph May |2003 | | |
|Loretta J. Metz |7/8/08 |Loretta J. Metz |7/8/08 |
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