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Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources: 36

Ackerman, Bruce, Jack M. Balkin, Derrick A. Bell, Drew S. Days III, John Hart Ely, Catharine A. MacKinnon, Michael W. McConnell, Frank I. Michelman, and Cass R. Sunstein. What Brown v. Board of Education Should Have Said. New York and London: New York UP, 2001. Print.

In this book, nine of the nation’s top legal experts rewrite Brown v. Board of Education to have the outcomes that they desired. Once they had each written an opinion of their thoughts, they held a mock Supreme Court trial to try to reach a decision. They were not allowed to reference anything in the future as fact, but rather suggest what may happen in the future if the correct decision was not made. From this compilation, it became clear that there was so much debate over integration and this court case that even fifty years after the decision had been made, Americans have not come to an agreement about what should have been the correct outcome.

"A Mother's Conscience Beats the Mob." Miami News: 1. News Archive Partner Program. Google. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.

This article was written about a mother who made the decision to enroll her white daughter in William Frantz Elementary School, regardless of the attendance of a black girl. She was at first reluctant to allow her daughter to go to the school, only because she feared that the mobs would be a danger, however, the next day she brought her daughter back to the school. Parents like her were a help to the successful integration of education, making it possible for blacks and whites to be educated together in the future. Because this article was written from the views of a reporter who was at the scene of the mobs of people debating integration, it was helpful and provided insight about the true violence surrounding the desegregation of schools.

"African American World. History. My Story." PBS. PBS. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

In this interview between Ruby Bridges and Charlayne Hunter-Gault, most of the questions Hunter-Gault asks concern Bridges’ experiences throughout the first days in the white school and how the crowds of protesters affected Bridges. It became clear that that religion was an important part of Bridges’ life and helped her to make it through the year at the William Frantz Elementary school. Through prayer she was able to find the strength to attend school every day and to successfully complete the first grade. She remarks that she even prayed for the “mean” people because she thought they needed help from God. Bridges was a part of the integration of southern schools and was successful in the integration of the William Frantz School, creating the Ruby Bridges Foundation in the future.

Bankston, Carl L., and Stephen J. Caldas. A Troubled Dream: the Promise and Failure of School Desegregation in Louisiana. Nashville: Vanderbilt UP, 2002. Print.

This book provided us with insight about the ultimate failure of integration in New Orleans. Bankston and Caldas performed a case study to show how much of a failure desegregation truly was. From this book, we were able to learn more about the case Bush v. New Orleans, and the efforts made by the Louisiana Government to impede the progression of integration. It became clear that had Governor Davis not passed many laws that went against the decision of Brown v. Board of Education, integration may have been a success.

"Boycott Loosens in New Orleans." Milwaukee Sentinel 3 Dec. 1960. News Archive Partner Program. Google. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.

This article was written in 1960, about the integration of William Frantz Elementary School and McDonogh No. 19. William Frantz was integrated by Ruby Bridges, while McDonogh was integrated by three girls, Tessie Prevost, Gail Etienne, and Leona Tate. The debate over integration was violent, with both sides having strong views. Governor Davis, of Louisiana, pleaded his state to continue to fight for the segregation of the schools, which made it more difficult to integrate the public schools. The legislature of Louisiana was against integration as well, offering aid to parents who wished to send their children to segregated private schools. Because the government of Louisiana was working against the federal government, integration was not as successful as what it could have been.

Bridges, Ruby. Through My Eyes. Comp. Margo Lundell. 1st Ed. New York: Scholastic, 1999. Print.

Bridges’ second book explains her experience through her own poignant words. Her biography also contains quotes from other influential people who affected her experience at William Frantz Elementary School. This book shows the historical context of her story among other the students who were involved in the integration progress in the South at the time, as well as its connection to the larger issue of the Civil Rights movement. Her parents’ decision to send her to an all white school, which was controversial and risky, caused debate among some of the Bridges’ closest family and friends. Overall the decision for Bridges to attend William Frantz created a long debate throughout Southern society.

Brown v. Board of Education. Supreme Court. 17 May 1954. The National Center for Public Policy Research. Web. 24 Sept. 2010.

This court case had much significance to the integration of public schools in the 1950s. It was successful in ending the policy of “separate but equal,” as it decided that this policy was unconstitutional, based on the 14th amendment. Following this court case, many all white public schools in the South were forced to integrate as an attempt to end the period of segregation. However, many governmental figures were still opposed to the integration of schools, making it much for difficult for this case to be enacted. There was much debate over this court case in the 1950’s; it had to go all the way to the Supreme Court before it could be decided.

Bush v. Orleans Parish School Board. Federal District of Louisiana. 12 Dec. 1960. Justia. Web. 19 Feb. 2011.

This case was debated between Governor Jimmie Davis and the Louisiana Federal District Court Judge Skelly Wright. Davis believed that through interposition, he would not have to integrate his public schools. However, the ruling of this case proved that interposition was not Constitutional policy and therefore integration should occur in New Orleans. Consequently, New Orleans public schools began to integrate. Many of the statutes that Wright had previously passed were annulled.

Coleman, James S. Equality of Education Opportunity. Rep. no. ICPSR 6389. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1966. National Archives. Web. 8 May 2011.

This was a 1966 study done on the public school system that showed the extreme educational achievement gap that existed between whites and blacks. It was one of the first studies to show the negative effects of segregation. The most important piece of information we drew from this study was the fact that 12th grade African-American students were at the same education level as 9th grade Caucasian students.

Davis, Jimmie. Speech. Speech by Governor Jimmie Davis on Statewide Television, November 13, 1960. New Orleans, New Orleans. 13 Nov. 1960. Federal Judicial Center. Federal Judicial Center. Web. 20 Feb. 2011.

This source gave us information on the views of Louisiana Governor Jimmie Davis on the issue of desegregation. This speech he gave the day before Ruby Bridges integrated William Frantz Public School shows that the state government debated over the decisions of the federal government. Jimmie Davis wants to protect the “people” of New Orleans by fighting for the continuation of segregation of public schools.

"Dwight D. Eisenhower Quotes." The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum Homepage. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 08 May 2011.

This site gave us access to the presidential library which contained quotes given by Dwight D. Eisenhower during his presidency. We were able to use his quotes on school segregation, which gave us his opinion on school integration. Eisenhower did support desegregation, but did not actively involve himself in public affairs regarding desegregation.

Emotional Aspects of School Desegregation: a Report by Psychiatrists. New York: Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 1960. Print.

Together, a group of psychologists wrote a book, describing the emotional aspects for the country, the community and the individual during integration. For the country, much of society is economically and educationally unprivileged which ultimately weakens economic growth, due to segregation. In the community, segregation leads to high disease and crime rates, which lowers the well-being of the community. For the individual, the feeling of inferiority creates resentment and anger, which may lead to depression. This source portrayed that integration was of the best interest for the country, the individual and the community. In the debate over integration, many psychologists were fighting for it, to improve society as a whole.

Gallacher, Andy. "The Ruby Bridges Story - Canon 7D - Canon EOS 7D on Vimeo." Vimeo, Video Sharing For You. Vimeo LLC, 2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010.

This video contains footage from the day Bridges integrated The William Frantz Elementary School. There are people screaming threats and verbally attacking her. The video also includes Bridges talking about her experiences and how they affected her. She recalls most vividly walking into William Frantz each morning and seeing the same woman holding a wooden box, resembling a casket, screaming that she was going to kill her. Bridges experience was very dramatic for her and this video shows how it affected her and her family personally. There are also clips from her talking to a class of students, teaching them of how difficult her integration was and how she was successful in integrating William Frantz. She is now trying to be an active member of the school, trying to improve it.

Huston, Luther A. "High Court Bans School Segregation." The New York Times [New York] 18 May 1954. Print.

This article, written for the New York Times in May 1954, describes the decision made in the Brown vs. Board of Education case. All nine supreme justices voted to outlaw the segregation of education. However, many of the individual states believed that these rules only applied to public schools, and not private schools. It was a significant case within the Civil Rights movement, as education was the first part of society to be integrated, leading to the integration of society as a whole. This decision should have been a monumental success for the blacks, but many southern states ignored it, and there was not much change. It was interesting to see the perspective of a white man about the decision to integrate education.

"I Have A Dream Speech - Martin Luther King Speeches." Martin Luther King Online - Speeches, Pictures, Quotes, Biography, Videos of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.!Intellectual Properties Management. Web. 17 May 2011.

This website gave us access to Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech. This gave us background information on discrimination and segregation inflicted towards blacks. We used this in our timeline to show examples of past events that pushed for desegregation and influences of the desegregation process.

Kennedy, John F. "Civil Rights Address." Speech. White House, Washington, D.C. 11 June 1963. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Web. 9 Oct. 2010.

John F. Kennedy addressed the problems of the nation by broadcast on the radio and on television with his speech about civil rights. In order for the president to address an issue, it must have a high level of significance or controversy which proves that the debate over civil rights, was at that time, a major topic. He discovered addressing the topic was a necessary step after he realized that it was required to have Alabama National Guardsmen for two blacks to attend the University of Alabama. It was crucial for the president to talk to the entire nation about racism because there was such a strong debate about equal rights for blacks and whites. This speech was very valuable because it was given by a white man during the 1960s, providing a different view point than that of today. It is a reliable source, as it is a speech that was given by the president of the United States.

Kilpatrick, James Jackson. The Southern Case for School Segregation. [New York]: Crowell-Collier, 1962. Print.

James Jackson Kilpatrick, an influential editor of the Richmond News Leader, wrote this book in an attempt to defend the position of white Southerners who were opposed to segregation. He includes charts and tables to support his case that segregation is a failure in the south. Kilpatrick acknowledges that the blacks’ lack of abilities were a detriment to white schools, yet did the whites did not propose any ways to improve the abilities of blacks. This book was written in 1962, only two years after integration began, and describes how integration was necessary to make blacks equal in society. Although integration was initially a failure because only 171 blacks students were in desegregated schools in the deep South by 1962, the southerners still felt that they needed to defend themselves against the federal government. This shows the illegitimacy of the southern state court's actions to oppose the federal government.

The Louisiana State Advisory Committe. The New Orleans School Crisis. Rep. Baltimore: University of Maryland, 1960. Web. 17 May 2011.

This was a study done through the University of Maryland about the process of desegregation in New Orleans. The study concluded that whites would rather close down the public schools than integrate the schools, while the vast majority of blacks would much rather prefer to begin the process of integration. This difference in opinion represents the debates between races over the desegregation of New Orleans public schools.

"More Students Attend Class in Louisiana." Lodi News Sentinel 7 Dec. 1960. News Archive Partner Program. Google. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.

This article, written at the height of high tensions in the South, describes the methods the police officers had to use to protect the children attending William Frantz Elementary school during the integration of Ruby Bridges. One hundred police officers were required to keep away the white protesters from the school. The article was written at the point of the highest attendance of the school, with twenty-three white students attending with Bridges. Due to this, the white hecklers were extremely aggravated, and because they were kept a block away from the school, they threw eggs at the cars of the students as they drove by. The day before, the hecklers had destroyed the home of a man who brought his son into the school, painting on the porch and ripping out window screens. This article made it clear that there was debate over the integration of William Frantz Elementary, as one hundred police men were required at the school to prevent the protesters from hurting the children. Clearly, the women were strongly against the integration of the school if they felt it was necessary to egg young children to prevent it.

New Orleans by the Numbers: School Enrollment & Demographics. Rep. Tulane University- Cowen Insitute, Dec. 2010. Web. 7 Jan. 2011.

This is a report done by Tulane University studying the demographics of New Orleans public schools. The results show the failure of integration, as there is a 4:1 ratio of black students to white students in the public school system. In the district that Bridges integrated, 93% of the students are black. From this source, we concluded that integration was largely a failure, due to the reverse ratio of blacks to whites in New Orleans public schools.

"Online NewsHour: A Conversation with Ruby Bridges Hall -- February 18, 1997." PBS. Knight Foundation, 18 Feb. 1997. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

Ruby Bridges writes of her experiences attending the all white William Frantz School in New Orleans. The article she wrote gives insight into the background of her situation. She took a test and was selected along with a couple other black girls, but she was the only one to attend the William Frantz School because she was the only one in the New Orleans school district. This helped to gain information on how she felt through her first grade year and helped to learn that she did not realize that she was being treated poorly because of her skin until the very end of the school year when other white children joined her class. She was successful in integrating the all white school, but there was still much debate between the parents and teacher over whether or not to treat her equally as the white children.

Plessy v. Ferguson. Supreme Court. 18 May 1896. Cornell University Law School. Cornell University. Web. 26 Sept. 2010.

The decision made by this court case resulted in the segregation of schools, and the phrase, “separated but equal.” The most important information drawn from this case was that the white man had the power to decide what race all others were. A man who was seven eights Caucasian, who appeared to be a white man, was determined to belong to the negro race. This case, debated over many years, caused segregation to be written in law, and “separate but equal” was adopted the majority of the United States. It took a lot of hard work and other court cases in the future to undo what this case did to the rights of the black man. Following this case, the South became an even more hostile legal environment for blacks, who had the little rights they had stripped from them.

"Public Agenda: Snapshots in Time -- The Public in the Civil Rights Era." | Public Agenda. Web. 07 May 2011.

This allowed us to view public opinion polls from the New Orleans Parish population. It was helpful to see the statistics of people’s opinions over the integration process and the results of the Brown v. Board of Education decision. It exemplifies the debate between the people in New Orleans Parish and their differing opinions. The tensions within the population stimulated the debate over integrating the Williams Frantz Elementary school. This also shows that de jure desegregation does not ensure de facto desegregation.

Renwick, Lucille. “THE COURAGE TO LEARN.” Instructor [1990] 111.1 (2001): 35. Academic OneFile. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Lucille Renwick’s interview with Ruby Bridges and Barbara Henry discusses Bridges’ and Henry’s perspective about the integration process and events that followed. Because Bridges and Henry were central to the first desegregation of public schools, it was important to learn about what they experienced and their opinions during this time. The significance of Bridges’ and Henry’s experiences became clear after reading this interview. After reading this article, it became clear that there was much debate over allowing Bridges to go to an all-white school; there were dozens of protestors lined up every day to debate her admission.

Southern Manifesto on Integration (March 12, 1956), H.R. 4459-4460, 84th Cong., 102 Governmental Printing Office (1956). Print.

The Southern Manifesto on Integration shows the reactions of the Southern people when the law on desegregation of public schools was passed. Integration of schools in the south was a long debate between the white and the black populations. The white southerners strongly disagreed with the law stating the public schools must be desegregated and reacted by gathering to sign the Southern Manifesto. They wanted to keep the schools segregated and debated that the Supreme Court abused their judicial power. The southerners believed that the majority of the United States wanted to keep the blacks and whites separate. Many signed the document, but it was unsuccessful and did not pass.

Steinbeck, John, comp. Reporting Civil Rights. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Library of America, 2003. Print.

John Steinbeck gave an interesting perspective, opposite to Bridges experience being escorted to school. Instead, he gave the perspective of the whites protesting Ruby, who were mothers of white children. These mothers were not interested in Ruby, but were interested in seeing which white parents still brought their children to William Frantz Elementary. These protesters were “crazy actors playing for a crazy audience,” they were putting on a show for the media to create attention. The debate was not whether Bridges was allowed to go to the school, because they could not change that, but to argue against the white parents that allowed their children to go to the same school.

Stoff, Sheldon. The Two-Way Street; Guideposts to Peaceful School Desegregation. Indianapolis: David-Stewart Pub., 1967. Print.

Stoff’s book summarizes the conditions that are necessary for a successful integration. His studies were done in the 1950s and 1960s, the time period during which integration was occurring. From this source, it was concluded that there were many factors that were necessary for successful integration due to the extreme debate about it in the South. It was interesting to read this book because it was written by a white man, and there were not many whites who were in favor of integration. This book explains that there are specific conditions necessary for integration, and if these conditions were not met, integration would have been a failure.

Tulane University. The State of Public Education in Louisiana (April 2011). Rep. Cowen Institute, Apr. 2011. Web. 8 May 2011.

This is a study done by Tulane University about the New Orleans public schools in 2011. It portrayed how black students scored significantly worse than white students on standardized tests proctored throughout the nation. Even in current times, the achievement gap between the whites and the blacks exists.

United States of America. House of Representatives. Southern Manifesto on Integration. PBS: Public Broadcasting Service. Dec. 2006. Web. 09 Jan. 2011.

This is the text of the “Southern Manifesto” signed by 19 of 77 congress members in 1956 describing the Brown v. Board of Education decision as “a clear abuse of judicial power.” The Manifesto lists several examples of how Brown v. Board was an unconstitutional decision to be made; one reason being education is not mentioned in the constitution. This transcript is evidence of governmental opposition to the integration, and not exclusively citizen resistance. This is significant to our thesis of how the local and national government attempted to restrict or stop the integration of schools.

United States of America. Lousiana Legislature. Joint Resolution of Louisiana State Legislature Urging Boycott of Desegregated Schools. By C. C. Aycock and J. Thomas Jewell. New Orleans, 1960. Federal Judicial Center- Bush v. New Orleans. Federal Judicial Center, 2005. Web. 6 Jan. 2011.

This was a resolution written by C. C. Aycock, Lieutenant Governor and President of the Senate, and J. Thomas Jewell, Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives, in an effort to stop the integration process. It was published in every newspaper in New Orleans, and all of the expenses were paid by the Louisiana House of Representatives. It shows the debates to stop integration, as it urged white parents to remove their children from the integrated schools. Consequently, Ruby Bridges attended William Frantz Elementary school alone, and integration was a failure.

United States of America. The Supreme Court. By Felix Frankfurt. PBS: Public Broadcasting Service, Dec. 2006. Web. 09 Jan. 2011.

This was the original draft of the Brown v. Board of Education II decision which directed schools to integrate “with all deliberate speed.” The NAACP pushed for a set out plan and deadline for integration, however the court decision allowed schools to integrate at their leisure by permitting them to determine when to desegregate. In the margins of this document, Justice Felix Frankfurter wrote “with all deliberate speed.” This decision was an important part of the Southern educational integration process. The phrasing was significant because it failed to make a deadline and therefore had little impact on the majority of schools. This decision was evidence that the court desired to please the public while putting the constitutional meaning as secondary.

"Wild School Mob Gets Nowhere." Miami News 3 Dec. 1960. News Archive Partner Program. Google. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.

This article describes how the citizens of New Orleans were able to watch the protests outside of William Frantz Elementary and McDonogh No. 19 from their homes, as the news covered the protests in depth. On the television, citizens could see the hecklers, mostly women, curse, yell, and spit on the white parents who decided to enroll their children in the integrated schools. If William Frantz Elementary had been shut down due to the debate and violence over the attempts at desegregation, then all of the public schools in Louisiana would have been closed as well, and integration would have been a failure. The governor of Louisiana was considering shutting down all of the public schools in the state to prevent integration. All of the white children would have been able to attend private schools, but the black children would not have been able to get an education. Integration was so debated that even some members of the government were willing to close down public schools to prevent it.

"William Rehnquist, "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases," 1952." Supreme Court History. PBS, Dec. 2006. Web. 9 Jan. 2011.

In 1952, William Rehnquist, future Chief of Justice, discussed his thoughts on school integration and his personal belief that a public should not be forced into a situation if there is a high and majority opposition among citizens. He believes that Brown v. Board decision was incorrect, and that Plessy v. Ferguson was right and should be re-affirmed. This is evidence of a discrepancy among the judicial government. It is also an example of how some officials encourage re-decision making and undoing decisions. Similar to that situation is Louisiana’s Jimmie Davis, who made efforts to counter Judge Wrights pro-integration actions.

"WSB-TV Newsfilm Clip of African American First-grade Girls Integrating McDonogh 19 Elementary School as They Are Watched by White Policemen and by Cheering African Americans in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1960 November 14." Welcome to the Civil Rights Digital Library. The Digital Library of Georgia, 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.

The video clip is from 1960 and shows the reactions of the people in the South when the black girls began to integrate Southern public schools. The reactions of the black people were encouraging and supportive, but the reactions of the white people were discriminating and threatening. The debate between the two populations in the South was large, but the video was made to seem like the girls were safe and undisturbed by whites. The clip shows a young black girl and her mother walking up the stairs of McDonogh 19 School then it shows African Americans cheering and clapping for the young girl. The narrator states that there are Federal Marshals and white policemen to make sure no harm was placed on the girl and to be sure the integration was successful.

"WSB-TV Newsfilm Clip of Segregationist Demonstrators Protesting the Integration of William Frantz Public School, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1960 November 29." Welcome to the Civil Rights Digital Library. The Digital Library of Georgia, 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.

This video clip shows the reactions of the whites toward anyone involved in the movement to integrating the public schools in the South. The debate over integration affected not only black people fighting against discrimination, but also young white children and their families. The video shows a young white girl and her mother walking to the William Frantz Public School even though black children have been allowed to attend. They shout a reoccurring phrase, “two, four, six, eight we don’t want to integrate.” The video shows how the debate became threatening and led to violent outbreaks.

"WSB-TV Newsfilm Clip of White Demonstrators Protesting the Court-ordered Integration of Schools in New Orleans, Louisiana, 1960 November 14." Welcome to the Civil Rights Digital Library. The Digital Library of Georgia, 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.

This clip shows the integration of William Frantz Public School and shows Ruby Bridges walking through the crowd of screaming white people. The clip ends with her successfully entering the school, but the white people continue to scream and threaten Bridges. The clip shows the women yelling threats at Ruby and telling their young children to tell the reporter that they do not want to integrate. The children in the clip are afraid of how their mothers are acting and threatening a child and begin to cry, but their mothers continue to try to get them to scream with them.

Secondary Sources: 55

"40 Years After, Ruby Bridges Fights On - CBS News." Breaking News Headlines: Business, Entertainment & World News - CBS News. CBS Worldwide Inc, 2000. Web. 16 Oct. 2010.

CBS news has an article on the thoughts of Ruby Bridges during her time at the William Frantz School. Her initial reaction was that she was in the midst of a Mardi Gras celebration. She did not realize that the continuous debate was all centered on her until a white boy who joined her class told her that he was not allowed to play with her because of the color of her skin. She went on to publish books and make speeches on her experiences because she did not want to let the memory of her acts against segregation just die out. She wanted people to remember the courage of all the people who took part in the debate against segregation in the south.

"American Experience | New Orleans | People & Events." PBS. PBS Online/WGBH, 1 Dec. 2006. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.

This article summarizes the entire Civil Rights Movement, and makes it clear the Ruby Bridges was a very important part of it. She successfully integrated an all-white elementary school, making it possible for other black children to attend public school in New Orleans. From this article, the most important information drawn was that nowadays, 70% of the students enrolled in New Orleans public schools are black. This can be considered a success of the integration of Bridges as it became possible for other students to attend public schools in the future. It could also be viewed as a failure because the majority of the white children are attending elite private schools, separately from the blacks.

"Anne Frank, Ruby Bridges and Ryan White Featured in 'The Power of Children: Making a Difference'" PR Newswire. Gale Biography In Context, 10 Jan. 2007. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

The article titled Anne Frank, Ruby Bridges and Ryan White Featured in 'The Power of Children: Making a Difference describes the exhibit in the Children’s Museum of Indianapolis which is designed to teach children, families and teachers the extreme prejudice that Ruby Bridges and two other powerful children in history endured. The exhibit contains first-person interviews, live theater, and real artifacts to demonstrate the significance of the three children’s experiences. All of these children faced controversial decisions and their choices and actions caused society to debate whether they were justified. Ruby Bridges’ story is influential for children today, because she showed how one persons’ success leads to success for all of society.

Braunstein, Peter. The Sixties Chronicle. Lincolnwood, IL: Legacy, 2004. Print.

This book was a timeline of event in the sixties. The flux in politics had an enormous impact on the success of the civil rights movement. President Kennedy was a supporter of black rights, which gave a drive to ignite the Civil Rights movement. Though law had been made in regards to education, states could chose not to follow these laws. Kennedy work closely with Martin Luther King, and had promised to create a civil rights bill, which would give black civil right is all sectors of society. However Kennedy was assassinated before he created the bill, but the vice president completed Kennedy’s legislative agenda. The success of the Civil Rights movement was largely due to the support of President Kennedy.

"Brown I and Brown II - The Civil Rights Movement in Virginia - Virginia Historical Society." Virginia Historical Society - The Center for Virginia History. Web. 08 Oct. 2010.

The article "Brown I and Brown II” described the two parts to the Brown v. Board of Education case. Brown I which was decided on May 17, 1954 was actually the culmination of five court cases. The court cases were only allowed to be considered if the were in favor of integration, not restoration of a segregated school. Brown I decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson case, which previously decided separate, but equal, because separate is inherently unequal. Brown II, issued in 1955, proceed with the integration process. This vital court decision was the largest legal debate which led to making integration possible.

Bridges, Ruby. "Realizing the Dream." Ed. Kenneth J. Ducote. The Ruby Bridges Foundation. (14 Nov. 2010). Print.

This document was published for the 50th anniversary of Bridges’ integration into William Frantz. The Ruby Bridges Foundation summarizes the debates of the past, but shows how segregation is still a problem, and how there is a large gap in academic achievements between blacks and whites. It highlights the ways the foundation is planning on helping to improve the overall education in New Orleans especially in the recovery after Hurricane Katrina.

“BRUSH WITH CONSCIENCE ROCKWELL MUSEUM LOOKS AT ARTIST’S HARDEST-HITTING PIECES.” Albany Times Union [Albany, NY] 3 June 2004: 35. Gale U.S. History In Context. Web. 8 Oct. 2010.

The Albany Times’ article comments on Norman Rockwell’s painting of Ruby Bridges. The young girl was portrayed walking to school with her four U.S. Marshal body guards in a white dress with a matching bow in her hair. On the wall next to her is a racial derogatory term and a smashed tomato intended to hit Ruby. This painting marked a shift in Rockwell’s focus from light hearted nostalgic scenes to “topical paintings” as Linda Pero described them, museum curator. Rockwell began painting more political pieces such as “Murder in Mississippi” recalling the story of three civil rights activists who were murdered by the Ku Klux Klan in 1965. If Norman Rockwell represents the impression Ruby left on American citizens, it is clear based on his change in direction with his painting that she was successful in affecting the lives of many individuals.

"Bush v. Orleans." Federal Judicial Center. Web. 16 Dec. 2010.

This website was a summary of the legal fight towards gaining equal education for blacks and whites in New Orleans. From this source, it was made clear that integration was ultimately a failure due to the actions of the Louisiana government, and the legislature of the New Orleans Parish School Board. They took measures to legally oppose the desegregation of public schools, the consequences of which can still be seen today. The opposition of white parents also made it difficult for the blacks to integrate the public schools.

“CONGRESS PASSES FEINGOLD-MOORE RESOLUTION INSPIRED BY MILWAUKEE FIRST GRADE CLASS.” States News Service 3 Feb. 2010. Academic OneFile. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

States News Service’s article showed that Ruby Bridge affected people throughout the nation. A resolution was passed by Congress, recognizing November 14, 1960, as the first official day of integration in New Orleans. This resolution also honored Bridges’ bravery and courage; as she went on to found The Ruby Bridges Foundation, with the goals to eliminate racism by educating students about her experiences. This shows how her time in the William Frantz school was successful because she was able to affect many people nationwide and she was able to create a foundation to support numerous schools.

Danzer, Gerald A., J. Jorge Klor De Alva, Larry S. Krieger, Louis E. Wison, and Nancy Woloch. "Civil Rights." The Americans. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell, 2007. 904-32. Print.

This textbook gives an overview of the Civil Rights movement, touching on court cases and boycotts. It discusses the Little Rock Nine, providing visuals and direct quotations from the individuals. The Civil Rights Acts of 1957 is explained, which showed how governmental action was necessary to attempt to end the debates over racism and give blacks and whites the same rights. Black suffrage is covered, as well as the freedom riders movement and Martin Luther King Jr. From this source, it became clear that there was much debate over the idea of integration. The two sides became apparent; some whites were very resistant to the idea, while others were glad to help African Americans.

Dequine, Kari. "Ruby Bridges Inspires Library Crowd." The Times-Picayune. , 4 Oct. 2010. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.

This article was written recently about the long term effect Ruby Bridges has on people, fifty years after she successfully integrated William Frantz Elementary School as part of the Civil Rights movement. From this article, it became clear that Bridges has influenced many Americans in her short lifetime, and she still has an impact on people today. She was a significant part of the Civil Rights movement, integrating an all-black school. Bridges visited a library to speak to an audience who crowded in, just to hear her speak and get the chance to talk to her. Although Bridges integrated a school fifty years ago, she still has an impact on American society today.

"Education and Civil Rights." History Learning Site. History Learning Site, 2000. Web. 10 Oct. 2010.

The History Learning Site was able to give us background information on the events and atmosphere of the Civil Rights movement. Education was a very important part of the Civil Rights movement and kept African Americans form furthering themselves in society. Schools in the South were segregated until 1954 when the Supreme Court passed a law stating that the South must begin to desegregate their schools. There was much debate over this and ultimately the Supreme Court failed in forcing integration. Multiple African Americans who fought with the NAACP for integration were tortured or killed. Black parents kept their children in the all black schools because they feared the consequences of sending their kids to white schools. There was much violence as a result of the desegregation process and integration was not successful until the early 1960s.

Frailing, Kelly, and Dee Wood Harper Jr. "School kids and oil rigs: two more pieces of the post-Katrina puzzle in New Orleans." The American Journal of Economics and Sociology 69.2 (2010): 717+. General Reference Center Gold. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.

This is a section of a journal about the history of New Orleans, focusing on the ramifications of integration and the long term effects it had on the city. When integration was first beginning, about one percent of all of the city’s black children were enrolled with whites, yet many whites moved out of New Orleans to attend all white schools. A former New Orleans school board member, in 1992, believed that integration of the schools had no effect because the whites chose to leave the integrated schools and the quality of those schools began to decline. This would be considered a failure of the attempted integration of New Orleans public schools. However, the integration did not have other successes, such as the increase of the black population in New Orleans.

Freedman, Samuel G. "Still Separate, Still Unequal." New York Times 16 May 2004. Print.

The article written by Samuel Freedman is about the question of if segregation was bad or if integration is the right direction. Well known civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. explains his opinion on the integration of schools. King supports the integration of public facilities however he did not encourage the integration of schools because he thought that white people considered themselves superior to the black race. He believes that because of those opinions, white people should not have free rein or influence over the education of the black population. This is a significant opinion because Martin Luther King Jr. was such a prominent leader in the Civil Rights Movement. This adds to the debate of if the integration of schools was the correct decision or if funding for a separate but equal School system should have been created.

Fussell, Elizabeth. ""Constructing New Orleans, Constructing Race: A Population History of New Orleans," by Elizabeth Fussell, Journal of American History." The Journal of American History. Dec. 2007. Web. 21 Feb. 2011. .

This article, written by Elizabeth Fussell, provided us with information about the racial composition of the New Orleans population. She explains why the racial shifts happened, and we were able to compare the shifts to those of the public schools. It became clear that the integration of the public schools caused many whites to leave the city, and New Orleans became a majority black population.

George, Charles. Civil Rights: The Struggle for Black Equality. San Diego, CA: Lucent, 2001. Print.

Charles’ book gives us context and background information on the Civil Rights movement, which was going on during the time that Bridges was chosen to attend William Frantz school. Chapter two was the most important and useful chapter of the book. It talked about the judicial process to gaining the opportunity to integrate schools and the affects it had on the black and white communities. Chapter two also referenced the psychological affects the integration of schools had on black children, which were similar to the affects it had on Bridges. The book gave us a broader picture on what was going on at the time of Bridges childhood and it gave us insight into the complicated process the debate on segregation during the Civil Rights movement included. This source was helpful for because of its reliable information; the sources listed in the back of the book can also help with further research.

Hague, Euan. "Welcome to the Citizens’ Councils Newspaper Historical Resource Web Site to Aid in the Understanding of the Modern Civil Rights Era." Citizens Council. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.

The Citizens Council was originally a pro-white supremacy group that was also pro-segregated schools. The group created a paper to spread their ideas, Mississippi’s The Citizens’ Council. This newspaper supports the theme of debate because the opinions in the news paper directly oppose those who support the integration of schools and directly oppose Bridges’ actions. It also brings to attention the actions of anti-integration groups that did more than form angry mobs. They formed legitimate groups and spread propaganda to members of the white southern population. Many similar groups to Citizens Council began in different states with the same ideas. It is important to take into account the the opinions and actions of the opposing groups to Ruby and integration because it can uncover more about the debate and historical significance.

Haskins, James. Separate, but Not Equal: the Dream and the Struggle. New York: Scholastic, 1998. Print.

Jim Hanskins’ book discussed the influences of the overall civil right movement, which revealed that with a president pushing for civil rights, the people began to push more aggressively in society. This difference in education between black and white children was appalling, and with the Supreme Court’s decision, blacks had the law on their side too. Bridges’ success with integrating schools led to integration in other public places with the help of Martin Luther King’s marches and speeches for equality. Martin Luther King spoke for equality in all aspects of life, not just education, but his actions were finally successful. A law was written that stated that one could no longer be discriminated based on race.

Hennessey, Maureen Hart., and Anne Knutson. Norman Rockwell: Pictures for the American People. Atlanta: High Museum of Art, 1999. Print.

Norman Rockwell’s painting inspired by Ruby Bridges is the focal point of Robert Coles’ chapter of the book. During Coles’ sessions with Brides he had her draw images of herself during the integration. These drawings were similar to Rockwell’s painting of her, which showed how much insight Rockwell had into Bridges’ experiences. Coles interviewed both Ruby’s father and the father of a white girl who had been pulled out of the school and found that both fathers had “intense interest” in the Rockwell painting. Their interests in the painting were different and it showed how white and black people debated the integration movement and how it affected their lives in different ways.

Irons, Peter H. Jim Crow's Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision. New York: Viking, 2002. Print.

Irons discusses the implications of the decision of the Brown v. Board of Education case, and argues that America’s schools have become “re-segregated” recently. The article highlights the possible debate of whether Brown v. Board of Education actually helped to integrate schools, or if it had no impact at all. He believes that even with the decision made, many schools are more segregated now than in the 20th century. There has been much debate over this argument: This book portrayed how much debate there has been in America following the integration movement during the 1950’s and 1960’s and how the Brown v. Board of Education has affected history and the continued segregation in schools today.

"Interview with Carl L. Bankston III." Telephone interview. 28 Dec. 2010.

Carl Bankston, a professor at Tulane University, provided us with the insight that integration was a failure socially, but was a success legally. Bankston was the author A Troubled Dream, which we read prior to conducting this interview. The laws set integration in place, but society’s beliefs that segregation should remain caused the reverse ratio of blacks to whites in public schools.

"Interview with Christopher Harter." E-mail interview. 12 Dec. 2010.

We conducted an email interview with Christopher Harter, who participated in a panel discussion with the McDonogh Three and Dr. Alan Wieder. He also works for the Amistad Research Center and has worked with Dr. Wieder in his studies. Harter also confirmed our thesis, and believes that the school desegregation movement has been a failure in the long run, but has also had some successes.

"Interview with Dr. Alan Wieder." E-mail interview. 30 Nov. 2010.

We conducted an email interview with Dr. Alan Wieder, who has studied in depth the effects of school desegregation in New Orleans. He provided us with his thoughts about the long term successes and failures of Ruby Bridges’, and the McDonogh Three’s, attempts at integration. He confirmed our thesis, and provided us with the insight that in order to have successful school desegregation, America needs to put out a stronger effort to continue what Bridges and the McDonogh Three began.

"Interview with Robert Heinrich." Telephone interview. 17 Dec. 2010.

Robert Heinrich, a professor at Brandeis University, provided us with much insight about the long term effects of integration. The most important piece of information drawn from this interview was the fact that the NAACP played a huge role in integration. Additionally, he said that if the courts had been more aggressive after the brown decision then things could have been shaped much differently, and integration may have been a success. He said that integration was ultimately a failure because there were too many loopholes in the system, leading to a resegregated system.

"Interview with Stephen Caldas." Telephone interview. 18 Mar. 2011.

We got the opportunity to speak with Caldas, the coauthor of A Troubled Dream. From him, we learned that due to the debates over the integration of New Orleans schools, many politicians chose not to outwardly support integration. They thought that if they supported integration, they might not be elected.

Jerome, Richard. “Keeper of the flame. (Ruby Bridges Hall; woman who helped integrate Louisiana school in 1960).” People Weekly 4 Dec. 1995: 104+. Academic OneFile.Web. 20 Sept. 2010

The Gale Group article gives an account of Ruby Bridges experience in 1960 when Ruby was the first black child to be admitted into the all white William Frantz Elementary School. It tells of her thoughts of the scene when she arrived at the school for the first time and the empty class room she learned in all year as a solo student of Miss Barbara Henry. The article fades between her present life and the history of her life as a child, not just focusing on her past experience but how it has affected her life today. It exemplifies the significance of equality, despite race or color. The struggle between the white racists, who wanted to keep Ruby out, and the press, who wanted to have equality among every human in America, also brought out the opposing values of order and liberty. The order of the community was disturbed by the angry crowds gathered outside the school each day, while attempts of liberty in the form of equal education were contradictory toward each other. Facts of her later life were mentioned such as the foundation she started called the Ruby Bridges Foundation to address problems that schools face.

Judson, George. “Child of Courage Joins Her Biographer; Pioneer of Integration Is Honored With the Author She Inspired. (Metropolitan Desk).” New York Times 1 Sept. 1995. Academic OneFile. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

This New York Times article summarizes Robert Coles’ and Ruby Bridges’ relationship. From this article, it became understood that Bridges inspired Coles to pursue his career of writing about children’s psychology. The article showed how Bridges was successful in impacting the lives of many people and causing some people to change their whole lives to help others. It also states Coles’ curiosity and surprised reaction to the scene outside William Frantz Elementary School the day Bridges first attended. That day inspired some of Coles’ life’s work which could have been referenced and used an unknown amount of times along with providing insight to how children under great stress react.

"The Little Rock Nine." Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site. National Park Service- U.S. Department of Interior. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.

The nine students each had their own story of what it was like to attend an all white school, their first day, how it affected the rest of their lives. The story of the nine high school students is significant to both Ruby Bridges and the history of the United States. Their stories were not identical to Ruby’s but had some corresponding aspects such as the angry mob, proving that Ruby’s story is significant because of its differences. The Little Rock Nine’s story is also important to U.S. history because it affected the course of history. It was after the Little Rock Nine that larger amounts of black students were admitted into white schools, including Ruby Bridges. The students were not welcomed in their school with open arms; many eventually left the school and graduated some other way because of the difficulties they experienced.

Loyola Institute for Quality and Equity in Education. "New Orleans Full Report." The State of Public Schools in New Orleans (2010). Web. 15 Dec. 2010.

This scholarly journal talks of the challenges of creating equal opportunity in public schools after hurricane Katrina. It proves that the integration was a failure ultimately, especially after hurricane Katrina because they did not even take the time or money to rebuild Wiliam Frantz Elementary school. Also before Katrina the school was nearly a hundred percent black so the integration resulted in the complete opposite as before Bridges went to William Frantz.

MacDonald, Bridget. "West Roxbury's Barbara Henry Taught Ruby Bridges during Civil Rights Era." Wicked Local. GateHouse Media, Inc., 20 Jan. 2010. Web. 20 Sept. 2010.

Bridget MacDonald’s article about Barbara Henry provided insight into the significance of Ruby Bridges’ actions. The students at the schools she visited found it strange that there was ever a time when students were separated based on race. From this source, it was understood that the integration of school Bridges’ attended helped to prevent the segregation of public schools in the future. This article also supports the hypothetical debate on how vital Ruby’s actions were in the Integration of not only the other regional schools, but Integration across America. It is also debatable that the children of today do not know what segregation is because of Ruby Bridges actions as a six year old.

Mac, Toby, and Michael Tait. "." . The Christian Broadcasting Network. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.

From this website, it became clear that white parents were extremely against integration, as there was only one white child in attendance with the three black children at McDonogh No. 19, which normally had 467 students, and there were only three white children in attendance with Bridges at William Frantz Elementary School, which normally had 567 students. Integration was so debated that the less than 1% of the normal student body continued to go to school. As the school year went on, more children began to come back to the schools, but the white children were never put in the same class room as the black children. This was a consequence of the integration of southern schools because blacks and whites were not actually educated together, but rather separately.

McDowell, Wendy S. "HDS - News - Ruby Bridges." Harvard Divinity School. 5 Nov. 2002. Web. 17 Sept. 2010.

Wendy S. McDowell’s article gave insight into Robert Coles’ relationship with Ruby Bridges. This relationship was an important aspect to Ruby’s experience because it later proved to provide information on how Ruby was affected by her experience, which could support the debate of integration was worth the sacrifices made by the first black students to integrate schools. As a Harvard psychologist Coles went to Bridges’ house everyday to talk with her about her experiences free of charge. Through his understanding of Bridges he became a practicing child’s psychoanalyst. In 1995, Bridges, with the help of Coles, published her book, The Story of Ruby Bridges. Coles found Bridges’ story one which others can learn how the pressure of her controversial situation was debated among society. He helped Bridges realize that she was just as deserving of a good education as the whites were. His services gave Bridges the opportunity to continue on her successful journey of integration.

McMillan, George. "The Ordeal of Bobby Cain": Racial Confrontation at a Newly Integrated Southern High School." History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web. Web. 26 Oct. 2010.

George McMillan retells the experience of Bobby Cain, as one of the first students to integrate a school in Clinton Tennessee. This has a large amount of significance in American History because it is one of the records of an injustice that was only changed in the last century. The story of Bobby Cain can also be compared with Ruby Bridges to highlight the differences between their experiences and what separates them. Bobby was different then Ruby in that he knew there would be a major upset when he attended the new school. He accepted the fact that people hate him and decided to go to school and deal with the antagonizing then not get an education at all. Mobs were form outside the school each morning because of Bobby and a few other students which almost convinced them not to return to school, however Bobby’s mother insisted that he continue and gain a better education.

Morland, John Kenneth. Token Desegregation and Beyond. Atlanta, GA: Southern Regional Council, 1963. Print.

J. Kenneth Morland writes a short account of the effects of school desegregation. This journal pertains to the theme of debate because it disproves some of the claims made by the white population to discourage integration, which supports the argument of if desegregation was a correct decision made by the court. In one chapter titled “Fears associated with School Integration,” Morland mentions a conference held where superintendents of Nashville and of Baltimore schools were asked how integration has affected the academic achievements of the schools. The Superintendent of Nashville reported that there was no effect on the “educational success of the students.” The Superintendent of Baltimore, which had a much larger amount of students integrated, was asked the same question he also replied that the academic standards were unaffected. Tables and statistics were also included to prove the point that integration has not disrupted the children’s academic success.

Morse, Kathryn. "Desegregation of Public Schools: 1960-1971." : Online Magazine and Writers' Network. 9 Feb. 2001. Web. 06 Nov. 2010.

This article gives insight into the efforts made by the Louisiana Legislature to restrict the integration of education. Because the Governor of Louisiana was working so hard to stop desegregation, it was consequently even more difficult to follow the federal orders to integrate. His efforts were significant because in the years following, many white parents pulled their children out of the integrated schools and enrolled them in private white schools. Today, one can still see the effects of his efforts, as more than 90% of the children in public New Orleans schools are black. Governor Davis successfully fulfilled his goal of keeping the New Orleans schools segregated.

"Our Documents - Home." Welcome to . Web. 17 May 2011.

This website gave us access to information on the Plessy v. Ferguson court case decision. This was useful because we gained background information on discrimination and segregation inflicted towards blacks. We used this in our timeline to show examples court cases that were intended to be enforced to give blacks equal rights, but were never enforced in the public. This shows how de jure desegregation does not ensure de facto desegregation.

"Raleigh's First Public School Integration Effort." The Joe Holt Story. Web. 26 Oct. 2010.

Joe Holt was a boy living in Raleigh, North Carolina who applied to go to an all white school but was refused. His story, like many others is an important piece of American history because it was the beginning of a transformation from segregated and divided communities to an equal and free nation. Joe Holt fought for three years in court to be admitted into an all white school but what not allowed because the court claimed that the Holt family did not follow procedure and therefore the schools had the right to deny him, though segregation had been outlawed. The Holt family was the first in Raleigh to go against the segregation system, similar to Ruby who was the first in a small group of young children to attend an all white school.

Rinaldo, Denise. "Ruby Bridges." Against the Odds: Four True Life Stories about Courage.New York, NY: Kids, 2002. 25-29. Print.

This book contained background information on Ruby Bridges’ life and described why she key to the Civil Rights Movement. Bridges was one of six African American children to be selected to attend an all-white school in the South. Along with two other black girls, she was to attend William Frantz School, while three other black girls were to attend a different all white school. However, the two girls who were to attend with Bridges decided not to come and Ruby had to attend the all-white school alone. She stayed strong and attended William Frantz School for a whole year without missing any days of school and without showing any fear. She was successful in integrating the William Frantz School in New Orleans as the next year that she attended that school black students and white students went to the school together.

Road to equal rights." WR News, Senior Edition [including Science Spin] 26 Feb. 2010: S5+.General OneFile. Web. 29 Sept. 2010.

“Road to Equal Rights” shows the chronology of many significant events in the Civil Rights movement. This timeline of events and people shows how each person builds on anothers actions, and supports the possible hypothesis that without one leader or person’s action, the civil rights movement may have not been as successful as it has been. Bridges and the other three students followed the group known as “Little Rock Nine” in the integration process. Ruby Bridges was among other figureheads such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, whose courageous actions together fought against debate of the Civil Rights movement among society.

"Rosa Parks Biography -- Academy of Achievement." Academy of Achievement Main Menu. Web. 17 May 2011.

This website gave us access to information on Rosa Park’s movement to end bus segregation. This was useful because of the background information on discrimination and segregation inflicted towards blacks. We used this in our timeline to show examples of past events that pushed for desegregation and influences of the desegregation process.

Rose, Chris. "Ruby Bridges' Long Walk." Carl Bernofsky - Welcome to Tulanelink. The Times-Picayune Publishing Corporation, 19 Jan. 2009. Web. 10 Oct. 2010.

Chris Rose writes in his article about Ruby’s life and how she feels today. Most of the article hits upon the experiences of her first day of William Frantz School. He also touches upon what she is thinking and involved in today. Bridges feels her life was a success and enjoys talking to children around the country about her experience and she feels that it makes them feel empowered to hear that a six year old was able to face crowds of people. She was also successful in establishing the Ruby Bridges Foundation to assist schools with materials and other necessities for a better learning environment. Bridges states that her message to the world is similar to Obama’s message of inclusion. She believes in teaching children that to accomplish greatness we have to set our differences aside and work together.

“Ruby Bridges.” Biography Resourse Center. Detroit: Gale, 2009. Gale Biography In Context. Web. 29 Sept. 2010.

Ruby Bridges marked by this article as “a symbol of change”, shows how influential Bridges’ was in passage through William Frantz Elementary School. Ruby today has her own foundation, and has written books of her own, however Ruby’s experiences gave others inspiration for their own novels and paintings. Writes John Steinbeck wrote of the debated the Ruby face by going to William Frantz with his book, Travels with Charley. Also, Norman Rockwell’s painting entitled “The Problem We All Live With” show what controversy Bridges and the Negro community faced.

"Ruby Bridges, Child Civil Rights Pioneer | ." Pajamadeen - WordPress Web Development | WordPress Web Design | WordPress Tutoring | SEO. Pajamadeen, 21 Jan. 2008. Web. 16 Oct. 2010.

This website states that Ruby Bridges was the first attempt to integrate New Orleans public schools since the Brown v. Board of Education law stated that the segregation of schools was unequal and unconstitutional. She was supposed to attend the William Frantz school with two other African American girls, but they backed out at the last minute and Bridges had to face the threats alone. Her success was due to her courage and her faith. She prayed everyday for the people who were threatening her. She believes that she would not have made it through the year successfully without prayer. She was one of the first successful integration stories in New Orleans at the time and influenced people to also make steps toward integration.

“Ruby Bridges.” Contemporary Black Biography. Vol. 77. Gale, 2010. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center: African Americans. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale, Cengage Learning. 2010.

The biographical essay about Ruby Bridges from Gale Cengage Learning described Bridges’ life, from the time she began attending William Frantz Elementary School, to her adult life. The most important information drawn from this source included the facts that she was born only sixteen weeks following the Brown v. Board of Education case was decided. Because this case decided that it was unconstitutional to have “separate but equal” schools the process of integration began. This essay clearly portrayed the feelings of hatred Bridges felt upon her walk into the school. The protesters’ emotions and actions, described in the article, were a consequence Ruby’s desegregation movement.

"Ruby (Nell) Bridges." Contemporary Authors Online. Gale Biography In Context, 2002. Web. 16 Sept. 2010.

This source is an overview of Ruby Bridges life, focusing on events that occurred in Ruby’s life at age six when she entered the William Franz Elementary School. Details on how Ruby’s attendance of the all white school affected the people who surrounded her were also included. Her father lost his job because of the integration and her grandparents were forced off the farm they had worked at for over twenty years. A man whom she also came in contact with was Robert Coles, a child psychologist who would later publish articles about Ruby. This article gave the mentality of a little girl who had no background of what was going on, or why there was such anger channeled toward her and her family for transferring schools. It could be useful to making a profile of the two opposing parties in the conflict, possibly leading to research into the other party’s mentality and opinions.

"School Desegregation - The Busing Debate." JRank. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.

Busing students to schools as an effort to support the integration of schools was a controversial action. It raises the debate of if it is correct to bus students. Supporters of busing claim it creates equal opportunity, and it is an affordable way to create school desegregation while those who are against it maintain that busing is a distraction to quality education. They believe that school boards will be to focused on busing and integration to actually have quality education. This idea could be applied to all school systems in that in a previous time or a current date, integration is so much in focus that it may cause a decrease in quality of the education students receive. Another question raised in the article is if the integration of schools should be a priority for public schools because it may distract them. The topic of busing is highly controversial and an important part to the understanding of how integration has effected American history.

Sharp, Anne Wallace. Separate but Equal: the Desegregation of America's Schools. Detroit, MI: Lucent /Thomson Gale, 2007. Print.

Sharps’ book is a chronological timeline of desegregation in America. The diplomacy of the Supreme Court’s decisions regarding Negro students, to progression of the state courts implementing these laws are described in depth. The Jim Crow Law of separate, but equal, turned into separate, but unequal. This oppression was relieved with Brown vs. Board of Education decision, but then implementing these laws in society was truly the challenge. Also, the debates between the North and the South and about segregation are covered. This source made it clear that the North was fighting for desegregation, causing conflict with the South. The North’s initial attempts at integration were at first a failure, but after they continued to fight for the rights of blacks, it soon became a success.

Steinhorn, Leonard, and Barbara Diggs-Brown. By the Color of Our Skin: the Illusion of Integration and the Reality of Race. New York: Dutton, 1999. Print.

Steinhorn’s and Diggs-Brown’s book debates whether or not integration ever really occurred. This debate is an important piece of evidence for the theme of debate and of whether what Ruby Bridges lived through was beneficial to generations that came after her. They believe that integration was not successful, with the arguments that only five percent of American cities could be considered racially integrated and seventy percent of black children go to predominantly black schools. From this book it became clear that although the Civil Rights Movement attempted to rid American of segregation and racism, it was not entirely successful.

Shoemaker, Don. With All Deliberate Speed; Segregation-desegregation in Southern Schools. New York: Harper & Row, 1957. Print.

With All Deliberate Speed, shows the comparison how each region of the United States and how rapidly they started to integrate schools, after they were forced to by the federal government, or their state governments. This comparison showed that in the Deep South the overall resistance to integration was higher than in other regions. Also, the percentage of Negro’s in the Deep South was larger than in other regions. There is a correlation to the percentage of Negro’s to the resistance to integrate. The other regions were moving to integration “With All Deliberate Speed” however the debate in the southern region was against integration and dragged on the integration process.

"The Story of Ruby Bridges." Black History Review: Honoring African-American Achievement. , 2003-2010. Web. 23 Nov. 2010.

This book review of Robert Cole’s book, The Story of Ruby Bridges, provides a short summary of what the book is about. It explains Bridges feelings throughout her time at William Frantz Elementary school. The review states that the pictures in the book capture the emotions she felt during her walk into school each morning and how she felt being alone for most of the school year. The review gives positive feedback on the book and states that everyone should read the book to further their knowledge of the subject. It also provides insight on the credibility of the source because Robert Coles attended Harvard and worked with children for many years. Also he was with Bridges throughout her journey and helped her overcome her fears and difficulties.

Strachan, Sue. "Ruby Bridges." New Orleans Magazine. Renaissance Publishing, LLC, Oct. 2010. Web. 9 Oct. 2010.

This article gives general background information about Bridges’ life, as well as her plans for William Frantz Elementary in the future. She wants to fix up the school, and rename it Ruby Bridges School of Community Service and Social Justice. After Hurricane Katrina hit, the school was destroyed and she wants to rebuild to teach children early on about community service. From this article, an invaluable piece of information that was drawn was the fact that William Frantz needed to be integrated on more than one level. It was not as simple as one black child attending the school, but also the integration of the all white teachers and all white school board.

Thevenot, Brian. "The McDonogh Three." New Orleans, LA Local News. New Orleans Net LLC, 16 May 2004. Web. 17 Oct. 2010.

This article summarizes what happened to the three young black girls, Leona Tate, Tessie Prevost and Gail Etienne, who attempted to integrate McDonogh Elementary School. The integration of this school was ultimately a failure, as the white parents pulled their children out of the school and they never came back; today the school is 100% black. Teachers at the school would pinch their noses when the black children walked by, encouraging the students to hit them. As a result, the black children transferred to a new school two years later, and the white children stayed in the school with them. Because the integration of the second school was a success, Tate and Etienne transferred to yet another school the next year. This was their biggest success, with the principal forming a biracial student council, giving them power within the school. Whenever arguments broke out, the superintendent would rule in favor of the black students. Clearly, Tate, Etienne, and Prevost were successful in their integration attempts.

"Trailblazer in Desegregation Gives Up on Public Education." New York Times 4 May 1982: A26. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 10 Oct. 2010.

This article was written in 1982 by a New York Times journalist. It gives insight into Bridges life, including important decisions she had to make. At the time of the article she was a travel agent, married with children. She says that she can only remember parts of the first year of her attendance at William Frantz Elementary School and at first did not realize that the screaming mobs were directed towards her. She has abandoned the public school system and put all her children in private, Catholic schools, because she feels that public schools do not teach enough material. Bridges says that “she regretted nothing” and would have acted as her parents did. Bridges believes strongly in a good education and wants her children to have opportunities like she did and be successful like she was.

Treanor, Nick. The Civil Rights Movement. San Diego: Greenhaven, 2003. 20-30. Print.

This book states that in 1954 the Supreme Court made a law that the South had to work towards desegregation, but that the south did nothing to achieve integration and the Supreme Court did not enforce the law until much later. The south challenged the Supreme Court’s rulings and arguing that the rulings were an abuse of judicial power. The south’s resistance caused organizations to form to fight against racism in the United States and the debate on desegregation lasted long after the rulings were issued. It was important for African Americans to fight back against the discrimination to enforce the Supreme Courts laws themselves. Organizations, such as the NAACP, were formed to use the laws in their favor to accomplish integration. Eventually they were successful and schools started to become integrated throughout the south.

"White Citizens' Councils Aimed to Maintain 'Southern Way of Life'" Homes Galore -

. 2003. Web. 18 Oct. 2010.

Citizens Council was a white association against the integration of white schools and society. As an important part of America’s past, it was groups like these that slowed, or attempted to slow, the integration of schools. If these groups had been successful in what they were trying to achieve, America would still have separated societies based on color. The first council started in Greenwood Mississippi not long after the Brown vs. Board of Education decisions were announced. Many other Citizens’ Councils were opened in other towns and states such as the Federation for Constitutional Government. The members of the groups viewed integration as a disruption to their traditions and heritage and refused to allow it to happen.

Wisconsin. Congressional Record Statement. Senator. U.S. Senator Russ Feingold. By Russ Feingold. 10 Nov. 2009. Web. 24 Oct. 2010.

This statement given by US Senator Russ Feingold urges that the US Congress pass a resolution to dedicate a holiday to Ruby Bridges, one of the first black children to successfully integrate an all-white school in New Orleans in the 1960s. Her impact on America was so strong that a group of 1st graders in Milwaukee got thousands of signatures on a petition to dedicate a holiday to her. They sent this petition to the president of the United States to ask for his approval, and the Wisconsin Senator Feingold wrote this statement to urge his colleagues to pass the resolution to honor Bridges. She was significant in the Civil Rights movement and successfully integrating an all-white school, and this resolution is evidence of her profound impact on society.

Pictography: 80

14th Amendment



Alan Wieder:



A.P. Tureaud



Black School 1:



Black School 2:



Bridges and Henry 1:

Through My Eyes

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Bridges entering the car:



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Buchanan v. Warley



Colored Water Fountain:



Colored Only:



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Dwight D. Eisenhower:



Guinn v. United States



Integration:



Jimmie Davis:



Jim Crow Must Go:



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Judge Skelly Wright:



Linda:



McDonogh. 19



Martin Luther King



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Milwaukee Honors Bridges:



NAACP:

NAACP.jpg

NAACP 2:



Norman Rockwell:



Norman Rockwell Quality:



Onlookers:



Plessy v Ferguson:



Policemen:



Population of New Orleans:



Protestors:



Protestors 2:



Protestors 3:



Protesting Desegregation:



The Problem We All Live With:



Racial Composition:



Rosa Parks on the Bus



Ruby Bridges:



Ruby Bridges1:



Ruby Bridges 2:



Ruby Bridges 3:



Ruby Bridges and Federal Marshals:



Ruby Bridges at Home:



Ruby Bridges Foundation:



Ruby Bridges Honored on November 14th:



Ruby Brides Portrait:



Ruby Bridges Project:



Ruby Bridges With Friends:



Ruby Entering William Frantz:



Ruby Escorted to William Frantz:



Ruby Today:



Ruby With Mother and Marshals:



School Girls:



Segregation:



Separate But Equal:



Segregated Public Facilities:



Separate Water Fountains:



We Want Segregation:

The Milwaukee Sentinel November, 1960

We Protest Segregation:



White Children Leaving the School:



White Protesters:



White School:



White School 2:



Whites Only:



William Frantz



William Frantz 2004-2005:



William Frantz after Katrina



William Frantz Elementary:



William Frantz before Hurricane Katrina



William Frantz Integrated:



Yolanda and her Mother:



Videography: 11

Bridges Walking In:



Lloyd Rittiner



Matt Sutherland:



MSNBC Nightly News:



New Orleans Public Schools-Left Behind



Orleans Parish School Board President Speaking out Against Desegregation:



Pam Testroet



Protestors and Legislators:



Through My Eyes:



Wisdom From A Trailblazer: Ruby Bridges Talks Racism In Education:



Yolanda Walking In:



Discography: 2

Dwight D. Eisenhower:



The Ruby Bridges Story:



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