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BILCANS
GRAMMAR WORLD
with
Firsthand Assistance on Composition
A Student Introduction to Grammar
Researched & Written
by
Syed Muhammad Waqas
For College & Competition Students
A Project by:
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“Using education and research as means for achieving intellectual excellence and transformational brilliance while remaining within the sphere of limited resources we possess.”
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To
“The Family of Grand Sadaat”
(The SYEDS of Sohawa Dilowana)
Whose Patron was the Saintly Personality of “Syed Qutub Shah Bukhari” and from whose Lineage Emerged such Great Names as,
Syed Naik Aalam Shah
and
Syed Muhammad Kamaal Ali Shah
(May God’s Peace and Mercy be upon Them)
To them I owe all my intellectual heights and the power I found in my language. The words that flow from my being are, in fact, a benediction of these saintly figures.
(Sayyed Muhammad Waqas)
Acknowledgement
I appreciate the services of all those who contributed in the making of this valuable book. On a number of occasions I dictated things to my students who took personal interest to write down every word of I spewed, taking it for a great asset. In this regard, Noraiz, Mohsin, and Faisal are thanked in particular. Besides, Syed Junaid Ifzaal deserves a great credit for his untiring cooperation. It is due to his remarkable contribution that I equally regard him as the second writer of this grammar book.
Preface
“Read! Read in the name of thy Lord, Who created man with the hanging clot of blood. Read! Thy Lord is most bounteous; Who Taught by Pen.”
(Surah ‘Alaq 96:1-4)
It is our aim that all who read this book get a deep insight into, and understanding of the world of English grammar. The book offers a firsthand access to the study of grammar viewed from an American-cum-Pakistani point of view. The spellings and mode of writing used in this book orient American English. For instance, labour has been written as labor (colour-color; neighbour-neighbor; honour-honor etc.); this is to say that wherever ‘-our’ has occurred as ending of a word, it has been changed into the American spellings by dropping the middling ‘u’. Moreover, words like theatre, metre, litre (British spellings) etc. have been used, wherever occurred, in their American spellings as theater, meter, liter etc. In addition to this, everything included in this book has been discussed in brief given the mentality and approach of Pakistani students. We have, in fact, adopted a very scientific approach in this book for the analysis of English grammar. And this approach radically makes our present book into a systematic study of English grammar. It has been observed on quite a number of occasions that students have been taught on the same old, drab lines for several decades in our academics. There has been introduced no real change as far as English grammar is concerned. Our students, even at graduation levels, are generally unaware of the exact number of Parts of Speech, let alone naming all of them one by one.
Almost all of the books on English grammar available in the market bear certain drawbacks. A great many areas of English grammar have constantly been ignored, some not even well-understood. And the matter of the fact is that these ignored areas are such problematic gaps that desperately need to be filled to bring a revolution in the study of grammar in Pakistan. Moreover, another lamentable thing that has been observed in the area of grammar writing in Pakistan is the act of ‘plagiarism’. It is simply true that a goodly number of the local grammars, including some of those ranked as the first class, copy other sources verbatim without source-mention. For instance, two high-profile grammar books of our country, which I would not like to name here, appear to have bluntly copied other sources, word for word, without mentioning the source material for their statements. Another reputed grammar printed in our neighbor-country suffers with the same stumbling block and I was so amazed to discover this awful reality that intellectual corruption has been done on so high a level. We cannot at this stage say for sure which book copied which source—either the first one I saw copied the second or the second one copied the first, or both of them copied yet another source. Whatever the reality, plagiarism is not acceptable in any form.
It is not only an undeniable fact, but in the nature of the case could not have been otherwise that, while writing grammar books, we have to trust other grammarians and linguistic scholars. We cannot on our own become an authority in the issues of grammar, for the people who have already worked to understand the systems of language cannot be overlooked in this case. We can indeed develop certain concepts in grammar, as I have done in this book, but, to this end, we must read those earlier scholars between the lines to find support for our thesis from their writings. Sometimes not only the definitions, but even the examples and illustrations have to be imported, and indubitably we cannot but simply put our trust in other authorities. However, the intellectual honesty and justice to the area of research will be the act that we quote whenever and wherever we import something from others.
Since this book primarily addresses the student folk, therefore, instead of introducing a great much of multiplicity, we have tried to bring uniformity the whole way through. Things will appear to be repetitious on certain occasions, and this has indeed been done deliberately. Psychologically, it is because a recurring word, phrase or idea will stick to the minds of the readers and they will feel at home on a number of places due to their habit of going through recurring points.
We are hopeful that Bilcans Student Introduction to Grammar will become a standard book in the field of English Grammar. Similarly, we pray that the book may greatly benefit the students. Amen!
INTRODUCTION
What is Grammar?
English word grammar derives its origin from the Greek word Grammatika, which means “the art of letters”.[1] However, the word in question witnessed a long history of evolution to become from Grammatika to Grammar. Grammatika of Greek language was transcribed into Latin language as grammatical and afterwards during the Middle Ages the French language borrowed the word from Latin to give it a French texture as gramaire. English, in fact, received this word from French traditions and identified it in the way we have discussed below.
Grammar is, in the simplest expression, “the system of the arrangement of a language.” It may be interesting to note that people sometimes describe grammar as the "rules" of a language; but the matter of fact is that no language has rules.[2] If we use the word "rules", we thereby suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, very much like a new constitution. However, no natural language started like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into meaningful words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages are subject to change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time in the history of that language.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? The short answer is "No". Very many people in the world speak their own, native language without having studied its grammar. Grammar, in many ways, functions within a language as does Logic in argumentation. As Logic deals with fallacies of propositions and arguments,[3] grammar addresses the problems of a natural language to understand them in a scientific way. A natural language, which is indeed a social phenomenon according to Anthropology, does confine itself to the bounds of grammar, and thus grammar has to be invented. It is interesting that children start to speak a language before they even know the word "grammar", and it is why their language is full of “pleasing” errors. However, if you are serious about learning a foreign language, the pulled answer of the above question is "yes, grammar can indeed help one to learn a foreign language more quickly and more efficiently." It is important to perceive of grammar as something that can help you, like a friend. When you understand the grammar or system of a language, you can understand many things yourself, without having to ask a teacher or look into a book.
Thus, think of grammar as something good, something positive, and something that you can use to find your way—like a signpost or a map. There are eight commonly known signposts in English grammar that we call “Parts of Speech”. These Parts of Speech act, in a sense, as building blocs, or as activators of English syntax. A big much of English grammar falls inside the jurisdiction of Parts of Speech, whereas only a few things remain outside its bounds. However, when studying or discussing Parts of Speech, one must not forget that English morphology has nothing to do with them, and it is only the syntax that they deal with and are applicable to. Morphology is the study of the “formation of words”, and, on the other hand, Syntax is the study of the “formation of sentences”: that is, the arrangement of words in a sentence. The root word for morphology is the Greek word “morphe”, which means “form”. The word was used in German language as morphologie prior to its adoption in English in the same meaning and was later on Anglicized (about 1830). Moreover, syntax is another equally important word in the study of grammar, which means “the act of putting together”, that is to say, grammatically, putting words together. In 1605, Francis Bacon used the word syntax in the meaning of “orderly arrangement of parts or elements” in his essay Of the Advancement of Learning. The word was originally borrowed from Greek syntaxis, “a putting together”, (Latin also syntaxis) through French syntaxe.
Like any other modern language, there may be more than a dozen kinds of grammar in English, such as Normative or Perspective Grammar, Descriptive Grammar, Case Grammar, Phrase-Structure Grammar, Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, Structural or Taxonomic Grammar, Stratificational Grammar, Pedagogical Grammar, Systematic Functional Grammar, Traditional Grammar, Lexical Functional Grammar, Universal Grammar and the similar. Our present study of grammar—that eventually ends up taking the form of a concise book—does not purely relate to any of the above stated kinds of grammar. It may be termed, in its scope, as a blend of Normative, Pedagogical and Descriptive grammars. Since this book is an innovative work in several areas of English grammar, here the dominant grammatical tendency is, we believe, that of Descriptive Grammar. Descriptive Grammar is, according to Encyclopedia Britannica, “a grammar that surveys actual practical language usage often on different levels.” It is, therefore, safe to say that, in grammar, the study of the practical usage of language is characterized as descriptive, while the standard usage of the language is characterized as normative; quite similarly, a highly idealized system of rules, especially one meant for teaching, is understood as the pedagogical side of the grammar.
Now let us get into the formal discussion on English grammar. Nevertheless, before we proceed to the Parts of Speech section, it seems imperative to discuss some preliminary morphology and syntax of English. The section that will immediately proceed has been decorated as “Definitions and Functions”, as to understand what a few basic linguistic things mean and how they function.
STAGE 1:
Definitions and Functions
1. What is an alphabet?
An “alphabet” is the basic brick of a language structure. It derives its root from Greek alphābetos through Latin alphabetum. Alpha and beta are originally the first two letters of the Greek alphabetical system. An alphabet serves to form words with the help of other alphabets. The total number of English alphabets is 26. There are two kinds of alphabets in English, (a) consonants and (b) vowels. The vowel sounds are produced without lips and tongue movement. The English vowels are (a, e, i, o, u), whereas (h & y) are considered semi-vowels or semi-consonants.
2. Syllable
A “syllable” is a single sound contained in a word which includes at least one vowel and one or more consonants. English borrowed this word from Anglo-French sillable and Geoffrey Chaucer used it without change in his House of Fame. The word in question crept into French from Greek syllabe, meaning ‘different letters joined together’. Broadly speaking, syllable means ‘part of a word pronounced as a unit’. This is to say that a syllable is a segment of speech uttered by a single effort of the voice, forming a word or part of a word; for instance, “no, speak, when, enough, vowel, success” etc. “No” has only one syllable as it contains only one vowel with a single sound: “speak” does the same job despite it contains two vowels but a single sounds: “vowel” and “success”, however, have a different case, as both of them have two sounds provided that there are two syllables in each word; in the word “vowel”, o and e are broken with the consonant w; similarly, the two vowels of “success” are broken with two c’s. Thus, the vowels that are broken with a consonant in a word will produce two or more sounds and every sound will represent a separate ‘syllable’.
Tip. No word in English is formed without a vowel. However, “why” is such a word that does not have a direct vowel, although it contains two semi-vowels. Similarly, fly, sky, shy, ply etc. are also the exceptions in English from the rule of the vowels, grammatically speaking. Nevertheless, examining it in a phonetic way, the vowel sound produced here by “y” cannot be separated from the succeeding consonants like that of a vowels, and in this way, it is rather safe to conclude that “y” functions in such cases as a full-fledged vowel letter.
3. Morpheme
The smallest meaningful unit in a language is called morpheme. Categorically, morpheme is the subject of linguistics; however, in a characteristic study of grammar, the grammar cannot separate itself from linguistics. Therefore, it is always significant that we understand ‘word-formation’ before we begin the study of ‘sentence-formation’. The root word for the English morpheme is Greek morphe, “form”. However, it first appeared in the French language and was patterned on the French phoneme as morpheme. English adopted the word in question without a change of form or meaning in the 20th century. “Morphemes are customarily described as minimal unites of grammatical analysis—the units of ‘lowest’ rank out of which words, the units of next ‘highest’ rank are composed.”[4] A morpheme is a recurrent unit of speech and the important thing about morpheme is that it cannot be broken apart and divided into further smaller levels. It is no doubt that the subject of morpheme is somewhat complex, but one should simply keep in view that a syllable is the smallest sound in a word and a morpheme is the smallest unit of meaningful speech: the difference in this case being semantic rather than phonemic.
4. Word
“Word” is the basic unit of linguistic structure in every language. Every language identifies its basic unit and formulates as well as regulates principles for the formation of words. The word “word” has been used in English since the Old Saxon period in the same form and meaning as today (cf. in Beowulf, about AD 725). It has always been used in the meaning of ‘utterance’ or ‘speech’. The necessary qualification for a word is to be meaningful and sensible towards the immediate speakers and listeners. Words are coined by alphabets and articulated by syllables. Every word has a minimum of two alphabets and one syllable. For instance, “to” has two alphabets and one syllable and is meaningful to an English speaker. Similarly, “England” is a relatively longer word (proper noun) that contains seven alphabets but only two syllables.
5. Inflection
Grammatically, inflection (also inflexion) means “variation in word-ending to express the relations of case, number, gender, person, and tense.” Lexically, it can be defined as a ‘modulation of the voice’. The word entered English in 15th century and its root word was Latin inflectere (verb), “to bend in, change, alter, or modulate”. The meaning of the grammatical variation in the word-form was first recorded in 1668. Technically, we can divide the variation-phenomenon into two kinds, namely, (i) inflection and (ii) declension. Any change taking place in a verb form is called ‘inflection’, whereas any change taking place in a noun or adjective is called ‘declension’.
6. Phrase
A “phrase” is an expression forming a grammatical constituent of a sentence but not containing a finite verb, thus lacking the fuller meaning conveyed by a sentence. For instance, ‘an intelligent boy’ is such a phrase that does tell about a particular characteristic of a certain boy, but we are not sure of the location and the identity of the boy being discussed in this phrase. Sometimes a sentence is even smaller than a phrase, but what makes the difference is the use of a finite verb capable of being changed into past, present and future.
7. Sentence
An orderly group of linguistic units (words) containing a finite verb and having the essential quality of conveying the intended meaning of the speaker is called “sentence”. A sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description. (Bloomfield) A sentence must comprise of a minimum of two words; this accounts for a single independent clause. However, an imperative sentence can be limited to a single word (e.g. Stop!). On the other hand, there is no limit on the length of a sentence. Some 19th century British writers wrote sentences containing more than a hundred words within a single sentence. For instance, ‘Ali goes to college’ is a simple sentence that contains four words. Structurally, it has all three basic constituents of a sentence namely, ‘doer (subject), action (verb), and the undergoer (object)’. Linguistically, this sentence has three parts of speech namely, noun + verb + preposition+ noun. The first noun in the sentence is a proper noun, while the second is a common noun.
Sentence can be understood at two broad levels. These two levels are the categories of Semantics and Function. At semantic level, there can be three divisions of the sentence; at functional level, it may be divided in four different kinds.
Semantically, we divide sentences in (i) noun sentence (ii) adjectival sentence and (iii) verbal sentence. The noun and adjectival sentences do not have finite verbs; they only contain the primary verb “to be” to express the idea of state or being. To be functions in both noun and adjectival sentences as linking/stative verb to illustrate the reference it bears towards the subject.[5] For instance, Ahmad is a boy (noun sentence); Salma is beautiful (adjectival sentence); Ahmad is an intelligent boy and Salma is a beautiful girl (adjectival-noun sentences). Thus, we understand that noun and adjectival sentences only express state (being good, bad, something or something-like) and do not include action. However, a verbal sentence does have a finite verb, and it expresses a complete action rather than expressing a state. For instance, Muslims celebrate Eid after Ramadan.
According to function, sentences can be of four kinds: (i) declarative (ii) imperative (iii) interrogative and (iv) exclamatory. Declarative are those sentences that make statements or assertions in a positive or negative sense; thus, it has two kinds, i.e. affirmative and negative. Imperative sentences express commands or entreaties; interrogative sentences ask questions; and exclamatory are those sentences that express strong feelings.
1. a. Shahid reads a book. (Affirmative-Declarative)
b. Shahid does not read a book. (Negative-Declarative)
2. Be silent students. (Imperative)
3. Where do you live? (Interrogative)
4. O my God, you are still asleep! (Exclamatory)
A sentence primarily has two parts; one is called subject and the other is termed as predicate. Subject, as already discussed, is the doer of some action, whereas a predicate is the later part that tells us something about the subject.
1. Imran does not do his schoolwork.
In the above sentence, Imran is the subject and does not do his schoolwork is the predicate.
Sentence Further Analyzed
EACH KIND OF SENTENCE IS FURTHER DIVIDED IN TWO OR MORE SUB-KINDS. FOR INSTANCE:
1. DECLARATIVE
LET US SEE HOW THE TWO KINDS OF DECLARATIVE NAMELY AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE WORK.
A. AFFIRMATIVE
AN AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE CAN HAVE THREE MAJOR KINDS, AS BELOW:
a. VERBAL-DECLARATIVE SENTENCE (A SENTENCE THAT CONTAINS A MAIN VERB)
AHMAD GOES TO COLLEGE. SAMINA IS WRITING A STORY. WE HAVE VISITED SHALIMAR GARDEN MANY TIMES. HE WON THE FIRST PRIZE IN SPEECH CONTEST.
b. NOUN-DECLARATIVE SENTENCE (A SENTENCE THAT DOES NOT HAVE A MAIN VERB, BUT AN AUXILIARY AND A NOUN)
THERE IS A BOY IN THE ROOM. HE IS AHMAD. SAMINA IS AHMAD’S SISTER.
c. ADJECTIVAL-DECLARATIVE SENTENCE (A SENTENCE THAT DOES NEITHER HAVE A MAIN VERB NOR A NOUN, BUT AN AUXILIARY FOLLOWED BY AN ADJECTIVE)
AHMAD IS A GOOD BOY. GOD IS GREAT. SAMINA IS VERY INTELLIGENT. THIS BOOK IS INTERESTING.
B. NEGATIVE
ALL THOSE RULES THAT APPLY TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE EQUALLY APPLY TO THE NEGATIVE SENTENCE. THUS, A NEGATIVE SENTENCE MAY WELL HAVE THE SAME THREE KINDS AS ABOVE. WE SIMPLY NEED TO INSERT THE MORPHEME “NOT” OR NEGATIVE “NO” AFTER THE AUXILIARY. THE OMISSION OF THE MORPHEME “NOT” CHANGES THE SENTENCE BACK INTO THE AFFIRMATIVE. PRESENT INDEFINITE AND PAST INDEFINITE TENSES ARE, HOWEVER, EXCEPTIONS FROM THIS RULE, FOR THEY ALSO TAKE THE AUXILIARY DO/DOES OR DID BEFORE NOT WHEN MAKING AFFIRMATIVE INTO NEGATIVE.
▪ AHMAD DOES NOT GO TO COLLEGE. SAMINA IS NOT WRITING A STORY. WE HAVE NOT VISITED SHALIMAR GARDEN MANY TIMES. HE DID NOT WIN THE FIRST PRIZE IN SPEECH CONTEST.
▪ II. THERE IS NO BOY IN THE ROOM. HE IS NOT AHMAD. SAMINA IS NOT AHMAD’S SISTER.
▪ III. AHMAD IS NOT A GOOD BOY. SAMINA IS NOT VERY INTELLIGENT. THIS BOOK IS NOT INTERESTING.
C. DECLARATIVE WITH WH-WORDS
IN DECLARATIVE SENTENCES, A WH-WORD IS INSERTED BEFORE AN AFFIRMATIVE OR NEGATIVE SENTENCE TO POINT TO A CERTAIN PERSON, PLACE, TIME, REASON OR NATURE OF THE ACTIVITY IN A TWO-CLAUSE SENTENCE OR IN A SUBSEQUENT MENTION. WE DO NOT USE AUXILIARY IMMEDIATELY AFTER WHERE, WHEN, WHY, WHICH, WHAT, WHO, AND HOW IN THIS SITUATION. WHO HAS AN EXCEPTIONAL CASE IN BOTH DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SITUATIONS. SEE BELOW, FOR INSTANCE, FOR THE FUNCTION OF WH-WORDS IN DECLARATIVE SITUATION:
▪ WHEN I CAME HOME, I FOUND IN MY ROOM A SURPRISE WAITING FOR ME. (OR) I FOUND A SURPRISE WAITING FOR ME IN MY ROOM WHEN I CAME HOME.
▪ WHERE HE IS NOT WILLING TO GO, I WILL AVOID THOSE PLACES WHILE TOGETHER. (OR) I WILL AVOID THOSE PLACES WHILE WITH HIM WHERE HE IS NOT WILLING TO GO.
▪ I KNOW HOW THIS MACHINE WORKS.
2. INTERROGATIVE
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE CAN HAVE UP TO TWO KINDS, SEMANTICALLY SPEAKING. THE FIRST KIND NEEDS ONLY A ‘YES’ OR ‘NO’ ANSWER; HENCE WE CALL IT SINGLE INTERROGATIVE. THE SECOND KIND DEMANDS A SOMEWHAT DETAILED ANSWER WITH THE LOGIC OF JUSTIFICATION CHOSEN FROM A WIDE RANGE OF POSSIBILITIES. THIS KIND INCLUDES THE QUESTION WORDS WE CALL “WH-WORDS” TO CONSTRUCT A LOGICAL QUESTION; TO THIS KIND WE CALL DOUBLE INTERROGATIVE. THE WORDS WE USE TO CONSTRUCT A QUESTION OF THIS KIND ARE WHERE, WHEN, WHY, WHICH, WHAT, WHO AND HOW.
a. SINGLE INTERROGATIVE
▪ DO YOU LIKE MILK? (ANSWER ‘YES’ OR ‘NO’)
▪ DID AHMAD GO TO COLLEGE YESTERDAY? (‘YES’ OR ‘NO’)
▪ CAN YOU DRIVE? (YES OR NO)
▪ IS SHE TAKING THE LECTURES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR? (YES OR NO)
b. DOUBLE INTERROGATIVE
WHERE DO YOU LIVE? (IT REQUIRES A LOGICAL REPLY: LOCATION) WHEN DOES SAMINA GO TO COLLEGE? (TIME) WHY DO YOU NOT LIKE MILK? (JUSTIFICATION FOR REASON) WHICH ONE OF THE CELL PHONES HAS A BETTER CASING? (PREFERENCE/IDENTIFICATION AMONG THINGS) WHAT WAS THE PAINT COLOR YOU CHOSE? (INQUIRY) WHO IS THAT PERSON SITTING NEXT TO AHMAD? (INQUIRY ABOUT HUMANS)
3. IMPERATIVE
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES CAN BE INDEXED IN TWO PRINCIPAL KINDS, I.E. (I) THOSE EXPRESSING COMMAND, AND (II) THOSE EXPRESSING REQUEST. ANOTHER KIND MAY IN SOME CASES BE CONSIDERED OF ADVICE—HENCE (III) THOSE EXPRESSING ADVICE.
STUDENTS, BE SILENT. DON’T MAKE SILLY MISTAKES. BRING ME A GLASS OF MILK. (COMMAND)
HELP ME PLEASE. GET ME SOME MONEY IF YOUR POCKET ALLOWS. LET ME SLEEP NOW, PLEASE. (REQUEST)
YOU SHOULD STAY AT HOME AT NIGHT. HE SHOULD NOT WASTE HIS TIME IN FRUITLESS ACTIVITIES. (ADVICE)
4. EXCLAMATORY
SINCE THIS KIND OF SENTENCE EXPRESSES STRONG FEELING, THERE MAY BE A HUGE VARIETY OF THE SENTENCES EXPRESSING FEELINGS. THUS, WE CATEGORIZE THEM UNDER THE MONOLITHIC HEADING OF EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES.
WHAT A HOT DAY THIS IS!
HOW GREAT A SATISFACTION IS IN PRAYER!
HOW LONG THE NIGHT IS!
PARAGRAPH
THE CHAPTER OF REAL IMPORTANCE IN ENGLISH COMPOSITION AFTER SENTENCE IS PARAGRAPH. A PARAGRAPH CAN BE DEFINED AS ‘A SECTION OF A MAJOR COMPOSITION WHICH CONTAINS A NUMBER OF SENTENCES WITH A SINGLE ISSUE BEING DISCUSSED IN IT.’ A FAMOUS GRAMMAR DEFINES PARAGRAPH IN THE FOLLOWING WORDS:
“A PARAGRAPH IS A NUMBER OF SENTENCES GROUPED TOGETHER AND RELATING TO ONE TOPIC; OR, A GROUP OF RELATED SENTENCES THAT DEVELOP A SINGLE POINT.”[6]
THIS MEANS THAT A PARAGRAPH NECESSARILY HAS ONE UNIFORMED THEME, THOUGH SOME SUB-THEMES MAY RUN ALONGSIDE AS WELL. WORDS MAKE UP A SENTENCE AND SENTENCES THEREAFTER MAKE UP A PARAGRAPH. A GOOD PARAGRAPH REQUIRES A COHESIVE AND APPROPRIATE ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES QUITE AS MUCH AS A SENTENCE REQUIRES LOGICAL ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS TO BE RENDERED AS A GOOD SENTENCE. A PARAGRAPH SHOULD BE WELL-STRUCTURED AND WELL-KNIT, AND THE ADDITIONAL QUALITIES OF UNITY OF THEME, VARIETY OF WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS, PITHINESS AND ORDER ARE ALMOST INEVITABLE FOR A GOOD PARAGRAPH. A TOPIC TOUCHED UPON IN A PARAGRAPH SHOULD BE TAKEN TO ITS TERMINUS AND NO DISSATISFACTION OR THIRST BE LEFT BEHIND.
A GOOD PRACTICE TO IDENTIFY A GOOD PARAGRAPH AND THE THEME RUNNING IN IT IS TO READ A CHAPTER OF ANY STANDARD ENGLISH BOOK, AND WHEN THE READING OF A PARAGRAPH IS DONE, THE READER SHOULD PROVIDE THE PARAGRAPH WITH A SHORT TITLE. THIS PRACTICE SHOULD BE CONTINUED WITH DIFFERENT PARAGRAPHS UNTIL THE READER DEVELOPS A GOOD UNDERSTANDING OF THE VARIATION OF LANGUAGE AND THEME IN DIFFERENT PARAGRAPHS. THIS SIMPLE ACTION WILL EXPRESS IN A WORD OR PHRASE THE SUBJECT OF THE PARAGRAPH UNDER CONSIDERATION. THIS PRACTICE IS ESPECIALLY RECOMMENDED FOR THE STUDENTS OF GRADUATION AND THOSE ATTEMPTING TO GET THROUGH “WRITING COMPREHENSION TESTS”. STUDENTS ATTEMPTING TO SUCCEED IN “PRÉCIS WRITING” ARE STRONGLY ADVISED TO FOLLOW THE ABOVE-SUGGESTED METHODOLOGY.
A MODEL-PARAGRAPH FOR THE STUDENTS IS BEING ADDED BELOW FROM THE FAMOUS BOOK “WHAT QURAN SAYS: A MODERN RECONSTRUCTION”.
“NON-SEMITIC RELIGIONS HAVE A COMPLETELY DIFFERENT CONCEPT OF TIME WHICH HAS NEITHER A BEGINNING NOR AN END, HENCE CYCLICAL. HOWEVER, IN JUDAISM, CHRISTIANITY, AND ISLAM, THE UNIVERSAL TIME BEGINS WITH AN ACT OF CREATION AND MOVES ONWARDS IN A LINEAR SCALE, AND SO WILL IT EVENTUALLY MEET AN END. THIS ACTUALLY MEANS THAT THE TIME WILL NECESSARILY COME TO AN ENDING POINT. IN THIS CONCEPTION OF TIME, THESE THREE SEMITIC RELIGIONS STAND IN HARMONY; HOWEVER, THE DIFFERENCE BEING THE MODE OF CREATION. QURAN PROVIDES EVERY SCIENTIFIC DETAIL WON ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CREATION, COVERING ALL OF THE MAIN SCIENTIFIC STAGES OF THE UNIVERSE. FOR INSTANCE, THE MAIN STAGES OF UNIVERSE AS ENUMERATED IN QURAN ARE THE ‘GASEOUS SMOKE, THE SINGULAR UNIT OF MASS, THE GREAT EXPLOSION OR BIG BANG, THE CREATION OF GALAXIES IN ITS OUTCOME, THE EXPANSION OF UNIVERSE, THE FINAL DISORDER IN UNIVERSAL BALANCE, AND THE REVERSING OF THE UNIVERSE’. OF COURSE, SCIENCE DOES FOLLOW THE SAME ORDER.”
(SAYYED WAQAS HAYDER, WHAT QURAN SAYS)[7]
READERS CAN SEE HOW NICELY THE PARAGRAPH HAS BEEN STRUCTURED AND SENTENCES ARRANGED. EACH SENTENCE HAS BEEN GIVEN THE DUE BALANCE. THE MAIN THEME IN THIS PARAGRAPH IS THE “TIME CONCEPTION FOUND IN WORLD RELIGIONS”, WHEREAS SUB-THEMES, SUCH AS WHERE ISLAMIC CONCEPTION OF TIME DIFFERS FROM OTHER RELIGIONS AND HOW QURAN CONSTRUCTS THE PICTURE OF CREATION, ALSO RUN SIDE BY SIDE. FURTHER, IT HAS BEEN SHOWN IN THE LAST LINE THAT THERE IS NO CONTRADICTION BETWEEN ISLAM AND SCIENCE.
NOW LET US VERY QUICKLY HAVE A LOOK THROUGH A PARAGRAPH TAKEN FROM THE BOOK OF A RENOWNED ENGLISH POLITICAL SCIENTIST, PHILOSOPHER, MATHEMATICIAN AND WRITER.
“WAR IS A CONFLICT BETWEEN TWO GROUPS, EACH OF WHICH ATTEMPTS TO KILL AND MAIN AS MANY AS POSSIBLE OF THE OTHER GROUP IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE SOME OBJECT WHICH IT DESIRES. THE OBJECT IS GENERALLY EITHER POWER OR WEALTH. IT IS A PLEASURE TO EXERCISE AUTHORITY OVER OTHER MEN, AND IT IS A PLEASURE TO LIVE ON THE PRODUCE OF OTHER MEN’S LABOUR. THE VICTOR IN WAR CAN ENJOY MORE OF THESE DELIGHTS THAN THE VANQUISHED. BUT WAR, LIKE ALL OTHER NATURAL ACTIVITIES, IS NOT SO MUCH PROMPTED BY THE END WHICH IT HAS IN VIEW AS BY AN IMPULSE TO THE ACTIVITY ITSELF. VERY OFTEN MEN DESIRE AN END, NOT ON ITS OWN ACCOUNT, BUT BECAUSE THEIR NATURE DEMANDS THE ACTIONS WHICH WILL LEAD TO THE END. AND SO IT IS IN THIS CASE: THE ENDS TO BE ACHIEVED BY WAR APPEAR IN PROSPECT FAR MORE IMPORTANT THAN THEY WILL APPEAR WHEN THEY ARE REALIZED, BECAUSE WAR ITSELF IS A FULFILLMENT OF ONE SIDE OF OUR NATURE. IF MEN’S ACTIONS SPRANG FROM DESIRES FOR WHAT WOULD IN FACT BRING HAPPINESS, THE PURELY RATIONAL ARGUMENTS AGAINST WAR WOULD HAVE LONG AGO PUT AN END TO IT. WHAT MAKES WAR DIFFICULT TO SUPPRESS IS THAT IT SPRINGS FROM AN IMPULSE, RATHER THAN FROM A CALCULATION OF THE ADVANTAGES TO BE DERIVED FROM WAR.”
(BERTRAND RUSSELL, PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION)[8]
MOOD IN ENGLISH
MOOD STANDS FOR A PARTICULAR TENDENCY OF SPEAKING, WHICH HELPS IDENTIFY THE MEANING ASSIGNED BY THE SPEAKER TO A SENTENCE SPOKEN. ACCORDING TO A FAMOUS GRAMMARIAN, “MOOD IS A SET OF VERB FORMS OR INFLECTION USED TO INDICATE THE SPEAKER’S ATTITUDE TOWARD THE FACULTY OR LIKELIHOOD OF THE ACTION OR CONDITION EXPRESSED.”[9] MOOD IS RELATED TO ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE. IN ENGLISH, MOOD VARIES IN THREE WAYS I.E. THERE ARE THREE MOODS.
Indicative
Imperative
Subjunctive
Indicative
Indicative mood is used to make “factual statements”. It is the most commonly used mood in English. In this mood, we indicate something. All affirmative, negative, and interrogative sentences and most of the constructions that involve various choices of person, tense, number, aspect and modality fall into this category. For instance:
▪ Ahmad is my friend. (Affirmative Noun Sentence)
▪ Ahmad goes to college. (Affirmative Verbal Sentence)
▪ Ahmad is not my friend. (Negative Noun Sentence)
▪ Ahmad does not go to college. (Negative Verbal Sentence)
▪ Is Ahmad my friend? (Interrogative Noun Sentence)
▪ Does Ahmad go to college? (Interrogative Verbal Sentence)
Imperative
Imperative mood conveys a command or request. It is a non-factual mood and is exclusively used for issuing directives. Sentence having imperative mood begins directly with a verb i.e. with the finite verb (base form). It is, therefore, similar to indicative present tense without the “s/es” inflection having been undertaken by the verb. For instance:
▪ Let us stay together tonight.
▪ Don’t go today.
▪ Catch me if you can.
Subjunctive
Subjunctive being another non-factual mood is a ‘special kind of present tense’, which does not have –s in the third person. Similarly, it is normally used in “that” clauses in a formal style after such words that express the idea that something is important, desirable or compulsory—particularly true to the American English. For instance, words like advice, ask, demand, recommend, require, suggest, insist, plead, vital, pray, essential, important and necessary are followed by “Subjunctive Mood” in that clause.
i. It is necessary that everyone have equal economic opportunities.
ii. We advice that the company invest in a new business.
iii. It seemed it was important that Junaid write back to his father as soon as possible.
iv. The doctor recommended that he remain in the hospital for a few more days.
Another special aspect of Subjunctive Mood is its complete omission of the use of auxiliary to do (i.e. do not or does not) in negatives. It allows “not” functioning independently when preceded by the above-narrated words. For example:
i. We considered it desirable that he not leave hostel before finding an apartment.
Moreover, we normally use were after “if” instead of was. This situation is again an example of subjunctive mood, which speaks of ‘unfulfilled wish’ and ‘condition’. Subjunctive mood (if + were) is more common in formal as well as informal English and that it is considered the standard style today. American English heavily relies on it and people in both England and America regard it as correct English to use were instead of was after if—even if the subject is “I, he, she, it” or other that take was as auxiliary. For instance:
▪ If I were famous, I would enjoy my time out in public.
▪ If her nose were a little shorter, she would be very attractive.
▪ If I were the lord of Tartary.
STAGE 2: Parts of Speech
Let us now further explore the valley of English grammar. Whenever we talk about English grammar, the idea that immediately strikes our mind is the role of “Parts of Speech” in English. Before we go further deep, let us first have a look at the general definition of the Parts of Speech.
“English grammar consists of those activators that are called “Parts of Speech”. About its accurate number, there is difference in the views of grammarians. But the most popular parts are eight in figure. They are like eight ways having subways within themselves. It is possible that some aspects of grammar remain out of them, but the domain of grammar is constituted by these activators.”[10]
There is still a ninth activator, i.e. a ninth Part of Speech, according to a few grammarians. They call it “determiner”. Dr. Quirk, the author of A University Grammar of English, adds yet another category in the Parts of Speech, namely, “articles”, pulling the number of Parts of Speech to ten.[11] He insists that determiners and articles have an identically important grammatical function as do the other Parts of Speech. This view of one particular school of thought is so relative that it cannot be altogether rejected, for, linguistically, it becomes extremely important to assign specific positions to determiners and articles in the arrangement of the language. However, as this book orients the job of a traditional grammar, only traditional Parts of Speech will be discussed in the current section. We have added an additional section to discuss determiners and articles in the end of the traditional Parts of Speech.
It is suggested on the behalf of the writer that there is no regular or hard & fast order of the Parts of Speech. Nevertheless, I have arranged the traditional Parts of Speech in a way that is most easily understandable for the students of any level.
1. Verb (V)
2. Adjective (A)
3. Noun (N)
4. Pronoun (P)
5. Interjection (I)
6. Conjunction (C)
7. Adverb (A)
8. Preposition (P)
Now let us turn to the formula of memorizing these Parts of Speech. There is an easy way—suggested by the writer himself—to memorize the names of all Parts of Speech. Let us for a moment collect the initial letters of all Parts of Speech and abbreviate them in the above listed order making three categories. V from Verb, A from Adjective, N from Noun, P from Pronoun, I from Interjection, C from Conjunction, A from Adverb, and P from Preposition: now let us arrange them into a tri-syllable acronym:
V + A + N + P + I + C + A + P = VANPICAP
(Pronounced: VAN-PI-CAP)
The definition of Parts of Speech varies in traditional grammars. There is a wide range of definitions, in which the common idea only loosely reflects. We have tried in this grammar to be as much exact with the definitions and functions of the Parts of Speech as possible. However, there is an inherent inconsistency in the morphology as well as syntax of English, and it is why, we are compelled to say, that all definitions are incapable of being applicable to all instances. The lack of sufficient generality to correspond with all relevant instances is what makes every definition of the Parts of Speech incomplete.
Now let us have a detailed look into the functions of Parts of Speech.
1. VERB
A “verb” tells us about something being done. In English, since the verb is ‘inflected’, it normally agrees with its primary argument—that we tend to call subject. The English word verb derives its root from Latin word “verbum”, which stands for an ‘action’ or ‘entering into an activity’. The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence in English contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a single verb; for example: “Stop!” However, you cannot make a one-word sentence with any other kind of the Parts of Speech. Some of the basic verbs are: to read, write, count, sit, run, jump, watch etc.
Distinction between Action and State in Verb
Verbs are sometimes described as “action words”. This is partly true. Majority of the verbs convey the idea of action—of ‘doing something’. For example, verbs like to run, to fight, to do and to work all convey “action”.
i. He runs very fast.
ii. Pakistan Army is fighting terrorism in tribal areas.
However, some verbs do not express the idea of action; instead, they express the idea of existence—of “being”. For example, verbs like to be, to exist, to seem, to feel, and to belong all convey “state”. These are special verbs, which have been grouped in English under the title of Copular or Linking Verbs. Let us have a look into the examples before we further consider the verbs of state.
i. We all are responsible Pakistanis.
ii. The situation of your study seems on decline.
iii. I belong to the country of brave and hospitable people.
iv. Only one God exists in the universe.
Verbs of State: Copula, Copular or Linking Verbs
English uses a special kind of verb to join an adjective or noun complement to a subject to express a state. This verb “links” the subject instead of referring to the object. The verbs included in this “special kind” are called “Copular or Linking Verbs” or “Copulas”. Some grammarians simply call them with the monolithic title Stative Verbs to easily group verbs into action and state groups. The most common copular verbs are: seem, appear, look, smell, continue, grow, taste, become, sound, feel, get, run, keep, stay, prove, resemble, and turn. To be that is the most potent verb in English functions in almost all noun and adjective sentence as a copular verb.[12] It is, therefore, sometimes difficult for the new readers to distinguish between the copular and progressive tense functions of to be. However, it is still advisable to keep in view that it functions both ways: to be is copular when it speaks of the subject, whereas it is a progressive tense when to be modifies the main verb that follows it by becoming present participle.
i. He is a cricket player. (to be as linking verb in noun sentence)
ii. He is going to college. (to be as auxiliary in present progressive tense)
Some further examples of the stative or copular verbs are here below:
i. He became a lawyer last year.
ii. That guy in the blue shirt looks pretty smart.
iii. The chicken kabob smells good.
iv. I did feel a rich man. (or I felt a rich man.)
v. Ahmad is there.
vi. We were at Bilcans a few minutes ago.
Some linking verbs are also action verbs. For instance, sound, smell, taste, grow, look, feel, continue, appear, get, turn, keep, stay etc. can also be used as action verbs in addition to their use as linking verbs. If they are used to describe a ‘physical action’—something that is observable in general or something that can happen in reality—they are treated as action verbs. If these very verbs are used to describe a ‘state’ or ‘being’, the fact that something/someone has a certain quality, they are then stative, linking or copular verbs.
i. We grew wheat last year, but now we will grow something else. (action verb)
ii. Milk grew thinner as soon as the milkman mixed water in it. (stative/linking verb)
iii. Ahmad feels the water before he takes a bath. (action verb)
iv. Most of the sculptures in the museum felt rough. (stative/linking verb)
Verb Further Explained
There are three broad categories of verb i.e. (i) Primary Verbs, (ii) Main Verbs, and (iii) Modal Verbs. The first category, Primary Verbs, includes only three verbs that we generally use in the form of auxiliary/helping verbs. Second category, the category of Main Verbs, is enormous in number and has subdivisions in itself. The third category, namely, Modal Verbs is another typical example of auxiliaries. Instead of discussing all these categories here in precisions, it would be appropriate to talk of them under independent headings.
Primary Verbs—Auxiliaries or Helping Verbs
This category has only three verbs. These verbs perform the function of auxiliary or helping verbs, and thereby each of them represents one of the three Aspects of English. The three primary verbs are:
1. To do [Simple Aspect]
2. To be [Progressive Aspect]
3. To have [Perfective Aspect]
|Infinitive |Base Form |Present Form(s) |Past Form(s) |Past Participle |Present Participle |
|To do |Do |Do/Does |Did |Done |Doing |
|To be |Be |Am/Is/Are |Was/Were |Been |Being |
|To have |Have |Has/Have |Had |Had |Having |
It must be kept in view that only the present and past forms of “to do” and “to have” are used as auxiliaries. However, the case with “to be” is completely different: all of its forms are used as auxiliaries in various situations—either for the verbs of state, progressive tenses, or for the making of passive voice. Another important point to be considered here is that no form of passive voice can be formed without “to be”. To do and to have assist to be in the making of different passive voice tenses. To be is the strongest verb in English and it has the maximum number of forms. In all passive voice cases, forms of to be are followed by past participle. Contrarily, in progressive tenses, the forms of to be are followed by present participle.
Main Verbs (also Lexical Verbs)
The second category is that of Main Verb. Main verbs are the essential action words of a sentence and it is why that the presence of a main verb in a sentence is imperative to express an action or activity. There is no limit on their number in English as is the case of Primary Verbs. However, we categorize them under two headings—chiefly because of their use by the English speakers. Each of the two categories witnesses yet another classification worked out by the English speakers, according to which, both of the categories subdivide in two further kinds within themselves. These two categories are (i) Regular and Irregular Verbs category and (ii) Transitive and Intransitive Verbs category. The former category may well be termed in the language of grammar as structural kinds of Main Verb. The latter category orients the function of the Main Verb; hence we suffer with no grammatical problem to render the two kinds of this category as functional kinds of Main Verb. We also call them as verbs differing in valence i.e. the number of arguments each main verb possesses. At this stage, what is important about transitive and intransitive verbs regarding their past participle function is that the past participle of all transitive verbs can be used as an adjective (e.g. a broken glass). Intransitive verbs are, however, an exception from this role, and since they do not take an object, their past participle form is not generally considered an adjective in English grammar.
Regular & Irregular Verbs
Let us at first consider the difference between Regular and Irregular verbs. A verb having the past and past participle forms’ ending on ‘-ed’ will be called a regular verb. For instance:
|Infinitive |Base Form |Past Form |Past Participle | Present Participle |
|To work |Work |Worked |Worked |Working |
|To reach |Reach |Reached |Reached |Reaching |
|To found |Found |Founded |Founded |Founding |
And a verb having no regular ending in its past and past participle forms will be called an irregular verb. For instance:
|Infinitive |Base Form |Past Form |Past Participle |Present Participle |
|To sing |Sing |Sang |Sung |Singing |
|To leave |Leave |Left |Left |Leaving |
|To cut |Cut |Cut |Cut |Cutting |
Transitive & Intransitive Verbs
A transitive verb takes an “object”. It, in fact, directs towards a person or thing; hence we conclude from the direction that this verb is transitive as it needs an object. For instance:
Samina locks the door. (locks takes door as object)
Ahmad visits the bookshop. (visits takes bookshop as object)
An intransitive verb does not take an “object”. Speaking in more technical terms, an intransitive verb owns only one ‘argument’ i.e. its subject; thus, it has a ‘valence’ of one. For instance, main verbs sleep and die are intransitive in English language. For examples, sentences with intransitive verbs:
Can I sleep? (sleep has no object)
He died today. (die has no object)
However, some verbs function both ways—as transitive as well as intransitive. We call such verbs “ambitransitive”. For instance, play and smell both are ambitransitive verbs and they can be used either way, as:
You smell. (smell takes no object)
I can smell pizza from distance. (smell takes pizza as object)
Ahmad’s daughter is playing. (playing takes no object)
Ahmad is playing guitar. (playing takes guitar as object)
Modal Verbs (or Modality)
Modal Verbs fall into the third category of verbs. In function, modal verbs are “half-conscious” readymade verbs used as auxiliaries to convey possibility, probability, permission, potential, ethics, obligation and other similar types of situations. Some of the modal verbs have past forms, while some do not.
|Present Form |Past Form |Structure: Subject + Modal Verb + Verb in Base Form + Object |
|Can |Could |He can/could (not) play cricket. (Ability/Potential) |
|May |Might |He may/might (not) stay here. (Possibility/Permission) |
|Will/Shall |Would |He will/would (not) go to London. (Prediction) |
|Must |No past form |She must (not) work to earn. (Obligation) |
|Ought to |No past form |We ought to look after elderly people. (Moral obligation) |
|Should |No past form |You should (not) sleep in the daytime. (Ethical assertion) |
| |Marginal Modal | |
| |Auxiliaries | |
|No present form |Used to |Waqar Younis used to play for Surrey. (Past continuity) |
|No present form |Had better |You had better give up smoking. (Preference/Caution) |
|No present form |Would Rather |I would rather speak Urdu at Bilcans. (Choice) |
|Need |Needed |You need not attempt any extra questions. |
|Dare |Dared |How dare you say that? |
Contraction
The process of ‘restricting’ or ‘shrinking’ is called contraction. Contraction occurs with auxiliaries in English grammar. Auxiliaries either form contraction with the preceding pronouns or with succeeding ‘not’. Both primary verbs and modal verbs, when used as full auxiliaries, are subject to contraction.
|Pronoun + Auxiliary |Contraction |Auxiliary + Not |Contraction |
|I am |I’m |Am not |Ain’t |
|She is |She’s (+ present participle) |Is not |Isn’t |
|He is |He’s (+ present participle) |Are not |Aren’t |
|It is |It’s (+ present participle) |Will not |Won’t |
|We are |We’re |Has not |Hasn’t |
|You are |You’re |Have not |Haven’t |
|They are |They’re |Had not |Hadn’t |
|I will |I’ll |Would not |Wouldn’t |
|We will |We’ll |Could not |Couldn’t |
|I would |I’d (+ base form) |May not |Mayn’t |
|They would |They’d (+ base form) |Must not |Mustn’t |
|He would |He’d (+ base form) |Should not |Shouldn’t |
|She has |She’s (+ past participle) |Cannot |Can’t |
|He has |He’s (+ past participle) |Must not |Mustn’t |
|It has |It’s (+ past participle) |Was not |Wasn’t |
|I have |I’ve |Were not |Weren’t |
|We have |We’ve |Does not |Doesn’t |
|They have |They’ve |Do not |Don’t |
|I had |I’d (+ past participle) |Did not |Didn’t |
|We had |We’d (+ past participle) |Shall not |Shan’t |
|She had |She’d (+ past participle) |Ought not to |Oughtn’t to |
|He had |He’d (+ past participle) |Need not |Needn’t |
|They had |They’d (+ past participle) |Dare not |Daren’t |
Tense
Tense represents time. The word “tense” has been derived from Latin tempus meaning ‘time’. Tense has a direct connection with verb, because it is a verb that gives birth to the tenses. Different forms of verb explain different stages of time/temporal issues, which we generally term in our grammatical language as ‘Tense’.
“By Tense, we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time namely, past, present, and future.”[13]
Normally, we divide tense phenomenon into three kinds of time-scheme, as stated above. These are the three stages of our flowing, linear (non-linguistic) time i.e. the passed time (past), the current time (present), and the coming/predicted time (future). Examples have been given below in the tense summary.
Tenses (i.e. verbs) are also said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er nor a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction. There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so. Your text will have more pizzazz (activeness) as a result, since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their pajamas (looseness) and avoid actual work.
The passive voice is especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or technical writing or laboratory reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing “I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker,” we would write “Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker.”
Tense Structure
A VERB CHANGES IN DIFFERENT FORMS TO EXPRESS THE TIME DIVISION. THIS GRAMMATICAL DIVISION OF TIME MINUTELY CORRESPONDS WITH OUR EVERYDAY, NON-LINGUISTIC UNDERSTANDING OF TIME. THUS, THIS DIVISION OF TIME, EXPRESSED THROUGH DIFFERENT VERB-FORMS, IS, IN THE LANGUAGE OF GRAMMAR, CALLED “TENSE”. ACCORDING TO LINGUISTICS, TENSE HAS, IN THE FIRST PLACE, THREE KINDS OF TIME DIVISION, AND, IN THE SECOND PLACE, THREE ASPECTS OF EACH DIVISION OF TIME.
Time Division
Present Tense
Past Tense
Future Tense
Aspects of Time Division
Simple Aspect (Indefinite Tenses)
Progressive Aspect (Continuous Tenses)
Perfective Aspect (Perfect Tenses)
Now let us work out how we can consider these aspects in normal grammatical language. In general, we call these aspects the kinds of present, past, or future tense, which is technically incorrect. However, due to an overuse of such mistaken language, this misnomer has become widely acceptable; hence also acceptable for a traditional Pakistani grammarian. We will thus follow the suit to avoid all subsequently arising complexities and term these aspects of tense as kinds hereinafter.
Kinds in Active Voice
1. Indefinite (as opposed to Definite)
2. Progressive/Continuous (as opposed to Stagnant)
3. Perfect (as opposed to Imperfect or Incomplete)
4. Perfect Progressive/Continuous (Time Tense)
Primary Verbs & Tenses
English has, as stated above, three Primary Verbs as apart from the Main Verbs. They are as below:
to do (do-did-done-doing)
to be (be-is/am/are-was/were-been-being)
to have (has/have-had-had-having)
Primary Verbs and Tenses are intertwined in English syntax. Primary verbs are, in fact, the real auxiliary/helping verbs, whereas all of the other auxiliaries, such as can, could, should, must etc. (i.e. Modals), are, basically, pseudo-auxiliaries. Each primary verb stands for a mode of time division i.e. an Aspect; the “base” and “past” forms of each primary verb serve as auxiliaries for the description of time-division in Present and Past. Let us examine this relation in a chart, for instance:
|Kind of Time/Tense |Primary Verb |Present Auxiliary |Past Auxiliary |Future Auxiliary |
|Indefinite |To do |Do/Does |Did |Not used |
|Progressive |To be |Is/Am/Are |Was/Were |Will + be |
|Perfect |To have |Has/Have |Had |Will + have |
While discussing the tense structure, we will use “subject + to go + to + college” as our standard sentence. The justification for the use of this simplest of sentences with extremely simple structure is to understand all the potential variations English tenses undergo. It must be borne in mind that English has no single pattern for the production of tense variations, plurals, pronouns and corresponding auxiliaries, and questions etc.
1. Present Indefinite Tense (also Simple Present)
This tense expresses repeated action, which has neither a definitive start nor ending. The timeframe of Simple Present stretches over an action that begins sometimes in past, continues in the present, and is likely to continue even in future. For instance, “Ahmad goes to college” includes goes as an activity that indicates Ahmad’s activity of going to college in the past, present and the time to come. This is to say that Simple Present expresses a habitual action. Furthermore, it expresses a general truth, say, the idea of a general activity occurring in routine with little or no changes whatsoever (e.g. Sun sets in the west). It seems rather odd—but grammatically correct—that a piece of literature (drama, novel, poem etc.) is generally explained in Simple Present (e.g. Shakespeare says there are seven major stages in human life).
Base Structure
Subject + main verb in base form + object/complement
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + base form of verb + object. |
|If the subject is “3rd person singular”, the base form of verb will undertake an addition of “s” or “es” inflection. |
|Verbs ending on characters like “ch, sh, o, s, x” normally take the “es” inflection, and the rest are supplied “s” |
|only. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + do/does not + base form + object. |
|The same rule as above will apply to distinguish between “does” and “do”. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Do/Does + subject + base form + object? |
|Do/Does + subject + not + base form + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + do/does + subject + base form + object? |
|Wh word/How + do/does + subject + not + base form + object? |
Solved Exercise
1. He/She/Ahsan/Samina goes to college. (3rd person singular simple sentence)
2. I/You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma go to college. (Simple sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
3. He/She/Ahsan/Samina does not go to college. (3rd person singular negative sentence)
4. I/You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma do not go to college. (Negative sentence with the rest)
5. Does he/she/Ahsan/Samina go to college? (3rd person singular interrogative sentence)
6. Do I/You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma go to college? (Interrogative sentence with the rest)
7. Does he/she/Ahsan/Samina not go to college? (3rd person singular interrogative-negative sentence)
8. Do I/You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not go to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence with the rest)
9. When does he/she/Ahsan/Samina go to college? (3rd person singular double interrogative sentence)
10. When do I/You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma go to college? (Double-interrogative sentence with the rest)
11. When does he/she/Ahsan/Samina not go to college? (3rd person singular double-interrogative-negative sentence)
12. When do I/You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not go to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence with the rest)
2. Past Indefinite Tense (also Simple Past)
Past Indefinite expresses an action already completed in the past at a certain time. The timescale does not seem to have a recentness or perfection in it; instead it shows a definite time in past when the activity was carried out. In this particular sense, there is only a slight difference between Past Indefinite and Present Perfect tenses. However, we need to tell our brains that Past Indefinite sentences express a situation that has a setting of past and its time is now over—no longer in continuity. However, Present Perfect communicates a recentness of time, which is somehow linked to the present time despite that the action has come to completion.
Past Indefinite often uses words or phrases expressing a definite time in past; for example. yesterday, last week, last June, previous month, this morning, two hours ago etc.
Base Structure
Subject + main verb in past form + object/complement
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + past form of verb + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + did not + base form + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Did + subject + base form + object? |
|Did + subject + not + base form + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + did + subject + base form + object? |
|Wh word/How + did + subject + not + base form + object? |
Solved Exercise
1. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma went to college. (Simple sentence)
2. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma did not go to college. (Negative sentence)
3. Did I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma go to college? (Interrogative sentence)
4. Did I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not go to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence)
5. When did I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma go to college? (Double-interrogative sentence)
6. When did I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not go to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence)
3. Future Indefinite Tense (also Simple Future)
It is stunning but true that English does not have a future tense. English, unlike its mother languages i.e. Greek and Latin and our national language Urdu, has a very loose idea of future. English gives only a cursory touch to the future using very many grammatical constructions, in which the most common is the use of will and shall. Both “will” and “shall” are Modal verbs and they do not qualify to become independent auxiliaries like those of present and past tenses or to find a place among the Primary Verbs. Similarly, sometimes present participle “going to” is used to express one’s intent to carry out an activity in future times (e.g. I’m going to write a book). Construction of “may be” is also used in some situations to express futurity when indecisiveness is prevalent (e.g. he may be writing a book). Modal verb “may” also serves at times in a similar fashion (e.g. Ahmad may/might write a book).
In our present case, Future Indefinite structure will include only will as auxiliary. In fact, the use of shall has become extremely rare in modern English, especially American English.
Base Structure
Subject + will + main verb in base form + object/complement
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + will + base form of verb + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + will not + base form + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Will + subject + base form + object? |
|Will + subject + not + base form + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + base form + object? |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + not + base form + object? |
Solved Exercise
1. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will go to college. (Negative sentence)
2. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will not go to college. (Simple sentence)
3. Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma go to college? (Interrogative sentence)
4. Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not go to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence)
5. When will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma go to college? (Double-interrogative sentence)
6. When will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not go to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence)
Present Progressive/Continuous Tense
Present Progressive Tense exhibits an action that is still in progress or continuity at the time of speaking (Ahmad is playing cricket). It also expresses a more general present, implying a continual activity (I am going to gym these days). Further, it may in some respect indicate future events, thus, functioning as an incomplete future (Salma is returning from Lahore tomorrow). With now and always, progressive action is always more appropriate (We are now leaving for Islamabad; Hassan is always wearing shorts).
Base Structure
Subject + present forms of to be + main verb in present participle + object/complement
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + is/am/are + present participle + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + is/am/are not + present participle + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Is/Am/Are + subject + present participle + object? |
|Is + subject + not + present participle + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + is/am/are + subject + present participle + object? |
|Wh word/How + is/am/are + subject + not + present participle + object? |
Important Tip:
1st person singular “I” always takes am as its auxiliary (helping) verb in Present Progressive Tense.
3rd person singulars “he, she, it, (& single nouns)” always take is as their auxiliary verb.
All plurals as well as the 2nd person singular “you” always take are as their auxiliary verb.
Solved Exercise
1. He/She/Ahsan/Samina is going to college. (3rd person singular simple sentence)
2. I am going to college. (1st person singular simple sentence)
3. You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma are going to college. (Simple sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
4. He/She/Ahsan/Samina is not going to college. (3rd person singular negative sentence)
5. I am not going to college. (1st person singular negative sentence)
6. You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma are not going to college. (Negative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
7. Is he/she/Ahsan/Samina going to college? (3rd person singular interrogative sentence)
8. Am I going to college? (1st person singular interrogative sentence)
9. Are You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma going to college? (Interrogative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
10. Is he/she/Ahsan/Samina not going to college? (3rd person singular interrogative-negative sentence)
11. Am I not going to college? (1st person singular interrogative-negative sentence)
12. Are You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not going to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
13. When is he/she/Ahsan/Samina going to college? (3rd person singular double-interrogative sentence)
14. When am I going to college? (1st person singular double-interrogative sentence)
15. When are You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma going to college? (Double-interrogative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
16. When is he/she/Ahsan/Samina not going to college? (3rd person singular double-interrogative-negative sentence)
17. When am I not going to college? (1st person singular double-interrogative-negative sentence)
18. When are You/We/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not going to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
5. Past Progressive/Continuous Tense
Past Progressive Tense is the past form of progressive aspect. It shows a progressive action that began sometimes earlier than the while of its description and may or may not be in continuity at the present (Ahmad was playing cricket this afternoon). In this sentence, we do not know whether Ahmad is still playing cricket or he stopped playing afterwards. Past Progressive also combines two actions occurring one after another in past that express a correlative progression (Ahmad was driving home when it began getting dark). However, it is preferable to use Past Simple rather than Past Progressive for a definite and complete past expression; it is, therefore, better to say Ahmad came home early today than Ahmad was coming home early today. Past Progressive may be used, however, to describe a supplementary action in a series of past actions (The college bell was ringing and the students were assembling in classes. It was the first period of day-one and all the teachers started their lectures with introductory notes. They explained what changes new students might experience in the coming days of their college career).
Base Structure
Subject + past forms of to be + main verb in present participle + object/complement
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + was/were + present participle + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + was/were not + present participle + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Was/Were + subject + present participle + object? |
|Was/Were + subject + not + present participle + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + was/were + subject + present participle + object? |
|Wh word/How + was/were + subject + not + present participle + object? |
Important Tip:
1st person singular “I” and 3rd person singulars “he, she, it, (& single nouns)” always take was as their auxiliary in Past Progressive Tense.
All plurals as well as 2nd person singular “you” always take were as their auxiliary.
Solved Exercise
I/He/She/Ahsan/Samina was going to college. (1st & 3rd persons singular simple sentence)
We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma were going to college. (Simple sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
I/He/She/Ahsan/Samina was not going to college. (1st & 3rd persons singular negative sentence)
We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma were not going to college. (Negative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
Was I/he/she/Ahsan/Samina going to college? (1st & 3rd persons singular interrogative sentence)
Were We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma going to college? (Interrogative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
Was I/he/she/Ahsan/Samina not going to college? (1st & 3rd persons singular interrogative-negative sentence)
Were We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not going to college? (Interrogative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
When was I/he/she/Ahsan/Samina going to college? (1st & 3rd persons singular double-interrogative sentence)
When were We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma going to college? (Double-interrogative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
When was I/he/she/Ahsan/Samina not going to college? (1st & 3rd persons singular double-interrogative-negative sentence)
When were We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not going to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
6. Future Progressive/Continuous Tense
Future Progressive Tense stands for a progressive action that has to take place yet. The use of Future Progressive arrangement in modern English is rare. Native English speakers prefer Future Simple to Future Progressive for expressing an action to be taking place on a definite or indefinite time in future. It exhibits an action that will be in progress after the present (As you are having a practice session of cricket now, you will definitely be giving tough time to your rivals tomorrow). Future Progressive is also used sometimes for casual and uncalculated future statements (I will be staying in my room this weekend).
Base Structure
Subject + will be + main verb in present participle + object/complement
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + will be + present participle + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + will not be + present participle + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Will + subject + be + present participle + object? |
|Will + subject + not + be + present participle + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + be + present participle + object? |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + not + be + present participle + object? |
Solved Exercise
I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will be going to college. (Simple sentence)
I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will not be going to college. (Negative sentence)
Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma be going to college? (Interrogative sentence)
Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not be going to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence)
When will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma be going to college? (Double-interrogative sentence)
When will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not be going to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence)
Present Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Tense shows an action that is completed in a recent past. The time is, however, not fully known. As opposed to the progressive, we are certain in perfect that the action has come to completion—not in a remote past, but implying a sense of just completed (I have finished reading Harry Porter’s new adventure or I have just finished Harry Porter’s new adventures). This tense also expresses an action that has completed in an unknown past time and may possibly occur again with no certainty of timing (Ahmad has visited England quite a number of times). This sentence means that Ahmad completed all his tours to England sometimes in past, and he may possibly repeat his action to traveling to England at some moment in future. Present Perfect also stands for a general present, especially in inquiries or information referring to a recent or present time (Has he taken medicine? Or Hassan has invited me on dinner tonight).
Base Structure
Subject + present forms of to have + main verb in past participle + object/complement
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + has/have+ past participle + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + has/have not + past participle + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Has/Have + subject + past participle + object? |
|Has/Have + subject + not + past participle + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + has/have + subject + past participle + object? |
|Wh word/How + has/have + subject + not + past participle + object? |
Important Tip:
1st person singular “I”, 2nd person singular “you” and all plurals always take have as their auxiliary in Present Perfect Tense.
3rd person singulars “he, she, it, (& single nouns)” always take has as their auxiliary.
Solved Exercise
He/She/Ahsan/Samina has gone to college. (3rd persons singular simple sentence)
I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have gone to college. (Simple sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
He/She/Ahsan/Samina has not gone to college. (3rd persons singular negative sentence)
I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have not gone to college. (Simple sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
Has he/she/Ahsan/Samina gone to college? (3rd persons singular interrogative sentence)
Have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma gone to college? (Interrogative sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
Has he/she/Ahsan/Samina not gone to college? (3rd persons singular interrogative-negative sentence)
Have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not gone to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
When has he/she/Ahsan/Samina gone to college? (3rd persons singular double-interrogative sentence)
When have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma gone to college? (Double-interrogative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
When has he/she/Ahsan/Samina not gone to college? (3rd persons singular double-interrogative-negative sentence)
When have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not gone to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
Past Perfect Tense
Past Perfect Tense expresses an action that came to completion prior to another action or activity, especially when the situation shows a distant past (my classmates had already gone by the time college bell rang). Similarly, it indicates an action, which began in the past before the time of speaking and stopped exactly at the time of speaker’s utterance or just before it (PAF F6 Jets fleet, which had served our air force for more than three decades, was retired in 1990s). Unsurprisingly, the use of Past Perfect has become a rare case in modern, especially American English. Past Simple is normally given preference over Past Perfect in general discussions, for both convey almost an identical idea. Modern English has eased its speakers as far as the issue of past is concerned; except for a few situations, Past Simple communicates all idea of past with no ambiguity, linguistically speaking.
Base Structure
Subject + past form of to have + main verb in past participle + object/complement
| |
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + had + past participle + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + had not + past participle + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Had + subject + past participle + object? |
|Had + subject + not + past participle + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + had + subject + past participle + object? |
|Wh word/How + had + subject + not + past participle + object? |
Solved Exercise
1. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma had gone to college. (Simple sentence)
2. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma had not gone to college. (Negative sentence)
3. Had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma gone to college? (Interrogative sentence)
4. Had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not gone to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence)
5. When had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma gone to college? (Double-interrogative sentence)
6. When had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not gone to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence)
Future Perfect Tense
Future Perfect Tense expresses probability of something being done in coming time. In other words, it says that a certain action will be completed in future before another time, activity or event. This simply means “completion in future”—a time before remote future (You will have completed your education before I get back from USA). Assumptions, suppositions, and possibilities, all, are better expressed in Future Perfect Tense (a. I guess Pakistan will have won the final cricket match against India, b. you will certainly have seen Niagara Falls).
Base Structure
Subject + will have + main verb in past participle + object/complement
| |
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + will have + past participle + object. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + will not have + past participle + object. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Will + subject + have + past participle + object? |
|Will + subject + not + have + past participle + object? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + have + past participle + object? |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + not + have + past participle + object? |
Solved Exercise
1. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will have gone to college. (Simple sentence)
2. I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will not have gone to college. (Negative sentence)
3. Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have gone to college? (Interrogative sentence)
4. Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not have gone to college? (Interrogative-negative sentence)
5. When will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have gone to college? (Double-interrogative sentence)
6. When will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not have gone to college? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence)
10. Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also Perfect Progressive)
All Perfect Progressive tenses denote time; hence, they are “Time Tenses”. The mention of time is the only condition for a tense to be rendered as Perfect Progressive within the timeframe of Past, Present and/or Future.
In traditional words, Present Perfect Continuous Tense expresses an action that began at a certain moment in past, and that it is still in continuity and will probably continue in future as well (We have been studying together since noon). In some cases, the action it expresses has already ended, but it shows the constant and continuous nature of the action, which comes to an end without being interrupted. This situation generally develops when one expresses an excuse or apology (Ahmad does not like to stay in hostel on weekend as he has been waiting for the whole week to see his family).
Base Structure
Subject + has/have been + main verb in present participle + object/complement + since/for + time/duration
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + has/have been + present participle + object + since/ for + time/duration. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + has/have not been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Has/Have + subject + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|Has/Have + subject + not + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + has/have + subject + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|Wh word/How + has/have + subject + not + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
Important Tip 1 (Since & For):
Since and for represent two different aspects of time. For is used to describe a “period of time” or a time in flux i.e. “duration”, such as six months, many hours, a few minutes, ten years and similar: on the other hand, since is used to denote “point of/in time” or a time “flowing” onwards from a “fixed time in history”, such as 1990, 6 June, Monday, today morning, yesterday, this afternoon etc.
Important Tip 2:
1st person singular “I”, 2nd person singular “you” and all plurals always take have been as their auxiliary in Present Perfect Continuous Tense.
3rd person singulars “he, she, it, (& single nouns)” always take has been as their auxiliary.
Solved Exercise
1. He/She/Ahsan/Samina has been going to college for 2 years/since 2007. (3rd persons singular simple sentence)
2. I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have been going to college for 2 years/since 2007. (Simple sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
3. He/She/Ahsan/Samina has not been going to college for 2 years/since 2007. (3rd persons singular negative sentence)
4. I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have not been going to college for 2 years/since 2007. (Simple sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
5. Has he/she/Ahsan/Samina been going to college for two years/since 2007? (3rd persons singular interrogative sentence)
6. Have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Interrogative sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
7. Has he/she/Ahsan/Samina not been going to college for two years/since 2007? (3rd persons singular interrogative-negative sentence)
8. Have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Interrogative-negative sentence with 1st person singular & plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
9. Why has he/she/Ahsan/Samina been going to college for two years/since 2007? (3rd persons singular double-interrogative sentence)
10. Why have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Double-interrogative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
11. Why has he/she/Ahsan/Samina not been going to college for two years/since 2007? (3rd persons singular double-interrogative-negative sentence)
12. Why have I/We/You/They/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence with 1st person plural, 2nd person singular & plural, 3rd person plurals)
11. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Past Perfect Continuous Tense expresses an action that began before the time of speaking and continued up to the moment of speaking. It also describes an action, which, although began before speaking, is complete before the moment of speaking (Hassan and Ahmad returned home late, for they had been shopping for many hours in the evening). Again, it is the mention of time in past that, as a device, directly and immediately changes all past tenses into Past Perfect Continuous (He had been waiting for me yesterday since yesterday morning). Moreover, it lays emphasis on the duration of an action or activity, which happens to be in progress before another action in past (Pakistan cricket team had been desperately yearning for the World Cup before they won it in 2009).
Base Structure
Subject + had been + main verb in present participle + object/complement + since/for + time/duration
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + had been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + had not been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Had + subject + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|Had + subject + not + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + had + subject + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|Wh word/How + had + subject + not + been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
Solved Exercise
I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma had been going to college for two years/since 2007. (Simple sentence)
I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma had not been going to college for two years/since 2007. (Negative sentence)
Had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Interrogative sentence)
Had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Interrogative-negative sentence)
Why had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Double-interrogative sentence)
Why had I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence)
12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Future Perfect Continuous Tense expresses an action that begins in present or future and will be continuing for a certain length of time in future. This becomes a sort of prediction in which the predictor tries to be as accurate and exact as possible (a. We will have been working for 5 years before we are promoted, b. he will have been sitting here for 5 hours by the time the DCO comes).
Base Structure
Subject + will have been + main verb in present participle + object/complement + since/for + time/duration
|(Structure of Affirmative or Simple Sentence) |
|Subject + will have been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Subject + will not have been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration. |
|(Structure of Interrogative Sentence) |
|Will + subject + have been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|Will + subject + not + have been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + have been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
|Wh word/How + will + subject + not + have been + present participle + object + since/for + time/duration? |
Solved Exercise
I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will have been going to college for two years/since 2007. (Simple sentence)
I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma will not have been going to college for two years/since 2007. (Negative sentence)
Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Interrogative sentence)
Will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not have been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Interrogative-negative sentence)
Why will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma have been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Double-interrogative sentence)
Why will I/You/He/She/We/They/Ahsan/Samina/Ahsan & Ahmad/Samina & Salma not have been going to college for two years/since 2007? (Double-interrogative-negative sentence)
Tense Summary
Chart of tenses in “Active Voice”:
Present Tenses
Simple present: She wants a drink.
(Subject + verb in 1st/base form+ complement)
Present continuous/progressive: They are walking home.
(Subject + be forms in present/is, am, are + present participle + complement)
Past Tenses
Simple past: Zaheer lived in China in 1965.
(Subject + verb in past form + complement)
Past continuous/progressive: I was reading when she arrived.
(Subject + be forms in past/was, were + present participle + complement)
Perfect Tenses
Present perfect: I have visited Lahore Fort many times.
(Subject + has/have + past participle + complement)
Present perfect continuous/progressive: I have been living here for years.
(Subject + has/have + been + present participle + complement)[14]
Past perfect: We had seen her several times in her house.
(Subject + had + verb in past participle form + complement)
Past perfect continuous/progressive: He had been watching her for some time when she turned and smiled.
(Subject + had been + present participle + complement)
Future perfect: We will have arrived in Pakistan by the time you get this letter.
(Subject + will have + verb in past participle form + complement)
Future perfect continuous/progressive: By the end of your course, you will have been studying for five years.
(Subject + will have + been + present participle + complement)
Future Tenses
Simple future: They will go to Italy next week.
(Subject + will + verb in base form + complement)
Future continuous/progressive: I will be traveling by train.
(Subject + will + be + present participle + complement)
Conditional Tenses
(If + simple/perfect/continuous clause, subject + future/modal verb clause according to “if-clause”)
Conditional sentences speak of a certain “condition” and a “consequence” arising out of the situation developed in response to the condition. These sentences always have two clauses, namely:
i) conditional clause or if-clause and
ii) consequential clause.
The conditional clause begins with the condition “if”, hence called if-clause, whereas consequential clause expresses the consequence of the condition described in the if-clause, and thereby it heavily depends on the if-clause. Syntactically, there is no problem to place the conditional if-clause before the consequential clause or consequential clause before the if-clause. However, what must be considered a radical rule of Conditional Sentences is the occurring of future tenses or modal verbs (will, would, should, could etc.) in the consequential clause. The if-clause cannot contain a modal verb or any future tenses.
Simple Future Conditional: If he goes to Lahore, he will bring a gift for me.
Future Continuous/Progressive Conditional: If we are earning with the same pace, we will be getting rich quickly.
Future Perfect Conditional: If he has bought the novel, he will have finished it by now.
Future Perfect Continuous Condition: If they have talked to me, I will have been guiding them properly.
Simple Past Conditional: If she owned some money, she would go to Murree.
Past Continuous/Progressive Conditional: He would be getting up now if he were in Australia.
Past Perfect Continuous Conditional: I would have been playing tennis now if I hadn't broken my arm.
Past Perfect Conditional: She would have visited me if she had had time.
Probability: If it stops raining, they can/may come to see us tonight.
Possibility/Intention: If he were to move abroad, he should have informed me in advance.
A Cursory Look into Passive Voice Structure
Like the Active Voice, the Passive Voice is also divisible in three situations of time, Past, Present, and Future. However, Passive Voice consists of only the original kinds i.e. the original states of English tense, Indefinite, Progressive, and Perfect. The improvised 4th kind, Perfect Progressive (Perfect Continuous), is suspended in Passive Voice due to its incompatible structure.
We must not forget when dealing with passive voice that the most potent verb of English “to be” plays a key-role in the passive voice structure.
There are certain rules for the making of passive voice. At first, it is quite necessary to understand that there are two types of passive voice. We describe them, say, to easily understand their nature and function as:
i. Ready-Made (Already-Made)
ii. Self-Made or Transformed (from Active)
Secondly, it is almost as important in English as passive voice itself not to forget that all passive voice tenses have a monolithic use of Main Verb. The use of past participle form of the Main Verb after an auxiliary is the most central rule in passive voice structure. Similarly, the presence of auxiliary is also inevitable in the passive voice, for without an auxiliary never can a past participle find a place. This situation implies, in other words, that auxiliary and past participle form of the Main Verb are the most fundamental constituents in the making of passive voice. If either of these two is lacking, the situation cannot be rendered as passive voice. Thus, the structure of passive voice goes as: “passive subject + auxiliary + past participle + by + agent/complement”. Complement means “something that completes” and it stands, in the present situation, for the portion of the sentence that appears after the main verb. Complement has a broad variety of uses in different situations—like those with verb, noun and adjective. However, here the role of the complement is strictly confined to complete the sentence after past participle, having included the agent if it appears in the sentence.
Now let us talk about the agent. There is an important role of the agent in passive sentences. According to a modern grammarian, the agent is “the person or thing that does the action, or that causes what happens.”[15] Agent is, however, mentioned in about 25% of passive voice clauses, which generally consist of academic and scientific writings.
Let us at next consider the two kinds of the passive voice.
Ready-Made
This is a situation in which we face the problem of the absence of subject or a passive subject. The ‘actor’ is not present in the sentence, but only that we call ‘passive undergoer’. The ‘actor’ that we now call ‘agent’ is, in most cases, demoted or even suspended in the passive voice. In this situation of ready-made passives, in fact, we do not transform active voice sentences into passive voice; rather, we already have a situation that is passive with or without a complement. For instance, ‘to bear’ is a Main Verb that communicates an active situation, wherein the subject is present and we know that ‘bearing’ is the immediate activity of the subject; however, ‘being born’ is the opposite, the passive, situation wherein we do not directly or indirectly know who the actor is. These sentences very often end on the Main Verb and we do not require adducing an agent or a complement (e.g. Tea is being made).
Self-Made or Transformed (from Active)
These sentences are generally used in academics. The formal use of this kind is rare. However, Pakistani students in 90% cases learn only this type of passive voice owing to their academic needs. It is interesting that they are generally good at doing this type, for it becomes far easier for them to reverse the order of an active voice sentence with the use of past participle rather than writing a sentence already passive.
i. She was amazed by my quick responses.
ii. The house was designed by a famous architect.
It is possible for a verb when occurring in the passive voice to take an infinitive complement that is also in the passive voice. Such a verb is usually an object-raising verb. For instance:
i. The construction project is expected to be completed in the next month.
It is advised that one should always avoid passive voice constructions when something can be said in active voice. However, if the use of passive voice seems inevitable, one must follow the structure of passive voice, especially that of ‘self-made’, in a proper way.
A chart of active voice and passive voice is given below with the main verb to call. The first chart shows tenses and tells how the verb changes from active to passive. The second chart includes modal verb showing their use in active voice and passive voice.
|Tense |Active Voice |Passive Voice |
|Present Indefinite |Call |Am called/Are called |
| |Calls |Is called |
|Present Progressive |Am calling |Am being called |
| |Is calling |Is being called |
| |Are calling |Are being called |
|Present Perfect |Has called |Has been called |
| |Have called |Have been called |
|Past Indefinite |Called |Was/Were called |
|Past Progressive |Was calling |Was being called |
| |Were calling |Were being called |
|Past Perfect |Had called |Had been called |
|Future Indefinite |Will call |Will be called |
|Future Progressive |Will be calling |Will be being called |
|Future Perfect |Will have called |Will have been called |
Passive Voice with modal verbs:
|Modal Verb |Active Voice |Passive Voice |
|Can |Can call |Can be called |
|Could |Could call |Could be called |
|May |May call |May be called |
|Might |Might call |Might be called |
|Must |Must call |Must be called |
|Will |Will call |Will be called |
|Would |Would call |Would be called |
|Should |Should call |Should be called |
|Modal + have |Modal + have + called |Modal + have + been + called |
Present Indefinite Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + present forms of “to be” + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + is/are/am + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + is/are/am + not + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + is/are/am (not) + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Is/Are/Am + passive subject + past participle + complement? |
|Is/Are/Am + passive subject + not + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + is/are/am + passive subject + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + is/are/am + passive subject + not + past participle + complement? |
Past Indefinite Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + past forms of “to be” + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + was/were + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + was/were + not + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + was/were (not) + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Was/Were + passive subject + past participle + complement? |
|Was/Were + passive subject + not + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + was/were + passive subject + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + was/were + passive subject + not + past participle + complement? |
Future Indefinite Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + will be + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + will be + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + will + not + be + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + will (not) be + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Will + passive subject + be + past participle + complement? |
|Will + passive subject + not + be + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + will + passive subject + be + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + will + passive subject + not + be + past participle + complement? |
Present Progressive/Continuous Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + present forms of “to be” + being + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + is/are/am + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + is/are/am + not + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + is/are/am (not) + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Is/Are/Am + passive subject + being + past participle + complement? |
|Is/Are/Am + passive subject + not + being + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + is/are/am + passive subject + being + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + is/are/am + passive subject + not + being + past participle + complement? |
Past Progressive/Continuous Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + past forms of “to be” + being + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + was/were + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + was/were + not + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + was/were (not) + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Was/Were + passive subject + being + past participle + complement? |
|Was/Were + passive subject + not + being + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + was/were + passive subject + being + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + was/were + passive subject + not + being + past participle + complement? |
Future Progressive/Continuous Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + will be + being + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + will be + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + will + not + be + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + will (not) be + being + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Will + passive subject + be + being + past participle + complement? |
|Will + passive subject + not + be + being + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + will + passive subject + be + being + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + will + passive subject + not + be + being + past participle + complement? |
Present Perfect Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + present forms of “to have” + been + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + has/have + been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + has/have + not + been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + has/have (not) + been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Has/Have + passive subject + been + past participle + complement? |
|Has/Have + passive subject + not + been + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + has/have + passive subject + been + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + has/have + passive subject + not + been + past participle + complement? |
Past Perfect Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + past forms of “to have” + been + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + had + been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + had + not + been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + had (not) + been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Had + passive subject + been + past participle + complement? |
|Had + passive subject + not + been + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + had + passive subject + been + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + had + passive subject + not + been + past participle + complement? |
Future Perfect Tense (Passive)
Base Structure
Passive subject + will have been + past participle + complement
|(Structure of Affirmative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + will have been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Negative Sentence) |
|Passive subject + will + not + have been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Affirmative/Negative Sentence with Wh-Word) |
|Wh word + passive subject + will (not) have been + past participle + complement. |
|(Structure of Single Interrogative Sentence) |
|Will + passive subject + have been + past participle + complement? |
|Will + passive subject + not + have been + past participle + complement? |
|(Structure of Double Interrogative Sentence) |
|Wh word/How + will + passive subject + have been + past participle + complement? |
|Wh word/How + will + passive subject + not + have been + past participle + complement? |
Important Tips
Tip 1: Never use an auxiliary construction as will has been, would has been or will had been; simply, they do not exist in English. Similarly, when the sentence is negative, split apart will and have using not between them, thus, rendering it as will not have been. Any negative construction like will have not been will be incorrect.
Exercise
Fill correct auxiliaries in the blanks below:
1. _____ her grandmother not being cared by her parents?
2. Why _____ we not be given proper direction on how to prepare our final presentation?
3. Ahmad _____ formally been invited in the ceremony.
4. Two groups of B.A. _____ taught English at our college.
5. Indian bowlers were _____ washed by our batsmen when I last saw the match.
Make Passive Voice using the following verbs according to Tenses mentioned next to them:
to declare (Past Perfect Tense)
to take (Present Indefinite Tense)
to revise (Present Progressive Tense)
to bear (Past Indefinite Tense)
to build (Future Indefinite Tense)
Correct the following sentences to make them Passive Voice:
Bilcans Institute has now being presided by a reputed scholar.
All mangoes were eating by my friends.
He has never being waited here ever since he left us.
She will has been included in the college list by now.
All great people born children, and they earn name through great deeds afterwards.
Water will have not been drunk by my friend.
How can tea be making in steal kettle?
Pakistan Army could not being defeated by the Indian Army.
This target must achieved before dark.
When is this letter been written?
Make Active into Passive and Passive into Active Narrations:
When was tea made by Samina?
Students buy countless books every year but not all of them read them.
The famous scholar has not written any books this year.
Pakistan Army will knock out Indian Army on the battleground in future wars.
The letter has been posted by Ahmad, and it has been received by Ahsan.
I did not write a letter to him.
Aslam will not drive my car tonight.
Where had you thrown the ball in the ground?
Ahmad had been taken into custody by the police.
Why will we not be examined by the doctor in the hospital?
Change the following according to indications:
Pakistan is deeply loved by all Pakistanis (into Future Indefinite Tense)
When were you taken into custody by the police? (into Past Perfect Tense)
Holy month of Ramadan will be celebrated with religious fervor. (into Past Indefinite Tense)
Ahmad had been awarded first position in the class tests. (into Future Progressive Tense)
Pakistani culture was not being modernized in realistic lines by our rulers. (into Present Perfect Tense)
Describe the Passive Voice auxiliaries and structures:
1. Future Progressive Tense
_____________________________________________________
2. Future Perfect Tense (Negative)
_____________________________________________________
3. Past Progressive Tense
_____________________________________________________
4. Past Perfect Tense (Interrogative)
_____________________________________________________
5. Present Indefinite Tense (Negative)
_____________________________________________________
Intention and Compulsion
(to be + infinitive & to have + infinitive)
Intention
(subject + to be + infinitive + complement)
Intention, i.e. a future plan of doing something, is generally expressed in English using infinitive after the present forms of primary verb “to be” (i.e. is, am, are: subject + is/am/are + infinitive + complement). For instance, I am to go to college; Ahmad is to write a letter; we are to visit him today. When intention is expressed in the past tense, we use past forms of “to be” before the infinitive (i.e. was, were: subject + was/were + infinitive + complement) to express a future plan expressed in past. For instance, I was to go to college; we were to visit him last night; they were to play cricket.
For negative intention sentences, we place “not” after the auxiliary and before the infinitive.
▪ We are not to play hockey today afternoon.
▪ They were not to buy books from city’s famous bookshop.
Moreover, interrogative intention sentences take auxiliary in the beginning and nothing else changes except for placing a question mark (?) instead of the full stop at the end.
▪ Are we (not) to play hockey today afternoon?
▪ Were you (not) to meet me at Bilcans last Sunday?
Using Wh-questions in these situations requires the general interrogative formula to be followed. Wh-words are placed at the start of an interrogative structure, as sentences above.
▪ Why are you (not) to play hockey today afternoon?
▪ Where were you to meet me last Sunday?
Note: Intention in itself is a future action; therefore, there is no futurity that uses will/shall in intention structure.
Compulsion
(subject + to have + infinitive + complement)
Compulsion, i.e. a situation laying condition or obligation, is expressed using infinitive after the present forms of primary verb “to have” (i.e. has, have: subject + has/have + infinitive + complement). “Have to” construction equates modal verb “must” in semantic terms; therefore, the same situation as above can be expressed using “must + base form” (i.e. I must go to college). However, it is preferable to use “have to” construction for expressing compulsion and modal verb “must” for obligation. For instance, I have to go to college; Ahmad has to work hard; we have to get up early to go to college. In case a compulsion is being laid in the past, the past form of “to have” (i.e. had) and infinitive will be placed in succession to express compulsion (subject + had + infinitive + complement). For instance, I had to go to college; Students had to listen; we had to give up the plan. For future compulsion, modal verb “will” and primary verb “to have” are put together and this construction, namely, “will have” is followed by infinitive (i.e. subject + will have + infinitive + complement). For instance, I will have to go to college; Ahmad will have to buy new books; we will have to consult him at length; they will have to come early.
Negative action in compulsion takes place by using “not” after the auxiliary and before the infinitive. This situation is applicable to both present and past tenses. However, future undertakes a little change and “not” occurs between will and have. For instance:
i. I have not to go there tonight. (or I haven’t to go there tonight.)
ii. He had not to take a severe action against his enemy. (He hadn’t to take a severe action against his enemy.)
iii. We will not have to think about examination when they are still away.
(or We won’t have to think about examination when they are still away.)
It may seem strange to some readers that English introduces another function, that is, a different expression, at this stage of negative compulsion. This “different expression” is more widely practiced in modern English—both in England and North America. Functional English combines primary verb “to do” with “to have” to create a different situation, and then place “not” between the two to equate this construction with negative compulsion (i.e. to do + not + to have). Thus, “not” appears before “have” now. The expression that afterwards emerges is “do not have” or “don’t have”, which is followed by an infinitive (i.e. subject + do not have + infinitive); for the past tense, we use “did not/didn’t have”. This expression is applicable only to the present and past tenses of compulsion. For instance:
i. I do not have to go there tonight. (or I don’t have to go there tonight.)
ii. He did not have to take a severe action against his enemy. (or He didn’t have to take a severe action against his enemy.)
A List of Important Main Verbs with Corresponding Nouns and Adjectives
|Infinitive |Base Form |Past Form |Past Participle |Present Participle|Noun(s) |Adjective(s) |
|To abide |Abide |Abode |Abode |Abiding |Abode |Abiding |
|To abuse |Abuse |Abused |Abused |Abusing |Abuse |Abusive |
|To accept |Accept |Accepted |Accepted |Accepting |Acceptance |Accepted |
| | | | | |Acceptation |Acceptable |
| | | | | |Acceptability | |
|To ache |Ache |Ached |Ached |Aching |Ache |Aching |
| | | | | |Aching | |
|To act |Act |Acted |Acted |Acting |Act |Active |
| | | | | |Action |Acting |
| | | | | |Actor | |
| | | | | |Activity | |
| | | | | |Acting | |
|To add |Add |Added |Added |Adding |Addition |Additional |
|To admire |Admire |Admired |Admired |Admiring |Admiration |Admirable |
|To admit |Admit |Admitted |Admitted |Admitting |Admission |Admissible |
| | | | | |Admittance | |
| | | | | |Admitter | |
|To advertise |Advertise |Advertised |Advertised |Advertising |Advertisement |Advertising |
| | | | | |Advertiser | |
|To advance |Advance |Advanced |Advanced |Advancing |Advance |Advance |
| | | | | |Advancement |Advanced |
|To advise |Advise |Advised |Advised |Advising |Advice |Advisable |
|To affect |Affect |Affected |Affected |Affecting |Effect |Affective |
| | | | | |Affect |Effective |
| | | | | | |Affecting |
|To afford |Afford |Afforded |Afforded |Affording |Affordability |Affordable |
|To agree |Agree |Agreed |Agreed |Agreeing |Agreement |Agreed |
| | | | | | |Agreeable |
|To ail |Ail |Ailed |Ailed |Ailing |Ailment |Ailing |
|To aim |Aim |Aimed |Aimed |Aiming |Aim |Aimless |
|To alert |Alert |Alerted |Alerted |Alerting |Alert |Alert |
| | | | | |Alerter |Alerting |
|To alienate |Alienate |Alienated |Alienated |Alienating |Alienation |Alien |
| | | | | |Aliens |Alienable |
|To allow |Allow |Allowed |Allowed |Allowing |Allowance |Allowable |
| | | | | | |Allowed |
|To amuse |Amuse |Amused |Amused |Amusing |Amusement |Amusing |
| | | | | | |Amusable |
|To analyze |Analyze |Analyzed |Analyzed |Analyzing |Analysis |Analyzable |
| | | | | |Analyst | |
|To announce |Announce |Announced |Announced |Announcing |Announcement |Announcing |
| | | | | |Announcer |Announced |
|To annoy |Annoy |Annoyed |Annoyed |Annoying |Annoyance |Annoying |
| | | | | | |Annoyed |
|To answer |Answer |Answered |Answered |Answering |Answer |Answerable |
|To apologize |Apologize |Apologized |Apologized |Apologizing |Apology |Apologetic |
| | | | | |Apologizing | |
|To approve |Approve |Approved |Approved |Approving |Approval |Approved |
| | | | | | |Approvable |
|To appear |Appear |Appeared |Appeared |Appearing |Appearance |Apparent |
|To appreciate |Appreciate |Appreciated |Appreciated |Appreciating |Appreciation |Appreciable |
| | | | | | |Appreciative |
|To arise |Arise |Arose |Arisen |Arising |Arising |Arisen |
|To argue |Argue |Argued |Argued |Arguing |Argument |Arguable |
| | | | | |Argumentation |Argued |
|To arrange |Arrange |Arranged |Arranged |Arranging |Arrangement |Arranger |
|To arrest |Arrest |Arrested |Arrested |Arresting |Arrest |Arrestable |
| | | | | | |Arresting |
|To arrive |Arrive |Arrived |Arrived |Arriving |Arrival |Arriving |
|To ascend |Ascend |Ascended |Ascended |Ascending |Ascent |Ascending |
|To astonish |Astonish |Astonished |Astonished |Astonishing |Astonishment |Astonished |
| | | | | | |Astonishing |
|To attract |Attract |Attracted |Attracted |Attracting |Attraction |Attractive |
| | | | | | |Attractable |
|To attack |Attack |Attacked |Attacked |Attacking |Attack |Attacking |
| | | | | |Attacker |Attackable |
|To attempt |Attempt |Attempted |Attempted |Attempting |Attempt |Attemptable |
|To attend |Attend |Attended |Attended |Attending |Attention |Attentive |
| | | | | |Attendance | |
| | | | | |Attendant | |
|To auction |Auction |Auctioned |Auctioned |Auctioning |Auction |Auctioned |
| | | | | |Auctioneer | |
|To augment |Augment |Augmented |Augmented |Augmenting |Augmentation |Augmentable |
| | | | | |Augmenter |Augmented |
|To awake |Awake |Awoke |Awoken |Awaking |Awakening |Awoken |
|To back |Back |Backed |Backed |Backing |Back |Back |
| | | | | |Backer |Backward |
| | | | | |Backing | |
| | | | | |Backwardness | |
|To balance |Balance |Balanced |Balanced |Balancing |Balance |Balanced |
| | | | | | |Balanceable |
|To ban |Ban |Banned |Banned |Banning |Ban |Banned |
|To bang |Bang |Banged |Banged |Banging |Bang |Banged |
| | | | | |Banging | |
|To bark |Bark |Barked |Barked |Barking |Bark |Barking |
| | | | | |Barking | |
|To bathe |Bathe |Bathed |Bathed |Bathing |Bath |Bathed |
| | | | | |Bathroom | |
|To bat |Bat |Batted |Batted |Batting |Bat |Batted |
| | | | | |Batsman |Batting |
| | | | | |Batting | |
|To battle |Battle |Battled |Battled |Battling |Battle |Battling |
| | | | | |Battler | |
|To bear |Bear |Bore |Born |Bearing |Birth |Born |
|To bear |Bear |Bore |Borne |Bearing |Bearing |Bearable |
|To beat |Beat |Beat |Beaten |Beating |Beat |Beaten |
| | | | | | |Beatable |
|To beg |Beg |Begged |Begged |Begging |Begging |Begging |
| | | | | |Beggar | |
| | | | | |Beggary | |
|To begin |Begin |Began |Begun |Beginning |Beginner |Beginning |
| | | | | |Beginning | |
|To behave |Behave |Behaved |Behaved |Behaving |Behavior |Behaved |
| | | | | | |Behaving |
| | | | | | |Well-behaved |
|To behold |Behold |Beheld |Beholden |Beholding |Beholder |Beholden |
|To belong |Belong |Belonged |Belonged |Belonging |Belongings |-- |
| | | | | |Belonging | |
|To bend |Bend |Bent |Bent |Bending |Bend |Bent |
|To bereave |Bereave |Bereaved |Bereaved |Bereaving |Bereavement |Bereaved |
|To beseech |Beseech |Beseeched |Beseeched |Beseeching |Beseech |Beseeching |
| | |Besought |Besought | | | |
|To better |Better |Bettered |Bettered |Bettering |Betterment |Better |
|To bid |Bid |Bid |Bid |Biding |Bid |Biddable |
| | |Bade |Bidden | |Bidder |Bidden |
|To bind |Bind |Bound |Bound |Binding |Binding |Binding |
| | | | | |Binder | |
|To bite |Bite |Bit |Bitten |Biting |Biting |Biting |
| | | | | |Biter | |
|To blame |Blame |Blamed |Blamed |Blaming |Blame |Blamable |
| | | | | | |Blameless |
|To bleach |Bleach |Bleached |Bleached |Bleaching |Bleach |Bleachable |
| | | | | |Bleacher |Bleached |
|To bleed |Bleed |Bled |Bled |Bleeding |Blood |Bloodless |
| | | | | |Bleeder |Bloody |
|To bless |Bless |Blessed |Blessed |Blessing |Blessing |Blessed |
| | | | | |Blessings |Blissful |
| | | | | |Bliss | |
|To blind |Blind |Blinded |Blinded |Blinding |Blindness |Blind |
|To blink |Blink |Blinked |Blinked |Blinking |Blink |Blinking |
| | | | | |Blinking | |
|To blot |Blot |Blotted |Blotted |Blotting |Blot |Blotless |
| | | | | |Blotter |Blotted |
|To blow |Blow |Blew |Blown |Blowing |Blow |Blown |
| | | | | |Blower | |
|To blush |Blush |Blushed |Blushed |Blushing |Blush |Blushful |
| | | | | |Blusher |Blushing |
| | | | | | |Blushless |
|To boil |Boil |Boiled |Boiled |Boiling |Boil |Boiling |
| | | | | |Boiler | |
|To bolt |Bolt |Bolted |Bolted |Bolting |Bolt |Boltless |
| | | | | |Bolter |Bolted |
|To bomb |Bomb |Bombed |Bombed |Bombing |Bomb |Bombed |
| | | | | |Bombardment |Bomber |
| | | | | |Bombing | |
| | | | | |Bomber | |
|To book |Book |Booked |Booked |Booking |Book |Booked |
| | | | | |Booking |Bookless |
| | | | | |Booker | |
|To boost |Boost |Boosted |Boosted |Boosting |Boost |Boosting |
| | | | | |Booster |Boosted |
|To bore |Bore |Bored |Bored |Boring |Bore |Boring |
| | | | | |Boredom | |
| | | | | |Borer | |
|To borrow |Borrow |Borrowed |Borrowed |Borrowing |Borrow |Borrowed |
| | | | | |Borrower | |
|To bounce |Bounce |Bounced |Bounced |Bouncing |Bounce |Bouncing |
| | | | | |Bouncer |Bouncy |
|To bound |Bound |Bounded |Bounded |Bounding |Bound |Boundless |
| | | | | |Boundary | |
|To bow |Bow |Bowed |Bowed |Bowing |Bow |Bowing |
| | | | | |Bower | |
|To box |Box |Boxed |Boxed |Boxing |Box |Boxy |
| | | | | |Boxing |Boxed |
| | | | | |Boxer | |
|To brake |Brake |Braked |Braked |Braking |Brake |Brakeless |
| | | | | |Brakes | |
|To branch |Branch | Branched |Branched |Branching |Branch |Branching |
| | | | | | |Branchless |
|To break |Break |Broke |Broken |Breaking |Breakage |Breakable |
| | | | | | |Broken |
|To breathe |Breathe |Breathed |Breathed |Breathing |Breath |Breathless |
| | | | | |Breather |Breathable |
|To bruise |Bruise |Bruised |Bruised |Bruising |Bruise |Bruising |
| | | | | | |Bruised |
|To brush |Brush |Brushed |Brushed |Brushing |Brush |Brushy |
| | | | | | |Brushed |
|To bubble |Bubble |Bubbled |Bubbled |Bubbling |Bubble |Bubbling |
| | | | | |Bubbler |Bubbly |
|To build |Build |Built |Built |Building |Build |Buildable |
| | | | | |Building |Built-in |
| | | | | |Builder |Built-up |
|To bulldoze |Bulldoze |Bulldozed |Bulldozed |Bulldozing |Bulldozer |Bulldozed |
|Infinitive |Base Form |Past Form |Past Participle |Present Participle|Noun(s) |Adjective(s) |
|To bump |Bump |Bumped |Bumped |Bumping |Bump |Bumpy |
| | | | | |Bumper |Bumping |
| | | | | | |Bumped |
|To burn |Burn |Burned |Burned |Burning |Burn |Burnt |
| | |Burnt |Burnt | |Burner | |
|To bury |Bury |Buried |Buried |Burying |Burial |Buried |
|To buy |Buy |Bought |Bought |Buying |Buyer |Buyable |
|To buzz |Buzz |Buzzed |Buzzed |Buzzing |Buzz |Buzzy |
| | | | | |Buzzer |Buzzing |
|To calculate |Calculate |Calculated |Calculated |Calculating |Calculation |Calculable |
| | | | | |Calculator |Calculative |
| | | | | | |Calculated |
|To call |Call |Called |Called |Calling |Call |Called |
| | | | | |Caller |Calling |
| | | | | |Calling | |
|To camp |Camp |Camped |Camped |Camping |Camp |Campy |
| | | | | |Camping |Camped |
| | | | | |Camper | |
|To cancel |Cancel |Cancelled |Cancelled |Canceling |Cancellation |Canceled |
|To care |Care |Cared |Cared |Caring |Care |Caring |
|To carry |Carry |Carried |Carried |Carrying |Carry |Carriable |
| | | | | |Carrier | |
|To carve |Carve |Carved |Carved |Carving |Carver |Carved |
| | | | | |Carving | |
|To cast |Cast |Cast |Cast |Casting |Cast |Casting |
| | | | | | |Cast |
|To catch |Catch |Caught |Caught |Catching |Catch |Catching |
| | | | | | |Catchable |
|To cause |Cause |Caused |Caused |Causing |Cause |Causative |
| | | | | | |Causable |
| | | | | | |Causeless |
|To chain |Chain |Chained |Chained |Chaining |Chain |Chainless |
| | | | | | |Chained |
|To challenge |Challenge |Challenged |Challenged |Challenging |Challenge |Challenging |
| | | | | |Challenger |Challengeable |
|To change |Change |Changed |Changed |Changing |Change |Changer |
| | | | | | |Changeable |
|To charge |Charge |Charged |Charged |Charging |Charge |Charged |
| | | | | |Charger |Chargeable |
| | | | | |Charging | |
|To chase |Chase |Chased |Chased |Chasing |Chase |Chased |
| | | | | |Chaser | |
|To cheat |Cheat |Cheated |Cheated |Cheating |Cheat |Cheating |
| | | | | |Cheating | |
| | | | | |Cheater | |
|To check |Check |Checked |Checked |Checking |Check |Checked |
| | | | | |Checker | |
|To cheer |Cheer |Cheered |Cheered |Cheering |Cheer |Cheerful |
| | | | | | |Cheerless |
| | | | | | |Cheery |
|To chew |Chew |Chewed |Chewed |Chewing |Chew |Chewy |
| | | | | |Chewer | |
| | | | | |Chewing-gum | |
|To choke |Choke |Choked |Choked |Choking |Choke |Choky |
| | | | | |Choker |Choked |
|To choose |Choose |Chose |Chosen |Choosing |Choice |Chosen |
| | | | | |Chooser |Choicest |
| | | | | | |Choosy |
|To chop |Chop |Chopped |Chopped |Chopping |Chop |Chopped |
| | | | | |Chopping | |
| | | | | |Chopper | |
|To circle |Circle |Circled |Circled |Circling |Circle |Circular |
| | | | | |Circular | |
|To civilize |Civilize |Civilized |Civilized |Civilizing |Civilization |Civil |
| | | | | |Civility |Civic |
| | | | | |Civics |Civilized |
| | | | | |Civilian | |
|To claim |Claim |Claimed |Claimed |Claiming |Claim |Claimed |
| | | | | |Claimant |Claimable |
| | | | | | |Claimless |
|To clap |Clap |Clapped |Clapped |Clapping |Clap |Clapped |
| | | | | |Clapping |Clapped out |
| | | | | |Clapper | |
| | | | | |Clapboard | |
|To class |Class |Classed |Classed |Classing |Class |Classable |
|To classify |Classify |Classified |Classified |Classifying |Classification |Classified |
| | | | | | |Classifiable |
|To clean |Clean |Cleaned |Cleaned |Cleaning |Cleanliness |Clean |
| | | | | |Cleaner |Cleanable |
|To clear |Clear |Cleared |Cleared |Clearing |Clearance |Clear |
| | | | | |Clearing |Clearing |
| | | | | |Clearness | |
|To clip |Clip |Clipped |Clipped |Clipping |Clip |Clipped |
| | | | | |Clipper | |
| | | | | |Clipping | |
|To close |Close |Closed |Closed |Closing |Closeness |Close |
| | | | | |Closet |Closer |
| | | | | |Closure | |
|To coach |Coach |Coached |Coached |Coaching |Coach |Coachless |
| | | | | |Coaching |Coached |
| | | | | |Coachman | |
|To coin |Coin |Coined |Coined |Coining |Coin |Coined |
| | | | | |Coinage |Coinable |
| | | | | |Coin-box | |
|To collect |Collect |Collected |Collected |Collecting |Collection |Collect |
| | | | | |Collector |Collective |
| | | | | | |Collectible |
| | | | | | |Collected |
|To color |Color |Colored |Colored |Coloring |Color |Colored |
| | | | | |Coloration |Colorblind |
| | | | | |Colorant |Colorful |
| | | | | |Colorist |Colorless |
| | | | | | |Coloristic |
|To comb |Comb |Combed |Combed |Combing |Comb |Combed |
| | | | | |Comber | |
|To command |Command |Commanded |Commanded |Commanding |Command |Commanding |
| | | | | |Commander | |
| | | | | |Commandant | |
| | | | | |Commandment | |
| | | | | |Commando | |
|To communicate |Communicate |Communicated |Communicated |Communicating |Communication |Communicable |
| | | | | |Communicator |Communicative |
|To compare |Compare |Compared |Compared |Comparing |Compare |Comparative |
| | | | | |Comparison |Comparable |
| | | | | |Comparative | |
|To compete |Compete |Competed |Competed |Competing |Competition |Competitive |
| | | | | |Competitor |Competent |
| | | | | |Competence | |
| | | | | |Competency | |
|To complain |Complain |Complained |Complained |Complaining |Complaint |Complained |
| | | | | |Complainant | |
|To complete |Complete |Completed |Completed |Completing |Completion |Complete |
|To concentrate |Concentrate |Concentrated |Concentrated |Concentrating |Concentration |Concentrated |
| | | | | | |Concentrating |
|To concern |Concern |Concerned |Concerned |Concerning |Concern |Concerned |
|To confess |Confess |Confessed |Confessed |Confessing |Confession |Confessable |
| | | | | |Confessor |Confessed |
| | | | | |Confessional | |
|To confuse |Confuse |Confused |Confused |Confusing |Confusion |Confused |
| | | | | | |Confusable |
| | | | | | |Confusing |
|To connect |Connect |Connected |Connected |Connecting |Connection |Connected |
| | | | | |Connectivity |Connective |
| | | | | |Connector | |
|To consider |Consider |Considered |Considered |Considering |Consideration |Considerate |
| | | | | | |Considerable |
|To consist |Consist |Consisted |Consisted |Consisting |Consistence |Consistent |
| | | | | |Consistency | |
|To contain |Contain |Contained |Contained |Containing |Containment |Contained |
| | | | | |Container |Containerized |
| | | | | |Containerization | |
|To continue |Continue |Continued |Continued |Continuing |Continuation |Continuous |
| | | | | |Continuity |Continual |
| | | | | |Continuance |Continued |
| | | | | |Continuant |Continuing |
|To cooperate |Cooperate |Cooperated |Cooperated |Cooperating |Cooperation |Cooperative |
|To cover |Cover |Covered |Covered |Covering |Cover |Coverable |
| | | | | |Covering |Covered |
| | | | | |Coverage | |
|To cross |Cross |Crossed |Crossed |Crossing |Cross |Cross |
| | | | | |Crossing | |
|To curse |Curse |Cursed |Cursed |Cursing |Curse |Cursed |
| | | | | | |Accursed |
| | | | | | |Accurst |
|To cut |Cut |Cut |Cut |Cutting |Cut |Cutting |
| | | | | |Cutter | |
|To dare |Dare |Dared |Dared |Daring |Daring |Daring |
|To deal |Deal |Dealt |Dealt |Dealing |Deal |Dealing |
| | | | | |Dealings | |
| | | | | |Dealer | |
|To deceive |Deceive |Deceived |Deceived |Deceiving |Deceit |Deceitful |
| | | | | |Deceiver | |
|To decide |Decide |Decided |Decided |Deciding |Decision |Decisive |
|To declare |Declare |Declared |Declared |Declaring |Declaration |Declared |
| | | | | |Declarant | |
|To defend |Defend |Defended |Defended |Defending |Defense |Defensive |
|To defy |Defy |Defied |Defied |Defying |Defiance |Defiant |
|To deject |Deject |Dejected |Dejected |Dejecting |Dejection |Dejected |
|To deliberate |Deliberate |Deliberated |Deliberated |Deliberating |Deliberation |Deliberate |
| | | | | |Deliberator | |
|To delight |Delight |Delighted |Delighted |Delighting |Delighter |Delighted |
| | | | | | |Delightless |
|To deliver |Deliver |Delivered |Delivered |Delivering |Delivery |Deliverer |
| | | | | |Deliverance | |
|To delude |Delude |Deluded |Deluded |Deluding |Delusion |Delusive |
|To demand |Demand |Demanded |Demanded |Demanding |Demand |Demandable |
| | | | | |Demandant | |
|To deny |Deny |Denied |Denied |Denying |Denial |Denied |
| | | | | |Denier |Deniable |
|To depart |Depart |Departed |Departed |Departing |Departure |Departed |
|To depend |Depend |Depended |Depended |Depending |Dependence |Dependent |
| | | | | |Dependant |Dependable |
|To deposit |Deposit |Deposited |Deposited |Depositing |Deposit |Deposited |
| | | | | |Depository | |
| | | | | |Depositor | |
|To depress |Depress |Depressed |Depressed |Depressing |Depression |Depressible |
| | | | | | |Depressant |
|To deprive |Deprive |Deprived |Deprived |Depriving |Deprival |Deprivable |
| | | | | |Deprivation | |
|To depute |Depute |Deputed |Deputed |Deputing |Deputation |Deputed |
| | | | | |Deputy | |
|To derail |Derail |Derailed |Derailed |Derailing |Derailment |Derailed |
|To deride |Deride |Derided |Derided |Deriding |Derision |Derisive |
|To derive |Derive |Derived |Derived |Deriving |Derivation |Derived |
| | | | | |Derivative |Derivable |
|To descend |Descend |Descended |Descended |Descending |Descent |Descending |
| | | | | |Descendant | |
|To describe |Describe |Described |Described |Describing |Description |Describable |
| | | | | | |Descriptive |
|To desert |Desert |Deserted |Deserted |Deserting |Desertion |Deserted |
| | | | | |Deserter | |
|To desire |Desire |Desired |Desired |Desiring |Desire |Desirable |
| | | | | |Desirability |Desirous |
| | | | | | |Desired |
|To destroy |Destroy |Destroyed |Destroyed |Destroying |Destruction |Destructive |
| | | | | | |Destroyable |
|To determine |Determine |Determined |Determined |Determining |Determination |Determined |
| | | | | | |Determinable |
|To devote |Devote |Devoted |Devoted |Devoted |Devotion |Devoted |
| | | | | |Devotee |Devotional |
|To die |Die |Died |Died |Dying |Death |Dead |
| | | | | | |Deadly |
|To dig |Dig |Dug |Dug |Digging |Dig |Digging |
| | | | | |Digging |Dug |
| | | | | |Digger | |
|To dismiss |Dismiss |Dismissed |Dismissed |Dismissing |Dismissal |Dismissed |
| | | | | | |Dismissible |
|To dissuade |Dissuade |Dissuaded |Dissuaded |Dissuading |Dissuasion |Dissuasive |
|To distinguish |Distinguish |Distinguished |Distinguished |Distinguishing |Distinction |Distinct |
| | | | | | |Distinguished |
|To distribute |Distribute |Distributed |Distributed |Distributing |Distribution |Distributable |
| | | | | |Distributor |Distributive |
|To disturb |Disturb |Disturbed |Disturbed |Disturbing |Disturbance |Disturbed |
|To divorce |Divorce |Divorced |Divorced |Divorcing |Divorce |Divorced |
| | | | | |Divorcee | |
| | | | | |Divorcer | |
|To do |Do |Did |Done |Doing |Deed |Done |
| | | | | |Doer | |
| | | | | |Doings | |
|To doubt |Doubt |Doubted |Doubted |Doubting |Doubt |Doubtful |
| | | | | | |Doubtless |
|To dower |Dower |Dowered |Dowered |Dowering |Dowry |Dowered |
| | | | | |Dower |Dowerless |
|To down |Down |Downed |Downed |Downing |Down |Downed |
| | | | | | |Downy |
|To draft |Draft |Drafted |Drafted |Drafting |Draft |Drafted |
| | | | | |Drafter | |
| | | | | |Draftsman | |
|To drain |Drain |Drained |Drained |Draining |Drain |Drainable |
| | | | | |Drainage |Drained |
| | | | | |Drainer | |
|To dramatize |Dramatize |Dramatized |Dramatized |Dramatizing |Drama |Dramatic |
| | | | | |Dramatization | |
| | | | | |Dramatist | |
|To draw |Draw |Drew |Drown |Drawing |Draw |Drawn |
| | | | | |Drawing | |
|To dream |Dream |Dreamt |Dreamt |Dreaming |Dream |Dreamy |
| | |Dreamed |Dreamed | |Dreamer |Dreaming |
| | | | | |Dreamland | |
| | | | | |Dreaming | |
|To dress |Dress |Dressed |Dressed |Dressing |Dress |Dressy |
| | | | | |Dresser | |
|To drink |Drink |Drank |Drunk |Drinking |Drink |Drunk |
| | | | | |Drunkard |Drunken |
| | | | | |Drinking | |
|To drive |Drive |Drove |Driven |Driving |Drive |Driving |
| | | | | |Driver |Driverless |
| | | | | |Driving | |
|To drown |Drown |Drowned |Drowned |Drowning |Drowning |Drown |
|To dwell |Dwell |Dwelt |Dwelt |Dwelling |Dwelling |Dwelling |
| | | | | |Dweller | |
|To dye |Dye |Dyed |Dyed |Dying |Dye |Dyed |
| | | | | |Dyer | |
|To earn |Earn |Earned |Earned |Earning |Earning |Earning |
|To earth |Earth |Earthed |Earthed |Earthing |Earth |Earthen |
| | | | | | |Earthly |
|To ease |Ease |Eased |Eased |Easing |Ease |Easy |
| | | | | |Easiness | |
|To eat |Eat |Ate |Eaten |Eating |Eating |Edible |
| | | | | |Eatable(s) |Eatable |
|To eclipse |Eclipse |Eclipsed |Eclipsed |Eclipsing |Eclipse |Eclipsing |
|To economize |Economize |Economized |Economized |Economizing |Economics |Economic |
| | | | | |Economy |Economical |
| | | | | |Economist | |
|To emigrate |Emigrate |Emigrated |Emigrated |Emigrating |Emigration |Emigrating |
| | | | | |Emigrant | |
|To employ |Employ |Employed |Employed |Employing |Employment |Unemployed |
| | | | | |Employer |Employed |
| | | | | |Employee | |
|To end |End |Ended |Ended |Ending |End |Endless |
| | | | | |Ending |Ending |
|To endure |Endure |Endured |Endured |Enduring |Endurance |Endurable |
|To enliven |Enliven |Enlivened |Enlivened |Enlivening |Enlivenment |Enlivening |
| | | | | |Enlivener |Enlivened |
|To enter |Enter |Entered |Entered |Entering |Entrance |Enterable |
| | | | | |Entry | |
| | | | | |Entrant | |
|To entertain |Entertain |Entertained |Entertained |Entertaining |Entertainment |Entertaining |
| | | | | |Entertainer | |
|To entrust |Entrust |Entrusted |Entrusted |Entrusting |Entrust |Entrustable |
|To enumerate |Enumerate |Enumerated |Enumerated |Enumerating |Enumeration |Enumerating |
| | | | | | |Enumerative |
| | | | | | |Enumerable |
|To exact |Exact |Exacted |Exacted |Exacting |Exaction |Exact |
| | | | | | |Exacting |
|To examine |Examine |Examined |Examined |Examining |Examination |Examining |
| | | | | |Examiner | |
| | | | | |Examinee | |
|To exceed |Exceed |Exceeded |Exceeded |Exceeding |Excess |Excessive |
| | | | | | |Exceeding |
|To excel |Excel |Excelled |Excelled |Excelling |Excellence |Excellent |
|To exhilarate |Exhilarate |Exhilarated |Exhilarated |Exhilarating |Exhilaration |Exhilarative |
| | | | | |Exhilarator |Exhilaratory |
|To expect |Expect |Expected |Expected |Expecting |Expectation |Expected |
| | | | | |Expectance |Expectant |
| | | | | |Expectancy | |
|To expel |Expel |Expelled |Expelled |Expelling |Expulsion |Expulsive |
|To face |Face |Faced |Faced |Facing |Face |Facial |
|To fall |Fall |Fell |Fallen |Falling |Fall |Fallen |
|To feed |Feed |Fed |Fed |Feeding |Food |Feeding |
|To feel |Feel |Felt |Felt |Feeling |Feeling |Feeling |
|To fell |Fell |Felled |Felled |Felling |Fell |Felling |
| | | | | | |Felled |
|To fight |Fight |Fought |Fought |Fighting |Fight |Fighting |
| | | | | |Fighting | |
| | | | | |Fighter | |
|To find |Find |Found |Found |Finding |Finding(s) |Finding |
|To fire |Fire |Fired |Fired |Firing |Fire |Fiery |
| | | | | |Firry | |
|To fish |Fish |Fished |Fished |Fishing |Fish |Fishable |
| | | | | |Fishing |Fishy |
| | | | | |Fishery | |
| | | | | |Fisher | |
| | | | | |Fisherman | |
|To fit |Fit |Fitted/fit |Fitted/fit |Fitting |Fitness |Fit |
| | | | | | |Fitful |
|To fix |Fix |Fixed |Fixed |Fixing |Fix |Fixed |
| | | | | |Fixity | |
| | | | | |Fixer | |
|To flag |Flag |Flagged |Flagged |Flagging |Flag |Flaggy |
|To flame |Flame |Flamed |Flamed |Flaming |Flame |Flaming |
| | | | | | |Flammable |
| | | | | | |Flameless |
|To flash |Flash |Flashed |Flashed |Flashing |Flash |Flashy |
|To flatten |Flatten |Flattened |Flattened |Flattening |Flat |Flat |
|To flatter |Flatter |Flattered |Flattered |Flattering |Flattery |Flattering |
| | | | | |Flatterer | |
|To fly |Fly |Flew |Flown |Flying |Flight |Flying |
| | | | | |Flier | |
|To fold |Fold |Folded |Folded |Folding |Fold |Folding |
|T follow |Follow |Followed |Followed |Following |Follower |Following |
| | | | | |Following | |
|To fool |Fool |Fooled |Fooled |Fooling |Foolishness |Foolish |
| | | | | |Foolery | |
| | | | | |Fool | |
|To forbear |Forbear |Forbore |Forborne |Forbearing |Forbearance |Forbearing |
|To forbid |Forbid |Forbade |Forbidden |Forbidding |Forbidding |Forbidden |
| | | | | | |Forbidding |
|To force |Force |Forced |Forced |Forcing |Force |Forceful |
| | | | | | |Forcible |
|To forget |Forget |Forgot |Forgotten |Forgetting |Forgetfulness |Forgetful |
|To forgive |Forgive |Forgave |Forgiven |Forgiving |Forgiveness |Forgivable |
|To form |Form |Formed |Formed |Forming |Formation |Formal |
| | | | | |Formality |Informal |
| | | | | |Formalism | |
|To fortify |Fortify |Fortified |Fortified |Fortifying |Fortification |Fortified |
| | | | | | |Fortifiable |
|To found |Found |Founded |Founded |Founding |Foundation |Founding |
| | | | | |Founder | |
| | | | | |Foundry | |
|To frame |Frame |Framed |Framed |Framing |Frame |Farmable |
| | | | | | |Frameless |
|To free |Free |Freed |Freed |Freeing |Freedom |Free |
| | | | | | |Freed |
|To freshen |Freshen |Freshened |Freshened |Freshening |Freshness |Fresh |
|To frequent |Frequent |Frequented |Frequented |Frequenting |Frequency |Frequent |
|To fulfill |Fulfill |Fulfilled |Fulfilled |Fulfilling |Fulfillment |Fulfilled |
|To gain |Gain |Gained |Gained |Gaining |Gain |Gainful |
| | | | | |Gaining | |
| | | | | |Gainer | |
|To galvanize |Galvanize |Galvanized |Galvanized |Galvanizing |Galvanization |Galvanized |
| | | | | |Galvanizer |Galvanizing |
|To gather |Gather |Gathered |Gathered |Gathering |Gathering |Gathered |
| | | | | |Gatherer | |
|To germinate |Germinate |Germinated |Germinated |Germinating |Germination |Germicidal |
| | | | | |Germ |Germless |
| | | | | |Germicide | |
|To gift |Gift |Gifted |Gifted |Gifting |Gift |Gifted |
|To gild |Gild |Gilded |Gilded |Gilding |Gold |Golden |
|To give |Give |Gave |Given |Giving |Gift |Given |
| | | | | |Giver | |
|To gladden |Gladden |Gladdened |Gladdened |Gladdening |Gladness |Glad |
|To glass |Glass |Glassed |Glassed |Glassing |Glass |Glassful |
| | | | | | |Glassy |
|To glitter |Glitter |Glittered |Glittered |Glittering |Glitter |Glittering |
|To glorify |Glorify |Glorified |Glorified |Glorifying |Glorification |Glorious |
| | | | | |Glory | |
| | | | | |Glorifier | |
|To gloss |Gloss |Glossed |Glossed |Glossing |Glossiness |Glossy |
| | | | | |Glossary | |
|To go |Go |Went |Gone |Going |Go |Gone |
| | | | | |Going |Going |
|To govern |Govern |Governed |Governed |Governing |Government |Governing |
| | | | | |Governess |Governmental |
| | | | | |Governor | |
|To grade |Grade |Graded |Graded |Grading |Grade |Gradual |
|To grant |Grant |Granted |Granted |Granting |Grant |Grantable |
|To gratify |Gratify |Gratified |Gratified |Gratifying |Gratification |Gratifying |
| | | | | |Gratifier | |
|To gripe |Gripe |Griped |Griped |Griping |Gripe |Gripeful |
| | | | | |Griper | |
|To grow |Grow |Grew |Grown |Growing |Growth |Growing |
| | | | | |Grower | |
|To guard |Guard |Guarded |Guarded |Guarding |Guard |Guarded |
|To guess |Guess |Guessed |Guessed |Guessing |Guess |Guessable |
| | | | | |Guessing | |
|To guide |Guide |Guided |Guided |Guiding |Guidance |Guidable |
| | | | | |Guide |Guideless |
| | | | | | |Guiding |
|To gum |Gum |Gummed |Gummed |Gumming |Gum |Gummy |
| | | | | | |Gumming |
|To gun |Gun |Gunned |Gunned |Gunning |Gun |Gunning |
| | | | | |Gunner | |
| | | | | |Gunning | |
|To habit |Habit |Habited |Habited |Habiting |Habitation |Habitable |
| | | | | |Habitat | |
|To habituate |Habituate |Habituated |Habituated |Habituating |Habit |Habitual |
| | | | | | |Habituated |
|To halt |Halt |Halted |Halted |Halting |Halt |Halting |
| | | | | |Halter | |
|To hand |Hand |Handed |Handed |Handing |Hand |Handy |
| | | | | |Handful |Handed |
| | | | | | |Handless |
|To handle |Handle |Handled |Handled |Handling |Handle |Handled |
| | | | | |Handler | |
| | | | | |Handling | |
|To harden |Harden |Hardened |Hardened |Hardening |Hardness |Hard |
| | | | | |Hardship | |
|To hate |Hate |Hated |Hated |Hating |Hatred |Hateable |
| | | | | | |Hateful |
|To head |Head |Headed |Headed |Heading |Head |Headlong |
| | | | | |Heading |Headless |
| | | | | |Header |Heading |
|To heal |Heal |Healed |Healed |Healing |Health |Healthful |
| | | | | |Healer |Healthy |
| | | | | |Healthiness | |
|To hear |Hear |Heard |Heard |Hearing |Hearing |Hearable |
| | | | | |Hearer | |
|To help |Help |Helped |Helped |Helping |Help |Helpful |
| | | | | |Helper |Helpless |
| | | | | |Helping | |
|To hide |Hide |Hid |Hidden |Hiding |Hiding |Hidden |
|To hire |Hire |Hired |Hired |Hiring |Hire |Hirable |
| | | | | |Hireling | |
|To hold |Hold |Held |Held |Holding |Hold |Held |
| | | | | |Holding | |
| | | | | |Holder | |
|To hoard |Hoard |Hoarded |Hoarded |Hoarding |Hoarding |Hoarded |
|To honor/honour |Honor |Honored |Honored |Honoring |Honor/Honour |Honorary |
| | | | | |Honorarium |Honorable |
|To hope |Hope |Hoped |Hoped |Hoping |Hope |Hopeful |
| | | | | | |Hopeless |
|To horn |Horn |Horned |Horned |Horning |Horn |Horned |
| | | | | | |Hornless |
| | | | | | |Horny |
|To horrify |Horrify |Horrified |Horrified |Horrifying |Horrification |Horrifying |
| | | | | |Horror |Horrific |
| | | | | | |Horrible |
|To house |House |Housed |Housed |Housing |House |Houseless |
| | | | | |Household |Housing |
| | | | | |Householder | |
| | | | | |Housewife | |
|To humble |Humble |Humbled |Humbled |Humbling |Humility |Humble |
| | | | | |Humbleness | |
|To hunger |Hunger |Hungered |Hungered |Hungering |Hunger |Hungry |
|To hunt |Hunt |Hunted |Hunted |Hunting |Hunt |Hunted |
| | | | | |Hunting | |
| | | | | |Hunter | |
|To hurry |Hurry |Hurried |Hurried |Hurrying |Hurry |Hurried |
|To ice |Ice |Iced |Iced |Icing |Ice |Iced |
| | | | | | |Icy |
|To ignore |Ignore |Ignored |Ignored |Ignoring |Ignorance |Ignorant |
|To imagine |Imagine |Imagined |Imagined |Imagining |Imagination |Imaginable |
| | | | | | |Imaginary |
| | | | | | |Imaginative |
|To immigrate |Immigrate |Immigrated |Immigrated |Immigrating |Immigration |Immigrating |
| | | | | |Immigrant | |
|To imitate |Imitate |Imitated |Imitated |Imitating |Imitation |Imitative |
|To impeach |Impeach |Impeached |Impeached |Impeaching |Impeachment |Impeachable |
|To implant |Implant |Implanted |Implanted |Implanting |Implantation |Implanted |
|To import |Import |Imported |Imported |Importing |Import |Importable |
| | | | | |Importer | |
|To impress |Impress |Impressed |Impressed |Impressing |Impression |Impressive |
|To increase |Increase |Increased |Increased |Increasing |Increase |Increasing |
| | | | | |Increment | |
|To infect |Infect |Infected |Infected |Infecting |Infection |Infectious |
| | | | | | |Infective |
|To influence |Influence |Influenced |Influenced |Influencing |Influence |Influential |
|To inform |Inform |Informed |Informed |Informing |Information |Informatory |
| | | | | |Informer |Informative |
|To inquire |Inquire |Inquired |Inquired |Inquiring |Inquiry |Inquiring |
| | | | | |Inquirer | |
|To inspect |Inspect |Inspected |Inspected |Inspecting |Inspection |Inspectoral |
| | | | | |Inspector | |
|To instigate |Instigate |Instigated |Instigated |Instigating |Instigation |Instigative |
| | | | | |Instigator | |
|To instruct |Instruct |Instructed |Instructed |Instructing |Instruction |Instructive |
| | | | | |Instructor | |
|To insert |Insert |Inserted |Inserted |Inserting |Insertion |Inserting |
| | | | | | |Inserted |
|To insult |Insult |Insulted |Insulted |Insulting |Insult |Insulting |
|To insure |Insure |Insured |Insured |Insuring |Insurance |Insurable |
|To invade |Invade |Invaded |Invaded |Invading |Invasion |Invasive |
| | | | | |Invader | |
|To invent |Invent |Invented |Invented |Inventing |Invention |Inventive |
| | | | | |Inventor |Inventory |
|To invest |Invest |Invested |Invested |Investing |Investment |Invested |
| | | | | |Investor | |
|To investigate |Investigate |Investigated |Investigated |Investigating |Investigation |Investigative |
| | | | | |Investigator |Investigatory |
|To invite |Invite |Invited |Invited |Inviting |Invitation |Inviting |
| | | | | |Inviting |Invitee |
| | | | | |Inviter | |
|To iron |Iron |Ironed |Ironed |Ironing |Iron |Iron |
|To irrigate |Irrigate |Irrigated |Irrigated |Irrigating |Irrigation |Irrigable |
|To irritate |Irritate |Irritated |Irritated |Irritating |Irritation |Irritant |
| | | | | | |Irritable |
|To isolate |Isolate |Isolated |Isolated |Isolating |Isolation |Isolationistic |
| | | | | | |Isolationist |
|To issue |Issue |Issued |Issued |Issuing |Issuance |Issuable |
| | | | | |Issue |Issueless |
|To jest |Jest |Jested |Jested |Jesting |Jest |Jesting |
| | | | | |Jester |Jestful |
|To joint |Joint |Jointed |Jointed |Jointing |Joint |Joint |
|To join |Join |Joined |Joined |Joining |Junction |Jointless |
| | | | | |Joining |Jointing |
|To joke |Joke |Joked |Joked |Joking |Joke |Jocular |
| | | | | |Joker | |
| | | | | |Joking | |
|To judge |Judge |Judged |Judged |Judging |Judge |Judicial |
| | | | | |Judgment |Just |
| | | | | |Justice |Judgeable |
| | | | | |Judiciary | |
|To juggle |Juggle |Juggled |Juggled |Juggling |Jugglery |Juggling |
| | | | | |Juggler | |
|To justify |Justify |Justified |Justified |Justifying |Justification |Justifiable |
| | | | | |Justice |Just |
|To keep |Keep |Kept |Kept |Keeping |Keeping |Kept |
| | | | | |Keeper | |
|To kick |Kick |Kicked |Kicked |Kicking |Kick |Kicking |
| | | | | |Kicker |Kickable |
| | | | | |Kicking | |
|To kid |Kid |Kidded |Kidded |Kidding |Kid |Kidding |
| | | | | |Kidding | |
| | | | | |Kidder | |
|To kidnap |Kidnap |Kidnapped |Kidnapped |Kidnapping |Kidnapper |Kidnapped |
| | | | | |Kidnapping | |
|To kill |Kill |Killed |Killed |Killing |Kill |Killed |
| | | | | |Killing | |
| | | | | |Killer | |
|To kindle |Kindle |Kindled |Kindled |Kindling |Kindling |Kindled |
| | | | | |Kindler | |
|To knead |Knead |Kneaded |Kneaded |Kneading |Knead |Kneaded |
| | | | | |Kneading | |
| | | | | |Kneader | |
|To kneel |Kneel |Knelt |Knelt |Kneeling |Knee |Knelt |
| | | | | |Kneeling |Keeling |
| | | | | |Kneeler | |
|To knife |Knife |Knifed |Knifed |Knifing |Knife |Knifed |
| | | | | | |Knifing |
|To knit |Knit |Knitted |Knitted |Knitting |Knitting |Knit |
| | | | | |Knitter |Knitting |
|To know |Know |Knew |Known |Knowing |Knowledge |Knowing |
| | | | | |Knower | |
|To labor/labour |Labor |Labored |Labored |Laboring |Labor |Laborious |
| | | | | |Laborer | |
|To land |Land |Landed |Landed |Landing |Land |Landed |
| | | | | |Landing |Landless |
|To lead |Lead |Led |Led |Leading |Leader |Leading |
| | | | | |Leadership | |
|To laugh |Laugh |Laughed |Laughed |Laughing |Laughter |Laughable |
| | | | | |Laughing | |
|To leak |Leak |Leaked |Leaked |Leaking |Leak |Leaking |
| | | | | |Leakage |Leaky |
| | | | | |Leaking | |
|To learn |Learn |Learned |Leaned |Learning |Learner |Learned |
| | |Learnt |Learnt | |Learning |Learnable |
|To leave |Leave |Left |Left |Leaving |Leave |Left |
| | | | | |Leaving | |
|To legalize |Legalize |Legalized |Legalized |Legalizing |Legalization |Legal |
| | | | | |Legality | |
|To lend |Lend |Lent |Lent |Lending |Loan |Lendable |
|To lengthen |Lengthen |Lengthened |Lengthened |Lengthening |Length |Lengthy |
| | | | | |Longitude |Long |
| | | | | | |Longitudinal |
|To liberate |Liberate |Liberated |Liberated |Liberating |Liberation |Liberal |
| | | | | |Liberator | |
| | | | | |Liberty | |
|To liberalize |Liberalize |Liberalized |Liberalized |Liberalizing |Liberalization |Liberalizing |
| | | | | |Liberalism |Liberal |
|To lie |Lie |Lied |Lied |Lying |Lie |Lying |
| | | | | |Liar | |
|To lie |Lie |Lay |Lain |Lying |Lain |Lain |
|To light |Light |Lit |Lit |Lighting |Lighter |Light |
| | |Lighted |Lighted | |Light |Lit |
|To lighten |Lighten |Lightened |Lightened |Lightening |Lightening |Lightened |
| | | | | | |Light |
|To like |Like |Liked |Liked |Liking |Liking |Likeable |
| | | | | |Likeness | |
|To live |Live |Lived |Lived |Living |Life |Live |
| | | | | |Livelihood |Living |
| | | | | |Living |Livable |
|To loaf |Loaf |Loafed |Loafed |Loafing |Loafer |Loafing |
| | | | | |Loaf | |
|To lock |Lock |Locked |Locked |Locking |Lock |Locking |
| | | | | |Locker |Lockable |
| | | | | | |Lockless |
|To loll |Loll |Lolled |Lolled |Lolling |Lolling |Lolling |
|To look |Look |Looked |Looked |Looking |Look |Lookable |
| | | | | |Looks |Looking |
| | | | | |Looker | |
| | | | | |Onlooker | |
|To loosen |Loosen |Loosened |Loosened |Loosening |Loose |Loose |
|To loose |Loose |Loosed |Loosed |Loosing |Looseness | |
| | | | | |Looser | |
|To lose |Lose |Lost |Lost |Losing |Loss |Losable |
| | | | | |Loser |Losing |
|To love |Love |Loved |Loved |Loving |Love |Lovable |
| | | | | |Lover |Beloved |
| | | | | |Beloved |Lovely |
| | | | | | |Loving |
|To lull |Lull |Lulled |Lulled |Lulling |Lulling |Lulled |
| | | | | |Lull |Lulling |
| | | | | |Lullaby | |
|To magnify |Magnify |Magnified |Magnified |Magnifying |Magnification |Magnificent |
| | | | | |Magnificence |Magnified |
| | | | | |Magnifier |Magnifying |
|To make |Make |Made |Made |Making |Making |Made |
| | | | | |Maker | |
|To manage |Manage |Managed |Managed |Managing |Management |Managing |
| | | | | |Manager |Manageable |
|To mark |Mark |Marked |Marked |Marking |Mark |Marked |
| | | | | |Marking | |
|To marry |Marry |Married |Married |Marrying |Marriage |Marriageable |
| | | | | | |Married |
|To mass |Mass |Massed |Massed |Massing |Mass |Massive |
| | | | | | |Massy |
|To master |Master |Mastered |Mastered |Mastering |Mastery |Masterful |
| | | | | |Master |Masterly |
|To match |Match |Matched |Matched |Matching |Match |Matching |
| | | | | |Matchless | |
|To maturate |Maturate |Maturated |Maturated |Maturating |Maturation |Mature |
|To mature |Mature |Matured |Matured |Maturing |Maturity |Mature |
| | | | | | |Maturable |
|To mean |Mean |Meant |Meant |Meaning |Meaning |Meaningful |
| | | | | | |Meaningless |
|To measure |Measure |Measured |Measured |Measuring |Measurement |Measured |
| | | | | | |Measuring |
|To meddle |Meddle |Meddled |Meddled |Meddling |Meddler |Meddlesome |
| | | | | |Meddling | |
|To mediate |Mediate |Mediated |Mediated |Mediating |Mediation |Mediating |
| | | | | |Mediator | |
|To medicate |Medicate |Medicated |Medicated |Medicating |Medication |Medicated |
| | | | | |Medicine |Medical |
| | | | | | |Medicinal |
|To meditate |Meditate |Meditated |Meditated |Meditating |Meditation |Meditative |
|To meet |Meet |Met |Met |Meeting |Meeting |Meet |
|To melt |Melt |Melted |Melted |Melting |Melting |Molten |
| | | |Molten | | |Melting |
|To memorize |Memorize |Memorized |Memorized |Memorizing |Memory |Memorable |
| | | | | |Memorization |Memorial |
| | | | | |Memorial | |
| | | | | |Memorandum | |
|To mess |Mess |Messed |Messed |Messing |Mess |Messy |
| | | | | |Messing | |
|To migrate |Migrate |Migrated |Migrated |Migrating |Migration |Migratory |
| | | | | |Migrant |Migrating |
|To milk |Milk |Milked |Milked |Milking |Milk |Milky |
| | | | | |Milkman | |
|To mind |Mind |Minded |Minded |Minding |Mind |Mindful |
| | | | | | |Mindless |
|To mix |Mix |Mixed |Mixed |Mixing |Mixture |Mixed |
|To mobilize |Mobilize |Mobilized |Mobilized |Mobilizing |Mobilization |Mobile |
| | | | | |Mobility | |
|To motion |Motion |Motioned |Motioned |Motioning |Motion |Motionless |
| | | | | | |Motional |
|To motivate |Motivate |Motivated |Motivated |Motivating |Motivation |Motivating |
| | | | | |Motive |Motivational |
| | | | | |Motivity | |
|To mourn |Mourn |Mourned |Mourned |Mourning |Mourning |Mournful |
| | | | | |Mourner |Mourning |
|To move |Move |Moved |Moved |Moving |Movement |Moving |
| | | | | |Move | |
| | | | | |Movie | |
|To multiply |Multiply |Multiplied |Multiplied |Multiplying |Multiplication |Multiple |
| | | | | |Multiplier |Multipliable |
| | | | | |Multiplicand | |
|To mummify |Mummify |Mummified |Mummified |Mummifying |Mummification |Mummified |
| | | | | |Mummy | |
|To mutiny |Mutiny |Mutinied |Mutinied |Mutinying |Mutiny |Mutinous |
| | | | | |Mutineer |Mutinying |
|To name |Name |Named |Named |Naming |Name |Nameless |
| | | | | |Naming |Nameable |
|To narrate |Narrate |Narrated |Narrated |Narrating |Narration |Narrative |
| | | | | |Narrative |Narratable |
|To narrow |Narrow |Narrowed |Narrowed |Narrowing |Narrowness |Narrow |
| | | | | | |Narrowing |
|To nationalize |Nationalize |Nationalized |Nationalized |Nationalizing |Nationalization |National |
| | | | | | |Nationalized |
|To naturalize |Naturalize |Naturalized |Naturalized |Naturalizing |Naturalization |Natural |
| | | | | | |Naturalized |
|To necessitate |Necessitate |Necessitated |Necessitated |Necessitating |Necessitation |Necessary |
| | | | | |Necessity |Necessitating |
|To need |Need |Needed |Needed |Needing |Need |Needed |
| | | | | |Needy |Needy |
|To negate |Negate |Negated |Negated |Negating |Negation |Negative |
|To neglect |Neglect |Neglected |Neglect |Neglecting |Negligence |Negligible |
|To negotiate |Negotiate |Negotiated |Negotiated |Negotiating |Negotiation |Negotiable |
|To neighbor |Neighbor |Neighbored |Neighbored |Neighboring |Neighborhood |Neighboring |
| | | | | |Neighbor | |
|To nest |Nest |Nested |Nested |Nesting |Nest |Nest |
| | | | | | |Nesting |
|To navigate |Navigate |Navigated |Navigated |Navigating |Navigation |Navigational |
| | | | | |Navigator |Navigable |
|To nibble |Nibble |Nibbled |Nibbled |Nibbling |Nibbling |Nibbling |
| | | | | |Nibbler | |
|To nominate |Nominate |Nominated |Nominated |Nominating |Nomination |Nominal |
| | | | | | |Nominating |
| | | | | | |Nominative |
|To nose |Nose |Nosed |Nosed |Nosing |Nose |Nosing |
| | | | | | |Nasal |
| | | | | | |Nosy |
|To noise |Noise |Noised |Noised |Noising |Noise |Noisy |
| | | | | | |Noiseless |
|To note |Note |Noted |Noted |Noting |Note |Notable |
| | | | | |Notion | |
|To notice |Notice |Noticed |Noticed |Noticing |Notice |Noticeable |
|To notify |Notify |Notified |Notified |Notifying |Notification |Notifying |
|To number |Number |Numbered |Numbered |Numbering |Number |Numbering |
| | | | | |Numbering |Numeral |
| | | | | |Numerals |Numerical |
| | | | | | |Numerous |
|To nurse |Nurse |Nursed |Nursed |Nursing |Nurse |Nursing |
| | | | | |Nursing |Nurseless |
| | | | | |Nursery | |
| | | | | |Nursling | |
|To obey |Obey |Obeyed |Obeyed |Obeying |Obedience |Obedient |
|To object |Object |Objected |Objected |Objecting |Objection |Objectionable |
| | | | | |Objector | |
|To observe |Observe |Observed |Observed |Observing |Observation |Observant |
| | | | | |Observance |Observing |
| | | | | |Observer |Observable |
|To obtain |Obtain |Obtained |Obtained |Obtaining |Obtainment |Obtainable |
|To oblige |Oblige |Obliged |Obliged |Obliging |Obligation |Obligatory |
|To occupy |Occupy |Occupied |Occupied |Occupying |Occupation |Occupied |
| | | | | |Occupier | |
|To offer |Offer |Offered |Offered |Offering |Offer |Offerable |
| | | | | |Offering | |
|To open |Open |Opened |Opened |Opening |Open |Open |
| | | | | |Opens |Opened |
| | | | | |Opening | |
|To operate |Operate |Operated |Operated |Operating |Operation |Operative |
|To oppose |Oppose |Opposed |Opposed |Opposing |Opposition |Opposite |
| | | | | |Opponent | |
|To oppress |Oppress |Oppressed |Oppressed |Oppressing |Oppression |Oppressive |
|To optimize |Optimize |Optimized |Optimized |Optimizing |Optimization |Optimum |
| | | | | |Optimism |Optimistic |
| | | | | |Optimum |Optimal |
|To order |Order |Ordered |Ordered |Ordering |Order |Ordered |
| | | | | | |Orderly |
| | | | | | |Orderable |
|To organize |Organize |Organized |Organized |Organizing |Organization |Organized |
| | | | | |Organizer | |
|To ornament |Ornament |Ornamented |Ornamented |Ornamenting |Ornament |Ornamental |
| | | | | |Ornamentation |Ornate |
|To originate |Originate |Originated |Originated |Originating |Origination |Original |
| | | | | |Origin | |
|To overlook |Overlook |Overlooked |Overlooked |Overlooking |Overlooking |Overlookable |
|To own |Own |Owned |Owned |Owning |Ownership |Ownerless |
| | | | | |Owner | |
| | | | | |Owning | |
|To pack |Pack |Packed |Packed |Packing |Pack |Packed |
| | | | | |Package |Packing |
| | | | | |Packet | |
|To pain |Pain |Pained |Pained |Paining |Pain |Painful |
| | | | | | |Painless |
|To paint |Paint |Painted |Painted |Painting |Painting |Painted |
| | | | | |Painter | |
|To pardon |Pardon |Pardoned |Pardoned |Pardoning |Pardon |Pardonable |
|To pass |Pass |Passed |Passed |Passing |Pass |Passable |
| | | | | |Passage | |
|To patronize |Patronize |Patronized |Patronized |Patronizing |Patron |Patronizing |
| | | | | |Patronization | |
| | | | | |Patronage | |
|To pat |Pat |Patted |Patted |Patting |Pat |Patting |
| | | | | |Patter |Patted |
| | | | | |Patting | |
|To pay |Pay |Paid |Paid |Paying |Pay |Payable |
| | | | | |Payment | |
| | | | | |Payer | |
| | | | | |Payee | |
|To pen |Pen |Penned |Penned |Penning |Pen |Penless |
| | | | | |Penman | |
| | | | | |Penmanship | |
|To perfect |Perfect |Perfected |Perfected |Perfecting |Perfection |Perfect |
|To perish |Perish |Perished |Perished |Perishing |Perishableness |Perishable |
| | | | | |Perishing |Perishing |
|To perpetuate |Perpetuate |Perpetuated |Perpetuated |Perpetuating |Perpetuation |Perpetual |
|To persuade |Persuade |Persuaded |Persuaded |Persuading |Persuasion |Persuasive |
|To photograph |Photograph |Photographed |Photographed |Photographing |Photography |Photographic |
| | | | | |Photographer | |
| | | | | |Photograph | |
|To pinpoint |Pinpoint |Pinpointed |Pinpointed |Pinpointing |Pinpoint |Pinpointed |
| | | | | |Pinpointing | |
|To plant |Plant |Planted |Planted |Planting |Plant |Plantlike |
| | | | | |Plantation | |
|To play |Play |Played |Played |Playing |Play |Playable |
| | | | | |Player |Playful |
|To plead |Plead |Pleaded |Pleaded |Pleading |Plead |Pleadable |
| | | | | |Pleader | |
|To please |Please |Pleased |Pleased |Pleasing |Pleasure |Pleasing |
| | | | | | |Pleasurable |
| | | | | | |Pleasant |
|To plunder |Plunder |Plundered |Plundered |Plundering |Plunder |Plundering |
| | | | | |Plundering | |
| | | | | |Plunderage | |
|To pocket |Pocket |Pocketed |Pocketed |Pocketing |Pocket |Pocketable |
| | | | | | |Pocketless |
|To point |Point |Pointed |Pointed |Pointing |Point |Pointed |
| | | | | |Pointer | |
|To poison |Poison |Poisoned |Poisoned |Poisoning |Poison |Poisonous |
| | | | | |Poisoner | |
|To polish |Polish |Polished |Polished |Polishing |Polish |Polished |
| | | | | |Polisher | |
|To popularize |Popularize |Popularized |Popularized |Popularizing |Popularization |Popular |
| | | | | |Popularity | |
|To populate |Populate |Populated |Populated |Populating |Population |Populous |
|To polarize |Polarize |Polarized |Polarized |Polarizing |Polarization |Polarizing |
| | | | | |Polarity |Polarized |
|To post |Post |Posted |Posted |Posting |Post |Postal |
| | | | | |Postage | |
|To possess |Possess |Possessed |Possessed |Possessing |Possession |Possessive |
| | | | | |Possessor | |
|To postpone |Postpone |Postponed |Postponed |Postponing |Postponement |Postponed |
|To practice |Practice |Practiced |Practiced |Practicing |Practice |Practical |
| | | | | | |Practicable |
|To praise |Praise |Praised |Praised |Praising |Praise |Praiseworthy |
|To pray |Pray |Prayed |Prayed |Praying |Prayer |Prayerless |
| | | | | |Praying | |
|To preach |Preach |Preached |Preached |Preaching |Preaching |Preachable |
| | | | | |Preacher | |
|To precede |Precede |Preceded |Preceded |Preceding |Precedence |Precedent |
| | | | | |Precedent |Precedented |
| | | | | | |Preceding |
|To predict |Predict |Predicted |Predicted |Predicting |Prediction |Predictable |
| | | | | |Predictor |Predictive |
|To prefer |Prefer |Preferred |Preferred |Preferring |Preference |Preferable |
| | | | | | |Preferential |
|To prepare |Prepare |Prepared |Prepared |Preparing |Preparation |Preparatory |
| | | | | | |Preparative |
|To prescribe |Prescribe |Prescribed |Prescribed |Prescribing |Prescription |Prescriptive |
| | | | | |Prescript | |
|To present |Present |Presented |Presented |Presenting |Presence |Presentable |
| | | | | |Present | |
| | | | | |Presenter | |
|To preserve |Preserve |Preserved |Preserved |Preserving |Preservation |Preservable |
| | | | | |Preserver | |
|To preside |Preside |Presided |Presided |Presiding |President |Presidential |
| | | | | |Presidency | |
|To press |Press |Pressed |Pressed |Pressing |Press |Pressing |
| | | | | |Pressure | |
|To pretend |Pretend |Pretended |Pretended |Pretending |Pretension |Pretentious |
| | | | | |Pretence | |
|To prevent |Prevent |Prevented |Prevented |Preventing |Prevention |Preventive |
| | | | | |Preventer |Preventable |
|To price |Price |Priced |Priced |Pricing |Price |Priceless |
| | | | | | |Priced |
|To pride |Pride | Prided |Prided |Priding |Pride |Proud |
|To print |Print |Printed |Printed |Printing |Print |Printed |
| | | | | |Printing |Printable |
| | | | | |Printer | |
|To prize |Prize |Prized |Prized |Prizing |Prize |Prizeless |
| | | | | | |Prized |
|To produce |Produce |Produced |Produced |Producing |Produce |Producible |
| | | | | |Production |Productive |
| | | | | |Product | |
| | | | | |Producer | |
|To profess |Profess |Professed |Professed |Pressing |Profession |Professed |
| | | | | |Professor |Professional |
|To proclaim |Proclaim |Proclaimed |Proclaimed |Proclaiming |Proclamation |Proclaimable |
| | | | | | |Proclaimed |
|To profit |Profit |Profited |Profited |Profiting |Profit |Profitable |
| | | | | |Profiteer |Profitless |
|To progress |Progress |Progressed |Progressed |Progressing |Progress |Progressive |
| | | | | |Progression | |
|To prohibit |Prohibit |Prohibited |Prohibited |Prohibiting |Prohibition |Prohibited |
| | | | | |Prohibitiveness |Prohibitive |
| | | | | |Prohibitionist |Prohibitory |
|To promise |Promise |Promised |Promised |Promising |Promise |Promising |
| | | | | |Promisor |Promisory |
| | | | | |Promisee | |
|To promote |Promote |Promoted |Promoted |Promoting |Promotion |Promotive |
| | | | | |Promoter | |
|To pronounce |Pronounce |Pronounced |Pronounced |Pronouncing |Pronunciation |Pronounceable |
| | | | | |Pronouncement | |
|To propagate |Propagate |Propagated |Propagated |Propagating |Propaganda |Propagationable |
| | | | | |Propagation |Propagating |
| | | | | |Propagandist | |
|To prophesy |Prophesy |Prophesied |Prophesied |Prophesying |Prophesy |Prophetic |
| | | | | |Prophet |Prophetical |
| | | | | |Prophesier |Prophesying |
|To propose |Propose |Proposed |Proposed |Proposing |Proposal |Proposed |
| | | | | |Proposer | |
|To proscribe |Proscribe |Proscribed |Proscribed |Proscribing |Proscription |Proscriptive |
|To prosper |Prosper |Prospered |Prospered |Prospering |Prosperity |Prosperous |
|To protect |Protect |Protected |Protected |Protecting |Protection |Protective |
| | | | | |Protector | |
|To protest |Protest |Protested |Protested |Protesting |Protest |Protestant |
| | | | | |Protestation | |
|To prove |Prove |Proved |Proved |Proving |Proof |Provable |
| | | | | | |Proofless |
|To provide |Provide |Provided |Provided |Providing |Providence |Provident |
|To provoke |Provoke |Provoked |Provoked |Provoking |Provocation |Provocative |
| | | | | | |Provoking |
|To publish |Publish |Published |Published |Publishing |Publication |Publishable |
| | | | | |Publisher |Publishing |
| | | | | |Publishing |Published |
|To punish |Punish |Punished |Punished |Punishing |Punishment |Punishable |
| | | | | |Punisher |Punitive |
|To purify |Purify |Purified |Purified |Purifying |Purification |Pure |
| | | | | |Purity |Purified |
|To purpose |Purpose |Purposed |Purposed |Purposing |Purpose |Purposeful |
| | | | | | |Purposeless |
|To pursue |Pursue |Pursued |Pursued |Pursuing |Pursuit |Pursuable |
| | | | | |Pursuance |Pursuant |
| To push |Push |Pushed |Pushed |Pushing |Push |Pushing |
| | | | | |Pusher |Pushy |
|To qualify |Qualify |Qualified |Qualified |Qualifying |Qualification |Qualified |
| | | | | |Qualifier | |
|To quarrel |Quarrel |Quarreled |Quarreled |Quarreling |Quarrel |Quarrelsome |
| | | | | |Quarreler |Querulous |
|To quarter |Quarter |Quartered |Quartered |Quartering |Quarter |Quarter |
|To question |Question |Questioned |Questioned |Questioning |Question |Questionable |
| | | | | |Questioner | |
| | | | | |Questionnaire | |
|To quench |Quench |Quenched |Quenched |Quenching |Quenchableness |Quenched |
| | | | | |Quencher |Quenchable |
| | | | | |Quenching | |
|To quicken |Quicken |Quickened |Quickened |Quickening |Quickness |Quick |
| | | | | |Quickening |Quickened |
| | | | | |Quickener | |
|To quote |Quote |Quoted |Quoted |Quoting |Quotation |Quotable |
|To rain |Rain |Rained |Rained |Raining |Rain |Rainy |
| | | | | | |Rainless |
|To read |Read |Read |Read |Reading |Reading |Readable |
| | | | | |Reader | |
|To reason |Reason |Reasoned |Reasoned |Reasoning |Reason |Reasonable |
| | | | | |Reasoning |Reasonless |
|To rebel |Rebel |Rebelled |Rebelled |Rebelling |Rebellion |Rebellious |
| | | | | |Rebel | |
|To receive |Receive |Received |Received |Receiving |Reception |Receivable |
| | | | | |Receipt | |
|To recognize |Recognize |Recognized |Recognized |Recognizing |Recognition |Recognizable |
| | | | | | |Recognized |
|To recommend |Recommend |Recommended |Recommended |Recommending |Recommendation |Recommendable |
|To recover |Recover |Recovered |Recovered |Recovering |Recovery |Recoverable |
|To recruit |Recruit |Recruited |Recruited |Recruiting |Recruitment |Recruiting |
|To reduce |Reduce |Reduced |Reduced |Reducing |Reduction |Reducible |
|To refer |Refer |Referred |Referred |Referring |Referee |Referable |
|To refine |Refine |Refined |Refined |Refining |Refinery |Refined |
| | | | | |Refinement | |
|To refuse |Refuse |Refused |Refused |Refusing |Refusal |Refused |
|To refuge |Refuge |Refuged |Refuged |Refuging |Refuge |Refugee |
| | | | | |Refugee | |
|To refute |Refute |Refuted |Refuted |Refuting |Refutation |Refutable |
|To regard |Regard |Regarded |Regarded |Regarding |Regard |Regardful |
| | | | | | |Regardless |
|To register |Register |Registered |Registered |Registering |Register |Registerable |
| | | | | |Registering | |
| | | | | |Registry | |
|To regret |Regret |Regretted |Regretted |Regretting |Regret |Regrettable |
| | | | | | |Regretful |
|To regulate |Regulate |Regulated |Regulated |Regulating |Regulation |Regulated |
| | | | | |Regulator |Regular |
|To relate |Relate |Related |Related |Relating |Relation |Related |
| | | | | |Relative |Relative |
|To recite |Recite |Recited |Recited |Reciting |Recitation |Reciting |
| | | | | |Recital | |
| | | | | |Reciter | |
|To relieve |Relieve |Relived |Relieved |Relieving |Relief |Relievable |
|To rely |Rely |Relied |Relied |Relying |Reliance |Reliable |
| | | | | | |Reliant |
|To remain |Remain |Remained |Remained |Remaining |Remainder |Remnant |
| | | | | |Remains | |
|To remark |Remark |Remarked |Remarked |Remarking |Remark |Remarkable |
|To remind |Remind |Reminded |Reminded |Reminding |Reminiscence |Reminiscent |
| | | | | |Reminder |Reminding |
|To remit |Remit |Remitted |Remitted |Remitting |Remittance |Remittable |
| | | | | |Remission | |
| | | | | |Remitter | |
|To rent |Rent |Rented |Rented |Renting |Rent |Rented |
| | | | | |Renter | |
|To repair |Repair |Repaired |Repaired |Repairing |Repair |Reparable |
| | | | | |Repairing | |
|To repeat |Repeat |Repeated |Repeated |Repeating |Repetition |Repeatable |
|To repent |Repent |Repented |Repented |Repenting |Repentance |Repentant |
|To report |Report |Reported |Reported |Reporting |Report |Reportable |
| | | | | |Reporter | |
|To represent |Represent |Represented |Represented |Representing |Representation |Representative |
| | | | | |Representative | |
|To reproach |Reproach |Reproached |Reproached |Reproaching |Reproach |Reproachable |
| | | | | | |Reproachful |
|To repulse |Repulse |Repulsed |Repulsed |Repulsing |Repulse |Repulsive |
| | | | | |Repulsion | |
|To repute |Repute |Reputed |Reputed |Reputing |Reputation |Reputed |
| | | | | | |Reputable |
|To resemble |Resemble |Resembled |Resembled |Resembling |Resemblance |Resembled |
| | | | | | |Resembling |
|To reserve |Reserve |Reserved |Reserved |Reserving |Reservation |Reserved |
| | | | | |Reserve | |
| | | | | |Reservoir | |
|To reside |Reside |Resided |Resided |Residing |Residence |Resident |
|To resign |Resign |Resigned |Resigned |Resigning |Resignation |Resigned |
| | | | | | |Resigning |
|To respect |Respect |Respected |Respected |Respecting |Respect |Respectable |
| | | | | | |Respectful |
|To rest |Rest |Rested |Rested |Resting |Rest |Restful |
| | | | | | |Restive |
| | | | | | |Restless |
|To retire |Retire |Retired |Retired |Retiring |Retirement |Retiring |
|To return |Return |Returned |Returned |Returning |Return |Returnable |
|To retrieve |Retrieve |Retrieved |Retrieved |Retrieving |Retrieval |Retrievable |
| | | | | |Retrieving | |
|To right |Right |Righted |Righted |Righting |Right |Rightable |
| | | | | | |Right |
| | | | | | |Rightful |
| | | | | | |Righteous |
|To risk |Risk |Risked |Risked |Risking |Risk |Risky |
| | | | | | |Riskful |
|To rob |Rob |Robbed |Robbed |Robbing |Robbery |Robbing |
| | | | | |Robber | |
|To ruin |Ruin |Ruined |Ruined |Ruining |Ruin |Ruinous |
| | | | | | |Ruined |
|To rule |Rule |Ruled |Ruled |Ruling |Rule |Ruling |
| | | | | |Ruler | |
|To sadden |Sadden |Saddened |Saddened |Saddening |Sadness |Sad |
|To sail |Sail |Sailed |Sailed |Sailing |Sail |Sailorless |
| | | | | |Sailor |Sailing |
|To satisfy |Satisfy |Satisfied |Satisfied |Satisfying |Satisfaction |Satisfactory |
| | | | | | |Satisfying |
|To save |Save |Saved |Saved |Saving |Safe |Safe |
| | | | | |Saving | |
| | | | | |Safety | |
|To saw |Saw |Sawed |Sawed |Sawing |Saw |Sawed |
| | | | | |Sawing | |
|To say |Say |Said |Said |Saying |Say |Said |
| | | | | |Saying |Saying |
| | | | | |Sayer | |
|To school |School |Schooled |Schooled |Schooling |School |Schoolable |
| | | | | |Schooling |Scholarly |
| | | | | |Scholar | |
|To search |Search |Searched |Searched |Searching |Search |Searching |
| | | | | | |Searchable |
|To season |Season |Seasoned |Seasoned |Seasoning |Season |Seasonable |
| | | | | | |Seasonal |
| | | | | | |Seasoned |
|To second |Second |Seconded |Seconded |Seconding |Second |Secondary |
| | | | | |Seconder |Second |
|To seclude |Seclude |Secluded |Secluded |Secluding |Seclusion |Secluded |
|To secure |Secure |Secured |Secured |Securing |Security |Securable |
|To select |Select |Selected |Selected |Selecting |Selection |Selected |
| | | | | |Selector |Selective |
|To sell |Sell |Sold |Sold |Selling |Sale |Sellable |
| | | | | |Selling |Sold |
| | | | | |Salesman | |
| | | | | |Seller | |
|To sense |Sense |Sensed |Sensed |Sensing |Sense |Senseless |
| | | | | | |Sensitive |
| | | | | | |Sensible |
| | | | | | |Sensuous |
|To serve |Serve |Served |Served |Serving |Service |Serviceable |
| | | | | |Servant | |
| | | | | |Server | |
|To sew |Sew |Sewed |Sewn |Sewing |Sewage |Sewing |
| | | | | |Sewer |Sewn |
|To settle |Settle |Settled |Settled |Settling |Settlement |Settled |
| | | | | |Settler |Settling |
|To shade |Shade |Shaded |Shaded |Shading |Shade |Shady |
| | | | | |Shadow |Shadowy |
|To shake |Shake |Shook |Shaken |Shaking |Shake |Shaky |
| | | | | |Shaking | |
|To shame |Shame |Shamed |Shamed |Shaming |Shame |Shameful |
| | | | | | |Shameless |
|To shape |Shape |Shaped |Shaped |Shaping |Shape |Shapeless |
| | | | | | |Shapely |
|To sharpen |Sharpen |Sharpened |Sharpened |Sharpening |Sharpness |Sharply |
| | | | | |Sharpener | |
|To shift |Shift |Shifted |Shifted |Shifting |Shift |Shiftless |
| | | | | |Shifter |Shifty |
|To shine |Shine |Shone |Shone |Shining |Shine |Shining |
|To ship |Ship |Shipped |Shipped |Shipping |Ship |Shipless |
| | | | | |Shipping |Shippable |
| | | | | |Shipment | |
| | | | | |Shipper | |
|To shock |Shock |Shocked |Shocked |Shocking |Shock |Shocking |
|To shoot |Shoot |Shot |Shot |Shooting |Shoot |Shootable |
| | | | | |Shooting |Shooting |
| | | | | |Shooter | |
|To shorten |Shorten |Shortened |Shortened |Shortening |Shortage |Short |
| | | | | |Shorts | |
|To show |Show |Showed |Shown |Showing |Show |Showy |
| | | | | |Showpiece | |
|To sicken |Sicken |Sickened |Sickened |Sickening |Sickness |Sick |
| | | | | | |Sickly |
|To sight |Sight |Sighted |Sighted |Sighting |Sight |Sightly |
|To sign |Sign |Signed |Signed |Signing |Sign |Signable |
| | | | | |Signatory | |
|To silence |Silence |Silenced |Silenced |Silencing |Silence |Silent |
| | | | | |Silencer | |
|To sin |Sin |Sinned |Sinned |Sinning |Sin |Sinful |
| | | | | |Sinner |Sinless |
|To sing |Sing |Sang |Sung |Singing |Song |Singing |
| | | | | |Singer | |
| | | | | |Singing | |
|To sink |Sink |Sank |Sunk |Sinking |Sink |Sunken |
| | | | | |Sunk |Sinking |
|To sit |Sit |Sat |Sat |Sitting |Seat |Sitting |
| | | | | |Sitting |Seated |
| | | | | |Sitter | |
|To skin |Skin |Skinned |Skinned |Skinning |Skin |Skinny |
| | | | | |Skinful | |
| | | | | |Skinflint | |
|To sleep |Sleep |Slept |Slept |Sleeping |Sleep |Sleepy |
| | | | | |Sleeper | |
|To slight |Slight |Slighted |Slighted |Slighting |Slightness |Slight |
|To slip |Slip |Slipped |Slipped |Slipping |Slip |Slipping |
| | | | | |Slipper |Slippery |
| | | | | | |Slippered |
|To slow |Slow |Slowed |Slowed |Slowing |Slowness |Slow |
| | | | | | |Slowing |
|To smile |Smile |Smiled |Smiled |Smiling |Smile |Smiling |
|To smoke |Smoke |Smoked |Smoked |Smoking |Smoke |Smoky |
| | | | | |Smoker |Smokeless |
| | | | | |Smoking | |
|To soften |Soften |Softened |Softened |Softening |Softness |Soft |
|To solve |Solve |Solved |Solved |Solving |Solution |Solvable |
| | | | | | |Soluble |
|To sorrow |Sorrow |Sorrowed |Sorrowed |Sorrowing |Sorrow |Sorry |
|To sow |Sow |Sowed |Sown |Sowing |Sow |Sowing |
| | | | | |Sower | |
| | | | | |Sowing | |
|To speak |Speak |Spoke |Spoken |Speaking |Speaking |Speechless |
| | | | | |Speech | |
| | | | | |Speaker | |
|To speed |Speed |Sped |Sped |Speeding |Speed |Speedy |
|To spell |Spell |Spelt |Spelt |Spelling |Spelling |Spellable |
| | |Spelled |Spelled | |Spell |Spelling |
| | | | | |Speller |Spellbound |
|To spend |Spend |Spent |Spent |Spending |Spender |Spendable |
| | | | | |Spendthrift |Spent |
|To spin |Spin |Span |Spun |Spinning |Spin |Spinning |
| | | | | |Spinner | |
|To spoil |Spoil |Spoilt |Spoilt |Spoiling |Spoil |Spoilt |
| | |Spoiled |Spoiled | |Spoiler | |
|To sponge |Sponge |Sponged |Sponged |Sponging |Sponge |Spongy |
| | | | | |Sponger | |
|To sport |Sport |Sported |Sported |Sporting |Sport |Sportive |
| | | | | |Sportsman |Sportsmanlike |
| | | | | |Sportsmanship | |
|To spot |Spot |Spotted |Spotted |Spotting |Spot |Spotless |
| | | | | | |Spotted |
| | | | | | |Spotty |
|To spring |Spring |Sprang |Sprung |Springing |Spring |Springless |
| | | | | |Springer |Springing |
|To square |Square |Squared |Squared |Squaring |Square |Square |
|To stabilize |Stabilize |Stabilized |Stabilized |Stabilizing |Stabilization |Stable |
| | | | | |Stability | |
| | | | | |Stabilizer | |
|To star |Star |Starred |Starred |Staring |Star |Starry |
|To start |Start |Started |Started |Starting |Start |Starting |
| | | | | |Starter |Started |
|To starve |Starve |Starved |Starved |Starving |Starvation |Starving |
| | | | | |Starveling | |
|To state |State |Stated |Stated |Stating |State |Stated |
| | | | | |Statement |Stately |
|To station |Station |Stationed |Stationed |Stationing |Station |Stationary |
| | | | | |Stationery | |
|To steal |Steal |Stole |Stolen |Stealing |Stealth |Stealthy |
|To stiffen |Stiffen |Stiffened |Stiffened |Stiffening |Stiffness |Stiff |
| | | | | | |Stiff-necked |
|To stone |Stone |Stoned |Stoned |Stoning |Stone |Stony |
| | | | | |Stoning | |
|T stop |Stop |Stopped |Stopped |Stopping |Stoppage |Stoppable |
| | | | | |Stop |Unstoppable |
| | | | | |Stopper | |
|To store |Store |Stored |Stored |Storing |Storage |Storable |
| | | | | |Store | |
|To storm |Storm |Stormed |Stormed |Storming |Storm |Stormy |
|To strike |Strike |Struck |Struck |Striking |Strike |Striking |
| | | | | |Striker | |
| | | | | |Stroke | |
|To study |Study |Studied |Studied |Studying |Study |Studious |
| | | | | |Student | |
|To stupefy |Stupefy |Stupefied |Stupefied |Stupefying |Stupidity |Stupid |
|To submit |Submit |Submitted |Submitted |Submitting |Submission |Submissive |
|To succeed |Succeed |Succeeded |Succeeded |Succeeding |Success |Successful |
| | | | | |Succession | |
|To suffer |Suffer |Suffered |Suffered |Suffering |Suffering |Sufferable |
| | | | | |Suffer | |
|To suffice |Suffice |Sufficed |Sufficed |Sufficing |Sufficiency |Sufficient |
|To suffocate |Suffocate |Suffocated |Suffocated |Suffocating |Suffocation |Suffocating |
| | | | | | |Suffocative |
|To suggest |Suggest |Suggested |Suggested |Suggesting |Suggestion |Suggestible |
|To suit |Suit |Suited |Suited |Suiting |Suit |Suitable |
| | | | | |Suitability | |
|To supervise |Supervise |Supervised |Supervised |Supervising |Supervision |Supervisory |
| | | | | |Supervisor | |
|To supplicate |Supplicate |Supplicated |Supplicated |Supplicating |Supplication |Supplicant |
|To support |Support |Supported |Supported |Supporting |Support |Supportless |
| | | | | |Supporter |Supportable |
|To surprise |Surprise |Surprised |Surprised |Surprising |Surprise |Surprising |
|To suspect |Suspect |Suspected |Suspected |Suspecting |Suspect |Suspicious |
| | | | | |Suspicion | |
|To swear |Swear |Swore |Sworn |Swearing |Swearing |Sworn |
| | | | | |Swearer | |
|To sweat |Sweat |Sweated |Sweated |Sweating |Sweat |Sweating |
| | | | | |Sweating | |
|To sweep |Sweep |Swept |Swept |Sweeping |Sweeping |Sweeps |
| | | | | |Sweeper | |
|To sweeten |Sweeten |Sweetened |Sweetened |Sweetening |Sweets |Sweet |
|To swell |Swell |Swelled |Swollen |Swelling |Swelling |Swollen |
|To swoon |Swoon |Swooned |Swooned |Swooning |Swoon |Swoonable |
| | | | | |Swooning |Swooned |
|To sympathize |Sympathize |Sympathized |Sympathized |Sympathizing |Sympathy |Sympathetic |
| | | | | |Sympathizer | |
|To table |Table |Tabled |Tabled |Tabling |Table |Tabular |
|To tailor |Tailor |Tailored |Tailored |Tailoring |Tailor |Tailored |
| | | | | |Tailoring | |
|To take |Take |Took |Taken |Taking |Taker |Taken |
| | | | | |Taking | |
|To talk |Talk |Talked |Talked |Talking |Talk |Talkative |
| | | | | |Talker | |
|To tan |Tan |Tanned |Tanned |Tanning |Tanner |Tannable |
| | | | | |Tanning |Tanning |
| | | | | |Tannery | |
|To taste |Taste |Tasted |Tasted |Tasting |Taste |Tasteless |
| | | | | |Taster |Tasty |
| | | | | | |Tasteful |
|To tax |Tax |Taxed |Taxed |Taxing |Tax |Taxable |
| | | | | |Taxation | |
|To teach |Teach |Taught |Taught |Teaching |Teaching |Teachable |
| | | | | |Teacher | |
|To tear |Tear |Tore |Torn |Tearing |Tear |Tearful |
| | | | | |Tearing |Tearless |
|To tell |Tell |Told |Told |Telling |Teller |Telling |
| | | | | |Tale |Tellable |
| | | | | |Telltale | |
|To terrify |Terrify |Terrified |Terrified |Terrifying |Terror |Terrible |
| | | | | |Terrorist |Terrific |
|To thank |Thank |Thanked |Thanked |Thanking |Thank |Thankless |
| | | | | |Thankfulness |Thankful |
| | | | | |Thanklessness | |
|To thicken |Thicken |Thickened |Thickened |Thickening |Thickness |Thick |
| | | | | | |Thicker |
|To think |Think |Thought |Thought |Thinking |Thinking |Thoughtful |
| | | | | |Thinker |Thoughtless |
| | | | | |Thought |Thinkable |
|To thirst |Thirst |Thirsted |Thirsted |Thirsting |Thirst |Thirsty |
|To threaten |Threaten |Threatened |Threatened |Threatening |Threat |Threatening |
|To time |Time |Timed |Timed |Timing |Time |Timely |
| | | | | |Timer |Timeless |
| | | | | |Timing | |
|To tolerate |Tolerate |Tolerated |Tolerated |Tolerating |Toleration |Tolerable |
| | | | | |Tolerance |Tolerant |
|To touch |Touch |Touched |Touched |Touching |Touch |Touchable |
| | | | | | |Touchy |
| | | | | | |Touching |
|To train |Train |Trained |Trained |Training |Training |Trainable |
| | | | | |Train |Trained |
| | | | | |Trainer | |
|T transfer |Transfer |Transferred |Transferred |Transferring |Transfer |Transferable |
| | | | | |Transference | |
|To translate |Translate |Translated |Translated |Translating |Translation |Translatable |
| | | | | |Translator |Untranslatable |
|To transpire |Transpire |Transpired |Transpired |Transpiring |Transpiration | Transparent |
| | | | | |Transparence | |
|To transport |Transport |Transported |Transported |Transporting |Transportation |Transportable |
| | | | | |Transport | |
| | | | | |Transporter | |
|To trouble |Trouble |Troubled |Troubled |Troubling |Trouble |Troublesome |
|To trust |Trust |Trusted |Trusted |Trusting |Trust |Trustful |
| | | | | | |Trustworthy |
|To turn |Turn |Turned |Turned |Turning |Turn |Turning |
| | | | | |Turner | |
| | | | | |Turning | |
| | | | | |Turnery | |
| | | | | |Turncoat | |
|To use |Use |Used |Used |Using |Use |Useful |
| | | | | |Usage |Useless |
|To utter |Utter |Uttered |Uttered |Uttering |Utterance |Utterable |
| | | | | | |Utter |
|To vacate |Vacate |Vacated |Vacated |Vacating |Vacancy |Vacant |
| | | | | |Vacation | |
|To value |Value |Valued |Valued |Valuing |Value |Valuable |
| | | | | | |Valueless |
|To vary |Vary |Varied |Varied |Varying |Variation |Variable |
| | | | | |Variables |Varied |
| | | | | | |Various |
|To verify |Verify |Verified |Verified |Verifying |Verification |Verifiable |
| | | | | |Verifier | |
|To vex |Vex |Vexed |Vexed |Vexing |Vexation |Vexing |
| | | | | | |Vexed |
|To voice |Voice |Voiced |Voiced |Voicing |Voice |Voiceless |
| | | | | | |Vocal |
|To volunteer |Volunteer |Volunteered |Volunteered |Volunteering |Volunteer |Voluntary |
|To vote |Vote |Voted |Voted |Voting |Vote |Voteless |
| | | | | |Voter | |
| | | | | |Voting | |
|To wait |Wait |Waited |Waited |Waiting |Wait |Awaited |
| | | | | |Waiter | |
|To wake |Wake |Woke |Woken |Waking |Wake |Wakeful |
|To wander |Wander |Wandered |Wandered |Wandering |Wanderer |Wandering |
| | | | | |Wanderings | |
|To wash |Wash |Washed |Washed |Washing |Wash |Washable |
| | | | | | |Washy |
|To waste |Waste |Wasted |Wasted |Wasting |Waste |Wasteful |
| | | | | |Wastage | |
| | | | | |Wastefulness | |
|To watch |Watch |Watched |Watched |Watching |Watch |Watchful |
| | | | | |Watchfulness | |
|To water |Water |Watered |Watered |Watering |Water |Waterless |
| | | | | | |Watery |
|To weaken |Weaken |Weakened |Weakened |Weakening |Weakness |Weak |
| | | | | |Weakening |Weakfish |
|To weary |Weary |Wearied |Wearied |Wearying |Weariness |Weary |
| | | | | | |Wearisome |
|To weight |Weight |Weighted |Weighted |Weighting |Weight |Weighty |
|To weigh |Weigh |Weighed |Weighed |Weighing | |Weightless |
|To well |Well |Welled |Welled |Welling |Well |Well |
|To whiten |Whiten |Whitened |Whitened |Whitening |Whiteness |White |
|To Widen |Widen |Widened |Widened |Widening |Width |Wide |
|To will |Will |Willed |Willed |Willing |Will |Willful |
| | | | | | |Willing |
|To win |Win |Won |Won |Winning |Winner |Winning |
| | | | | |Winning | |
| | | | | |Victory | |
|To wish |Wish |Wished |Wished |Wishing |Wish |Wishful |
|To wonder |Wonder |Wondered |Wondered |Wondering |Wonder |Wonderful |
| | | | | | |Wondering |
|To work |Work |Worked |Worked |Working |Work |Working |
| | | | | |Worker |Workable |
|To write |Write |Wrote |Written |Writing |Writing |Written |
| | | | | |Writer | |
|To wrong |Wrong |Wronged |Wronged |Wronging |Wrong |Wrongful |
|To x-ray |X-ray |X-rayed |X-rayed |X-raying |X-ray |X-ray |
|To yawn |Yawn |Yawned |Yawned |Yawning |Yawn |Yawning |
| | | | | |Yawner | |
|To yearn |Yearn |Yearned |Yearned |Yearning |Yearning |Yearning |
|To yield |Yield |Yielded |Yielded |Yielding |Yield |Yielding |
| | | | | |Yielder | |
|To yell |Yell |Yelled |Yelled |Yelling |Yelling |Yelling |
| | | | | |Yell |Yelled |
| | | | | |Yeller | |
|To yellow |Yellow |Yellowed |Yellowed |Yellowing |Yellow |Yellowy |
| | | | | | |Yellowish |
|To yelp |Yelp |Yelped |Yelped |Yelping |Yelp |Yelping |
| | | | | |Yelper | |
|To yoke |Yoke |Yoked |Yoked |Yoking |Yoke |Yokeless |
|To zip |Zip |Zipped |Zipped |Zipping |Zip |Zipped |
| | | | | |Zipper |Zippy |
|To zoom |Zoom |Zoomed |Zoomed |Zooming |Zooming |Zoomable |
| | | | | | |Zoomed |
2. ADJECTIVE
Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing i.e. ‘a noun’ in the sentence.[16] For example, a tall guy, a bright girl, the rich man, a nice book etc. Adjective also tells us number and quantity, such as four boys, five kilos of rice, some wheat etc. If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called an “Adjective Clause”. My sister, who is much older than I am, is an engineer.
Grammatically, adjectives can have up to two chief functions, given their location. Thus we say about adjectives, referring to a particular location-oriented situation, that they are either attributive or predicative.
When an adjective occurs before a noun, this type of situation is termed as attributive function. For instance, an intelligent boy, a poor man, a nice car, a small room, two big buildings etc.
On the other hand, when an adjective occurs after a verb—generally the forms of the primary verb to be—this situation is called the predicative function of adjective. For instance, the man was poor, his car is nice, the two buildings on mall are incredibly high, the hill seems big, this story sounds interesting etc.
Major kinds of adjective are: (i) Adjectives of Quality or Descriptive Adjectives, (ii) Adjectives of Quantity, (iii) Adjectives of Number, (iv) Distributive Adjectives, and (v) Indefinite Adjectives. There are some other obscure kinds and sub-kinds as well, but we will not discuss them here to avoid speciousness.
1. Descriptive Adjectives
Descriptive adjectives describe the ‘quality, kind’ or ‘nature’ of a noun—a person, thing, place, or abstract idea. For instance: Ali is an industrious student; Mandi Bahauddin is a small city etc.
2. Adjectives of Quantity
Adjectives of Quantity talk about the ‘amount’ of something to show how much a thing is desired or described. For instance: There is still some milk in the glass; He is left with little money etc.
3. Adjectives of Number
Adjectives of Number are also called Numeral Adjectives. They describe the ‘number’ of something showing how many objects are being discussed. For instance: Asim has five brothers; I have three books on grammar etc.
Adjectives of number subdivide in two further kinds, namely:
(i) Definite Numerals
(ii) Indefinite Numerals
Definite numerals, as exhibits the title, express an ‘exact number’. However, the method of describing ‘exact numbers’ varies in two ways in English, and to these two ways of speaking of definite numerals we call (i) Cardinals, and (ii) Ordinals. For instance, we count things in our everyday life as one, two, three, four, five, so on and so forth; these are the cardinals. On the other hand, when we count things or persons positioning them one after another in a consecutive order, as first, second, third, fourth, fifth etc, they are called ordinals.
Indefinite numerals also speak of numbers, but these are not exact numbers. For instance, many, few, all, some, any, certain, several, no etc. are the recurrent indefinite numerals in English grammar. It is interesting that we can also list these indefinite numerals under “Quantifier”, for the function in both cases is of quantifying nouns.
• There are some boys in the ground.
• Your passage contains many mistakes.
• He has ignored me on several occasions.
4. Distributive Adjectives
Distributive Adjectives point out numbers to refer them individually; this is to say that distributive adjectives function as “specifying” words in the sentence. For instance: Every car in the line is Toyota; Each girl must take her turn; Neither of the brothers was absent; On either side of the picture is a blob etc.
5. Indefinite Adjectives
Indefinite Adjectives are also Indefinite Pronouns establishing the fact that we use them both ways. They refer to a ‘person or thing without ascertaining him/it’. For instance: Someone in the village is the thief; Something will eventually disturb our plan; Everyone of the students should be called for the test; Everything in this season looks good etc.
Degrees of Adjective (Also Comparison of Adjectives)
Adjectives also express the degrees of modification. For example, “Asma is a rich woman, but Naila is richer than Asma, and Sadia is the richest woman in the town.” The degrees of comparison are known as positive, comparative and superlative, although only comparative and superlative are the degrees. We use comparative degree to compare only two things, individuals or groups, while the superlative degree is used to compare three or more things, individuals, groups or places. Normally, we place suffixes –er and –est in the end of an adjective to form comparative and superlative degrees.[17] However, when the positive degree of an adjective ends in –e, we place only –r in the end for the making of comparative case and only –st for the making of superlative case (e.g. wise-wiser-wisest). Another change in the formation of comparative adjectives takes place when we have a –y ending. When the positive degree ends in –y, and is preceded by a consonant, we remove –y to insert –ier for the comparative case and –iest for the superlative case (e.g. easy-easier-easiest). Similarly, another variation in the rule occurs with one-syllable adjectives. If the positive degree is one-syllable and a very short vowel-sound precedes the last consonant, this last consonant is doubled before the addition of comparative –er and superlative –est (e.g. hot-hotter-hottest). The use of more and most is yet another way of forming adjectives of comparison. When an adjective has two syllables and we want to form its comparative and superlative cases, more will be used before the adjective for the comparative case and most for the superlative case.
Regular Degrees of Comparison
|Positive |Comparative |Superlative |
|Able |Abler |Ablest |
|Big |Bigger |Biggest |
|Bold |Bolder |Boldest |
|Brave |Braver |Bravest |
|Clever |Cleverer |Cleverest |
|Close |Closer |Closest |
|Cold |Colder |Coldest |
|Common |Commoner |Commonest |
|Cruel |Crueler |Cruelest |
|Cute |Cuter |Cutest |
|Dear |Dearer |Dearest |
|Deep |Deeper |Deepest |
|Easy |Easier |Easiest |
|Far |Farther |Farthest |
|Fast |Faster |Fastest |
|Fat |Fatter |Fattest |
|Finer |Finer |Finest |
|Free |Freer |Freest |
|Great |Greater |Greatest |
|Happy |Happier |Happiest |
|Hard |Harder |Hardest |
|Heavy |Heavier |Heaviest |
|High |Higher |Highest |
|Hot |Hotter |Hottest |
|Humble |Humbler |Humblest |
|Kind |Kinder |Kindest |
|Large |Larger |Largest |
|Light |Lighter |Lightest |
|Long |Longer |Longest |
|Low |Lower |Lowest |
|Merry |Merrier |Merriest |
|Narrow |Narrower |Narrowest |
|Near |Nearer |Nearest |
|Nice |Nicer |Nicest |
|Noble |Nobler |Noblest |
|Odd |Odder |Oddest |
|Old |Older |Oldest |
|Petty |Pettier |Pettiest |
|Poor |Poorer |Poorest |
|Pretty |Prettier |Prettiest |
|Quick |Quicker |Quickest |
|Red |Redder |Reddest |
|Rich |Ricer |Richest |
|Sad |Sadder |Saddest |
|Sane |Saner |Sanest |
|Short |Shorter |Shortest |
|Simple |Simpler |Simplest |
|Slight |Slighter |Slightest |
|Slow |Slower |Slowest |
|Small |Smaller |Smallest |
|Smart |Smarter |Smartest |
|Soft |Softer |Softest |
|Strong |Stronger |Strongest |
|Sweet |Sweeter |Sweetest |
|Tall |Taller |Tallest |
|Thick |Thicker |Thickest |
|Thin |Thinner |Thinnest |
|Tough |Tougher |Toughest |
|True |Truer |Truest |
|Ugly |Uglier |Ugliest |
|Wealthy |Wealthier |Wealthiest |
|Weary |Wearier |Weariest |
|Weak |Weaker |Weakest |
|White |Whiter |Whitest |
|Wise |Wiser |Wisest |
|Young |Younger |Youngest |
Irregular Degrees of Comparison
|Positive |Comparative |Superlative |
|Good |Better |Best |
|Well |Better |Best |
|Bad |Worse |Worst |
|Ill |Worse |Worst |
|Evil |Worse |Worst |
|Much |More |Most (Quantity) |
|Many |More |Most (Number) |
|Late |Later |Latest |
| |Latter |Last |
|Old |Older |Oldest |
| |Elder |Eldest |
|Far |Farther |Farthest |
|Fore |Further |Furthest |
|Out |Outer |Outermost |
| |Utter |Uttermost |
| | |Utmost |
|In |Inner |Innermost |
| | |Inmost |
|Up |Upper |Uppermost |
| | |Upmost |
|Little |Less |Least |
| |Lesser | |
|Nigh |Nigher |Next |
A-Adjectives
There are certain adjectives that start with “a” and are thus so called “a-adjectives”. The most commonly used of these a-adjectives are: ablaze, afraid, afloat, afresh, aghast, alert, alive, alike, alone, aloof, anew, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, and aware.
A-adjectives usually come after a linking verb i.e. to be, seem, become, feel, appear, grow, remain etc. For instance:
i. The baby was asleep.
ii. The student remained aloof.
iii. Pakistani people are awake and aware of their rights.
The a-adjectives are sometimes modified by “very much”, as, very much afraid, very much ashamed, very much aware etc. Sometimes a-adjectives occur before a noun and modify it, as, the alert watchman, the aloof student etc. However, most of them are themselves modified when they occur the word they modify: the nearly awake public, the surprisingly aware person etc.
Position of Adjectives
Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of popping up almost anywhere in a sentence, adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. When indefinite pronouns—such as something, someone, anybody—are modified by an adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun: Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished.
Order of Adjectives
Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the function of the adjective. The usual order is:
|a. Value/opinion |delicious, lovely, charming |
|b. Size |small, huge, tiny |
|c. Age/Temperature |old, hot, young |
|d. Shape |round, square, rectangular |
|e. Color |Red, blonde, black |
|f. Origin |Swedish, Victorian, Chinese |
|g. Material |plastic, wooden, silver |
Linear Description: Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Color, Origin, Material
Examples:
A. An ugly big old red post-box
B. Some small round plastic tables
C. Some charming small silver ornaments
Sub-classification of adjectives can be done at two levels, (a) Syntactic Sub-classification and (b) Semantic Sub-classification. However, as the current book is a traditional academic grammar, the subject of sub-classifications is out of its scope.
3. NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. “Whatever exists, we assume, can be named, and that very name is a noun.”[18] It is not easy to describe a noun from a linguistic perspective. In simple terms, nouns are “names” and verbs are “actions”. For instance, “mango” (noun) is something that you “eat” (action).
Kinds of Noun
Like all other languages, English grammar has, at the very basic level, two kinds of noun. These kinds are:
1. Proper Noun
2. Common Noun
A proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing (Qamar, Queen Elizabeth, Middle East, Madinah, Malaysia, Christianity, God, Pakistani, Muslim, Pakistan Peoples Party etc.). It is, therefore, always capitalized. A proper noun used as an addressed person’s name is called a “noun of address”. Proper nouns do not form plurals, as does the common nouns. For instance, it would be incorrect to say Pakistans, Qamars, Islams etc. However, some proper nouns, such as Muslims (religious communities), Pakistanis (nations), Himalayas (mountain ranges), Syeds (clans or families), do occur in plural forms. Definite article ‘the’ almost always precedes such plural proper nouns (e.g. the Muslims, the Pakistanis, the Himalayas, the Syeds). Proper nouns, with the exception of the above kind of plural proper nouns, do not use articles before them (e.g. the Qamar, a Pakistan, the Lahore). Quantifiers (some, any, few, a few, little, a little, much, several etc.) are also not used before proper nouns. For example, it is incorrect to say “some Pakistan, any Punjab, few or a few/little or a little Qamar, much Islam”.
Common nouns, on the other hand, name everything else, and they are not usually capitalized. Thus, we have ascertained nouns in two kinds, namely, (a) Proper Noun, and (b) Common Noun. For instance; Aslam (proper noun) works at a shop (common noun).
Distribution of Noun
Nouns can be distributed in two categories i.e. (a) Countable (or Count) Nouns, and (b) Uncountable (or Non-Count) Nouns. Countable Nouns have plurals, and can be used with a/an.[19] For example: a table, a car, an idea, an individual etc. Uncountable Nouns do not have plural forms, and they cannot be used with a/an. For example: air, milk, intelligence, sand, weather, leather, glass, luggage, cloth, concrete, detergent, electricity, water, milk, oil, sugar, salt, money, knowledge, butter, gas, rice, wheat, mustard, spaghetti, coal, advice, wood, information, fuel, energy, flour, work, laundry, silk, soap, food, grain, paper, progress, plastic, research, toothpaste, wool etc.
Some grammarians annex a third category of nouns, which is generally termed as Collective Nouns. This category includes those nouns that can be either plural or singular. However, the use of such nouns normally depends on the situation as well as the speaker. A list of such nouns is, for example, given below:
Class, army, police, team, herd, jury, committee, guild, school, college, bunch, clump, stack, family, procession, gang, team, crowd, group, pile, staff, set, company, people, gathering, factory, fleet, flock, caste, public, constellation, crew etc.
Nature of Noun
Nouns, according to their nature, can be divided in two types namely, (a) Concrete Nouns, and (b) Abstract Nouns. We talk about concrete nouns when we refer to objects and we talk about abstract nouns when we refer to concepts, which are mental rather than physical. We can see, hear, smell, taste and/or touch the physical objects (concrete nouns) but we cannot see, hear, smell, taste or touch mental concepts or states (abstract nouns). For instance; chair, football, ground, earth, book, and man are Concrete Nouns, whereas match, happiness, kindness, mankind, honesty etc. are Abstract Nouns.
The authors of High School English Grammar, Wren and Martin, define an Abstract Noun as below:
“Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs.”[20]
Gender in Noun
The classification of nouns (also of pronouns) according to the gender of each noun as masculine, feminine or neuter is called “gender” in the study of noun. Nouns may be:
i. Masculine: boys, king, lion etc.
ii. Feminine: girl, women, lioness etc.
iii. Neuter Gender: All that is neither male nor female, especially inanimate objects.
4. PRONOUN
A ‘pronoun’ is a word used instead of a noun. Generally (but not always) pronouns stand for (pro + noun) or refer to a noun[21]—an individual or individuals or thing or things (the pronoun’s antecedent)—whose identity has been made clear earlier in the text. For instance, Ali goes to school can be referred as He goes to school when the identity of Ali has already been established. Thus, he, she, it, I, we, they, you etc. are all pronouns (personal pronouns) i.e. those words used in the place of a noun.
Grammarians differ on the exact number of the forms of pronoun. However, we will include in this book only those forms that are universally agreed. Six forms of pronoun are, generally, accepted by almost all grammarians. These six forms are: (i) Personal Pronouns, (ii) Reflexive Pronouns, (iii) Demonstrative Pronouns, (iv) Indefinite Pronouns, (v) Distributive Pronouns, and (vi) Relative Pronouns.
Personal Pronouns
A Personal Pronoun stands for a ‘person’ or ‘thing’, i.e. a noun. Unlike nouns, which usually do not undertake any changes of form—except in cases like forming plurals—personal pronouns always change form according to their various ways of use within a sentence. A personal pronoun is divisible in three categories of persons as well as in three different cases. These three categories or positions of personal pronoun are usually called First Person, Second Person, and Third Person. This categorization of personal pronoun is based on the general understanding of linguistic communication in which two persons (the 1st person and 2nd person) are always present, whereas one person (the 3rd person) is always absent (Details below in the chart). These categories have further subdivisions within themselves and are thus primarily divided in singular and plural types. The 3rd person is yet another distinction that distributes its singular in three sub-positions, namely, male (he), female (she), and neuter gender (it).
Personal pronouns have three cases of form-change. These are the cases that we know as subjective case, possessive case, and objective case. Moreover, when a personal pronoun is the subject of a sentence, this situation is called Nominative Case.
The chart of personal pronoun categorization and its three cases is being adduced below. An additional box of reflexive situation has also be added in the end to let our readers have a quick glance at a subsequently discussed corresponding situation.
Order of Pronoun Cases (Personal Pronoun)
|Position of Person |Subjective Case |Possessive Case |Objective Case |Reflexive Situation |
|1st Person Singular |I |my/mine |me |myself |
|1st Person Plural |We |our/ours |us |ourselves |
|2nd Person Singular |You |your/yours |you |yourself |
|2nd Person Plural |You |your/yours |you |yourselves |
|3rd Person Singular |He |his |him |himself |
|(Male) | | | | |
|3rd Person Singular |She |her/hers |her |herself |
|(Female) | | | | |
|3rd Person Singular |It |its |it |itself |
|(Neuter Gender) | | | | |
|Noun as 3rd Person |Ahmad/Samina/Chair |his/her/its |him/her/it |himself/herself/itself |
|(Singular) | | | | |
|3rd Person Plurals |They |their/theirs |them |themselves |
| |(Two Nouns) | | | |
Reflexive Pronouns
When -self is added to my, your, him, her, it, and selves to our, your, them, we get what are called Reflexive Pronouns. It means when the action done by the subject turns back to the subject, the situation will immediately place a reflexive pronoun. For instance;
• You will disturb yourself.
• We will hurt ourselves.
Demonstrative Pronouns
These pronouns are used to point out the objects to which they refer, and are, hence, called Demonstrative Pronouns. For example; this, that, these, those etc. are demonstrative pronouns.
• That is amazing. (referring to a surprising situation)
• Such is my faith in you. (referring to the level of trust you have in someone)
This family of the Demonstrative Pronouns can behave in two ways, namely, either as pronouns or as determiners.[22]
Indefinite Pronouns
Those pronouns that do not refer to any particular person or thing are termed as Indefinite Pronouns. For example; I will take you there one/some day. He is a man of few words. Some milk was spilt. Any fool can do this. Furthermore, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, each etc. are also Indefinite Pronouns.
Distributive Pronouns
These pronouns obscurely refer to only one from among many persons or things at a time. For instance; each, either and neither are such distributive pronouns that are used when referring to two persons or things, whereas every, any, no one, one another and none are used when referring to more than two persons or things: Each of the (two) men received award. They cheated one another.
Relative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns relate to some noun that goes before in the sentence, which in grammatical language is called antecedent. We have only two main relative pronouns namely, which and that. Sometimes, what replaces which and that in sentences, but the students with only basic knowledge of English should avoid such a use of what. For instance, see below:
• This is the car, which I used to drive.
• That is the book that Ali bought last year.
It should be noted that which always takes a comma (,) before it, while that does not take any commas before or after it.
English grammar still retains two second-class kinds of pronoun. Interrogative Pronouns and Reciprocal Pronouns are not generally discussed in the list of six above listed kinds. However, some grammarians do add these two in the list of the kinds of pronoun, and they have their own logic for doing that. But it is wise, as per our stance, to discuss them as separate.
Interrogative Pronouns ask questions. They are used to build such questions that demand a logically justified reply—hence the double interrogatives. This kind of interrogative pronouns may be subdivided in two classes, namely, (a) that belong personal nouns, such as who, whose, whom, and (b) that belong non-personal nouns, such as which, what, where, when, why, and how.
Reciprocal Pronouns express a ‘two-way’ (actually both way) relationship. These pronouns are convenient forms for combining ideas. For instance, each other and one another are the reciprocal pronouns. If only two people are involved in a discussion, we use each other.
• Samina and Salma gave each other gifts on Eid. (Or)
• Samina and Salma gave gifts to each other on Eid.
If the participants are more than two and that we have to refer to them as a whole—all of them taking an active part in the activity—we use one another. Nevertheless, it is not considered incorrect in modern English to use each other instead of one another for more than two participants.
• All of the teachers at Bilcans gave gifts to one another on Eid.
• They (i.e. all of them) borrowed each other’s ideas.
5. INTERJECTION
Hi there! That's an interjection.
“Interjections are words or phrases used to exclaim or protest or command.”[23] Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um!, or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we still use them quite often—usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is generally followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written. See below for examples:
▪ Oh! You don’t know about that?
▪ I don’t know what the heck you’re talking about.
▪ No! You shouldn’t have done that.
There are some interjection-symbols used to describe different types of situations. Symbols, such as uh-huh and mhm, are used by the speakers to indicate agreement. Further, mm and uh-uh express negation or disagreement. Nevertheless, it is advised by the author that such symbols should not be used in writing or even when speaking without necessary understanding of their pronunciation.
Some Main Interjections with Examples
“Ah” expressing pleasure "Ah! that feels good."
“Ah” expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."
“Ah” expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be hoped."
“Ah” expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"
“Alas” expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."
“Dear” expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
“Dear” expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"
“Eh” asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."
“Eh” expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"
“Eh” expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"
“Eh” inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"
“Er” expressing hesitation "Berlin is the capital of...er...Germany."
“Hello/hullo” expressing greeting "Hello Junaid. How are you today?"
“Hello” expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"
“Hey” calling attention "Hey! Look at that!"
“Hey” expressing surprise, joy etc "Hey! What a good idea!"
“Hi” expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"
“Hmm” expressing hesitation, doubt or disagreement "Hmm. I'm not so sure."
“Oh/o” expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"
“Oh” expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."
“Oh” expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"
“Ouch” expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"
“Uh” expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."
“Uh-huh” expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."
“Um/umm” expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
“Well” expressing surprise "Well I never!"
6. CONJUNCTION
Conjunction is a word that “joins” two words or two parts of a sentence. For instance; Zaheer and Aslam are good friends; I like this book, but I’m unable to buy it.
Conjunctions are divided in two basic types, i.e. (a) Coordinating Conjunctions, and (b) Subordinating Conjunctions. Coordinating Conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example: “Javed and Asif went up the hill.” Subordinating Conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example: “I went playing, although it was cold.”
Positions of Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. Subordinating conjunctions, however, usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause. (Examples above)
Forms
Conjunctions have three main forms, i.e. (i) single-word conjunctions, (ii) compound conjunctions, and (iii) correlative conjunctions. For instance, single-word conjunctions are and, although, because, but etc.[24] Compound conjunctions are as long as, provided that, in order that etc. And correlative conjunctions are those that surround an adverb or adjective like so…that, not only…but also, either…or etc.
Zaheer has spent his summer studying math, but he is still facing problems with it. (Single-word)
It is an interesting as well as informative book. (Compound Conjunction)
Asif is not only an intelligent student but also a good player of football.
Main compound conjunctions are given below herein.
|Compound Conjunction |Sentence |
|Even if |Even if you talk to him, he will not agree. |
|Even though |I like his company, even though he can be annoying at times. |
|In order to |The committee met in order to decide about the future of college. |
|Provided that |Provided that, the problem does not seem soluble. |
|So that…may |She studies late at night so that she may succeed in examination. |
| |She studied late at night so that she might succeed in examination. |
|Inasmuch as |Inasmuch as I relied on that book, it proved beneficial. |
|Insomuch as |Insomuch as I relied on that book, it proved beneficial. |
|As if |He showed indifference to me as if we did not know each other. |
|As soon as |Write me back as soon as you receive my letter. |
|As well as |We need building as well as furniture to start a school. |
Main correlative conjunctions are below here:
|Correlative Conjunction |Sentences |
|Either…or |Either he is a thief or a robber. |
| |Either pen or marker will be available at this shop. |
|Neither…nor |We can neither sell this car nor can we get it repaired. |
| |He neither rested nor completed the assignment. |
| |He is neither teacher nor student. |
|Though…yet |Though/Although he is my friend, yet I do not trust him. |
|Both…and |Both Ahmad and Hassan came to see me. |
|Whether…or |I don’t know whether he came over or not. |
|Not only…but also |Ahmad is not only an intelligent boy, but also a brilliant sportsman. |
Adverbial Conjunctions or Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs such as “however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently”, are used to create complex relationships between ideas. They show the linkage of a situation appearing ‘as a result’ of some situation gone before. These conjunctive adverbs generally take comma (,) after them, and in case of appearing in the middle of a sentence, the comma appears before them as well. In a general rule, we use them in the start of a sentence.
Examples:
It was a good piece of advice for him, however, he did not like it. Moreover, his own lack of experience destroyed his whole business.
7. ADVERB
Adverb is a word that modifies a “verb, an adjective, or another adverb”. For instance, he drove slowly (modifies a verb); he drove a very fast car (modifies an adjective); and she moved quite slowly down the street (modifies another adverb).
Adverbs often tell when, where, why, and/or under what conditions something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in –ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in –ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives.
Adverb has a number of kinds, whereof we will discuss only the relevant as well as most famous ones. Five kinds of adverbs are being discussed here, and students are advised to get a good mastery over their function and use. The other kinds may be a little confusing to be studied at this level. Hence, the kinds of our relevance are: (i) Adverbs of Manner, (ii) Adverbs of Place, (iii) Adverbs of Frequency, (iv) Adverbs of Time, and (v) Adverbs of Degree.
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs that tell us how an action has taken place are called Adverbs of Manner. Adverbs of manner normally end in –ly, although it is not always true. For instance, Salma wept bitterly; Ahmad hastily managed the party; Asif came late etc.
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs that inform us about the place of a described action are known as Adverbs of Place. For example, Ali is standing outside of the class; Asif will arrive here soon; when you get to hotel, you will see him there etc.
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs that describe how often something or some action has occurred are called Adverbs of Frequency. There is always a sense of continuity in these adverbs. For instance; Do you see him everyday/daily? I often meet him near the bus stop etc.
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs that indicate when an action has taken place are termed as Adverbs of Time. For example, Ali finished his tea first; He has already arrived here; She tries to get back before dark etc.
Adverbs of Degree or Quantity
Adverbs that talk of degree or extent of something or some action are called Adverbs of Degree. These adverbs answer to the question ‘how much’. For instance, Ali is quite happy; I nearly hit the car; It will take almost one hour etc.
Adverbs of Reason
Adverbs of Reason convey the idea of ‘reason’ or ‘rationality’. Adverbs of Reason create a situation of Logic, and grammar is only a means to portray that situation. Thus, any adverbs showing reason, equation between two situations, and logical negation or outcome occur before some logical conclusion or after a clause bearing argument and/or proposition. Hence, therefore, thus, before, since, however, and nevertheless are mainly used adverbs of reason. For example, since he did not appear in examination, he was declared absent; It is a befitting situation, hence we should not waste time in waiting for a better period.
Position of Adverbs
One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of manner are particularly flexible in this regard. See below for example:
i. Solemnly the Prime minister addressed the parliament. (or)
ii. The Prime Minister solemnly addressed the parliament. (or)
iii. The Prime Minister addressed the parliament solemnly.
Thus, it is almost beyond question that the use of adverb anywhere in the sentence is but correct. Students will have a wide choice to place an adverb before a ‘main verb’, or ‘between the auxiliary and main verb’, or even in the ‘end’ of the sentence.
Order of Adverbs
There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one in a sentence. It is similar to “The Royal Order of Adjectives”, but it is even more flexible.
|THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS |
|Verb |Manner |Place |Frequency |Time |Purpose |
|Dad walks |Impatiently |Into town |Every afternoon |Before supper |To get a newspaper. |
|Asif swims |Enthusiastically |In the pool |Every morning |Before dawn |To keep in shape. |
|Rubab naps | |In her room | Every noon |Before lunch. | |
|In actual practice, of course, it would be highly unusual to have a string of adverbial modifiers beyond two or three (at|
|the most). Because the placement of adverbs is so flexible, one or two of the modifiers would probably move to the |
|beginning of the sentence: "Every afternoon before supper, Dad impatiently walks into town to get a newspaper." When that|
|happens, the introductory adverbial modifiers are usually set off with a comma. |
Relative Adverbs
Relative adverbs, why, where and when, sometimes introduce ‘adjectival clauses’. Although the entire clause is adjectival and modifies a noun, the relative word employed itself carries out an adverbial function, i.e. it modifies a verb within its own clause.
8. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word governing—and usually coming in front of—a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in: She left before breakfast. What did you come for?
English Preposition Rule
There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no exceptions. The rule is: A preposition is followed by a ‘noun’. It is never followed by a ‘verb’. By noun we include:
i. noun (horse, money, love)
ii. proper noun (name) (Lahore, Marium)
iii. pronoun (you, him, us)
iv. noun group (my first letter)
v. gerund (swimming)
Let me assert again that a preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we must use the ‘-ing’ form, which is really a ‘gerund’ or verb in noun form. Here below are some examples:
|Subject + verb |Preposition |Noun |
|The food is |on |the table. |
|She lives |in |Pakistan. |
|Tara is looking |for |you. |
|The letter is |under |your blue book. |
|Waris Shah is used |to |Punjabi people. |
|She is not used |to |working. (gerund or verbal noun) |
|I ate |before |coming. (gerund of verbal noun) |
Here comes a question that, in the following sentences, why is “to” followed by a verb? That should be impossible, according to the rule:
a) I would like to go now. (b) She used to smoke.
In these sentences, “to” is not a preposition. It is part of the infinitive (to go, to smoke).
Kinds of Prepositions
Despite having a number of kinds, prepositions are generally used in three kinds, i.e. (i) Prepositions of Time, (ii) Prepositions of Place, and (iii) Prepositions of Direction.
i. Prepositions of Time
Prepositions that introduce or indicate time are called Prepositions of Time. For instance, on, at, in, before etc. On is used with ‘days’; at is used with ‘noon, night, midnight, and the time of the day’; in is used with ‘other parts of the day, with months, with years, and with seasons’.
It is interesting that some prepositions of time also function as prepositions of place. For instance, at, in and on can be used both ways. Moreover, to express an extended time in English, we use the prepositions, such as since, for, during, within, by, from-to, from-until etc.
ii. Prepositions of Place
Prepositions that express the idea of place are known as the Prepositions of Place. For instance, in and on are two such prepositions that serve as the basis for the sense of ‘place’ and ‘space’. This kind includes prepositions, such as in, inside, at, on, near, over etc.
In (to talk about a certain point itself) There is a mosquito in the room.
Inside (to express something contained) Put the present inside the box.
On (to talk about the surface) I left your keys on the table.
At (to talk about a general vicinity) She was waiting at the corner.
Over (to talk about something being at or above a certain place) a. F-16 Jet is flying over the city. b. Ahmad is over there in the garden.
iii. Prepositions of Direction
Prepositions that point out a certain direction are termed as the Prepositions of Direction. For instance, to and towards are the most potent and oft repeated prepositions of direction. However, the addition of the suffix wards–or ward–with any of the word describing a direction will immediately make it into a preposition of direction. Eastward, westward, northward, southward, downward, upward etc, are, for instance, such compounded prepositions.
o He had his back towards me.
o We will travel westward coming summer.
Prepositions with Interrogative Pronouns
Preposition is generally placed in the end of the sentence if its object is an interrogative pronoun (i.e. when, where, why, which, who, what or how). Let us see below how prepositions are used with interrogative pronouns as their object, for example:
• What are you looking at?
• Who is he looking for?
• Which class do you read in?
Prepositions with That and Which
When the object of a preposition is the relative pronoun “that”, the preposition is always placed in the end of the sentence (e.g. Is this the book that you were searching for? It was my knife that she cut mangoes with.). However, relative pronoun “which” has an exceptional rule in this situation. It can be used in both ways—either putting the preposition before relative pronoun (i.e. which) or at the end. For instance, it is correct to say both ways, as:
a) Is this the pen which you were looking for?
b) Is this the pen for which you were looking?
“What” also functions in some cases as relative pronoun—in the same way as which. Therefore, the very rule of the use of which is applicable in the case of what as well.
a. Books and pens are students’ weapons what they fight against ignorance with.
b. Books and pens are students’ weapons with what they fight against ignorance.
Estimated Prepositions in English
There are more than 100 prepositions in English. Prepositions are indeed important words for syntactical constructions of English. We use individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions ‘of, to, on’ and ‘in’ are among the “ten most frequent words” in English. Below is a short list of some 70 of the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning.
|A |B |C |D |E |
|aboard |before |concerning |despite |except |
|about |behind |considering |down |excepting |
|above |below | |during |excluding |
|across |beneath | | | |
|after |beside | | | |
|against |besides | | | |
|along |between | | | |
|amid |beyond | | | |
|among |but | | | |
|anti |by | | | |
|around | | | | |
|as | | | | |
|at | | | | |
|F |I |L |M |N |
|following |in |like |minus |near |
|for |inside | | | |
|from |into | | | |
|O |P |R |S |T |
|of |past |regarding |save |than |
|off |per |round |since |through |
|on |plus | | |to |
|onto | | | |toward |
|opposite | | | |towards |
|outside | | | | |
|over | | | | |
|U |V |W | | |
|under |versus |with | | |
|underneath |via |within | | |
|unlike | |without | | |
|until | | | | |
|up | | | | |
|upon | | | | |
The Use of Prepositions
Prepositions with Nouns (Noun + Preposition)
|Noun |Preposition |Sentence |
|1. Ability |In |Ahmad has developed a great ability in writing essays. |
|2. Alternative |To |The alternative to Murree is Swat for our next trip. |
|3. Attack |On |Boss made a verbal attack on the subordinate. |
|4. Attitude |To |Muslims’ attitude to modern development should be positive and welcoming. |
|5. Belief |In |We have no belief in President’s promises. |
|6. Cause |Of |The cause of epidemic outbreak is normally unhygienic atmosphere. |
|7. Cost |Of |The total cost of this project is about two million Pak Rupees. |
|8. Knowledge |Of |I have little knowledge of mathematics. |
|9. Matter |With |The matter with him sounds pretty serious. |
|10. Application |For |Aslam’s application for the clerical post was rejected. |
|11. Student |Of |Ahmad is the student of Punjab University. |
|12. Substitute |To |Substitute to the Great Quaid’s services is nothing. |
|13. Respect |For |Muslims have a great respect for the Prophet’s family. |
|14. Connection |With |Terrorism in Pakistan has a connection with Indian intelligence agency RAW.|
|15. Contrast |With |In contrast with your opinion, I like to go on trip. |
|16. Reduction |For |There are reductions for children sharing a room with two adults. |
|17. Appetite |For |Our appetite for money generally never ends. |
|18. Desire |For |Human desire for conquering stars is witnessing fulfillment in 21st |
| | |century. |
|19. Preference |For |Chinese people do not have a preference for foreign made things. |
|20. Taste |For |Wonderful! You have a great taste for hockey. |
|21. Damage |To |1971 tragedy was a great damage to the honor of the nation. |
|22. Difficulty |Over |He feels a great difficulty over philosophical descriptions. |
|23. Clash |With |Pakistan’s clash with India over Kashmir issue is dangerous for the region.|
|24. Example |Of |The best example of valor was seen in the case of Aziz Bhati in 1965 War. |
|25. Experience |Of |My experience of staying in Egypt does not constitute a pleasant part of my|
| | |memory. |
|26. Expert |On |Asim is expert on computer designing. |
|27. Hope |For |She has a great hope for getting promotion for her services. |
|28. Invitation |To |The lawyers extensively sent invitations to civil society activists to join|
| | |long march. |
|29. Lack |Of |Lack of facilities in this country has compelled many to migrate. |
|30. Method |Of |Sir Qamar’s method of teaching is very appealing. |
|31. Reason |For |His reason for not joining the company was his doubt in our abilities. |
|32. Success |At |Pak Army’s success at curbing militancy is inevitable for the stability of |
| | |Pakistan. |
|33. Tax |On |Government is levying tax on almost every commodity. |
|34. Trouble |With |What is the trouble with you? |
|35. Relation |With |The relation of Muslims with Arabia is unbreakable. |
|Relationship | | |
|36. Increase |In |Rapid increase in world population is likely to cause famine by the end of |
| | |21st century. |
|37. Need |For |There is a great need for social reforms in our culture. |
|38. Application |For |College office has received hundreds of applications for the post of junior|
| | |clerk. |
|39. Order |For |Army discipline reserves clear orders for all subordinates. |
|40. Request |For |The police did not turn a deaf ear to our request for a timely help. |
|41. Wish |For |Everyone has a wish for becoming rich overnights. |
|42. Love |For |Our love for Islam will help us become better Muslims. |
|43. Control |Over |The manager seems to have lost control over the staff. |
|44. Dearth |Of |Extreme dearth of sugar is a national crisis. |
|45. Apology |For |An Apology for Poetry is a nice small book about poetry. |
Prepositions with Adjectives (Adjective + Preposition)
|Adjective |Preposition |Adjective + Preposition Sentence |
|Afraid |Of (something) |I’m afraid of going out in dark. |
|Ashamed |Of (some action) |Noreen is ashamed of her past mistakes. |
|Accustomed |To (something) |He is accustomed to taking tea before breakfast. |
|Addicted |To (something) |She is addicted to Indian movies. |
|Aware |Of (something/someone) |We should be aware of our national duties as responsible citizens. |
|Angry |With/At (someone/something) |I don’t know why Ahmad is angry with Amir. |
| | |My father is angry at my bad performance. |
|Bored |With (something) |Children soon got bored with staying indoors. |
|Disappointed |With (something/someone) |I’m not disappointed with the performance of the class. |
|Eager |For (something) |She is eager for her father’s approval. |
|Excited |About (something) |Salma is excited about participating in camping campaign. |
|Fed up |With (something) |I am fed up with his boring stories. |
|Fond |Of (something) |Hassan is fond of watching Hollywood movies. |
|Happy |With (something/someone) |Are you happy with this arrangement? |
|Keen |On (something) |He is not keen on being instructed for what to do. |
|Proud |Of (someone/something) |We should be proud of our great Quaid whose restless struggle won us |
| | |freedom. |
|Shocked |At (something) |Asma was shocked at Ahmad’s sudden proposal. |
|Tired |Of (Something) |Hassan was tired of hearing about Ahmad’s new adventures. |
|Pleased |With (something/someone) |The captain is pleased with team’s good performance. |
|Capable |Of (something) |Pak Army with its latest weaponry is capable of destroying the enemy |
| | |completely. |
|Nervous |Of/About |a. My horse may be nervous of cars. |
| |(something/someone) |b. The poor of Pakistan are very nervous about the future. |
|Satisfied |With (someone/something) |I am satisfied with my achievements in life. |
|Surprised |At (something) |You should not be surprised at his changed routine. |
|Worried |About (someone/something) |Is anyone of the politicians worried about the plight of the country?|
|Annoyed |With (someone) |Western world is annoyed with China for her rapid development and |
| | |challenging standing in the world politics. |
|Anxious |For (someone/something) |Mothers are naturally anxious for their children. |
|Fit |For (someone/something) |It is a meal fit for a king. |
|Full |Of (something/humans) |The academy is full of brilliant, well-educated tutors. |
|Different |From (something/someone) |Is Indian culture different from that of Pakistan? |
|Responsible |For (something) |Americans think Al-Qaeda is responsible for 9/11 attacks. |
|Married |To (someone) |Saima is married to my brother. |
|Good |At (something) |Grandpa is good at chess. |
|Bad |At (something) |Believe me I am bad at doing tense exercises. |
Latin Adjectives and Preposition “to”
|Adjective |Preposition |Sentence |
| |“to” | |
|Inferior |To |When I talked to the BMW sports car owner, I felt myself inferior to him. |
|Superior |To |She always pretends to be superior to others, which she is not. |
|Junior |To |Ahmad is junior to Hassan by rank. |
|Senior |To |Lieutenant General is a military rank senior to all other ranks. |
|Interior |To |The walls interior to the house were painted. |
|Exterior |To |We filled everything exterior to the museum building. |
|Anterior |To | |
|Posterior |To | |
Prepositions with Verbs (Verb + Preposition)
|Verb |Preposition |Sentence |
|Arrive |At (some place/somewhere) |I arrived at the station at six. |
|Crash |Into (something) |The bus crashed into a tree. |
|Depend |On (some situation/condition/someone) |It all depends on weather. |
|Divide |Into (some parts/sections/categories) |I divided the cake into three parts. |
|Dress |In (some color/type of dress) |Why is she dressed in black? |
|Look |After (someone) |He has to look after his mother. |
|Pay |For (something) |Have you paid for the drinks? |
|Remind |Of (something/someone) |Do remind me of your brother’s assignment later today. |
|Take part |In (some activity) |I didn’t take part in the meeting. |
|Translate |Into (a language) |Could you translate this into Urdu? |
|Walk |In (in some condition/manner) |I like walking in the rain. |
|Talk |In (some manner) |Don’t talk in that silly noise. |
|Take |To (somewhere) |Why don’t you take Ahmad to Academy? |
|Laugh |At (someone) |It isn’t civility to laugh at senior citizens. |
|Meet |At/In (somewhere) |We usually meet at/in the library. |
|Get |To (somewhere) |What is the easiest way to get to Lahore? |
|Shout |At (someone) |Stop shouting at me! |
|Smile |At (someone) |When you smile at me like this, I can do anything for you.|
|Write |To (someone) |Promise you will write to me at Eid. |
|Go |To (somewhere) |I went to Islamabad to see my brother. |
|Go |On (some activity/event) |Why don’t you like to go on picnic with us today? |
|Believe |In (something/someone) |We believe in the truth of our ideology. |
|Consist |Of/In (something/someone) |My personal library consists of a thousand books. |
|Accede |To (something) |a. He acceded to demands for his resignation. |
| | |b. King Akbar acceded to throne in 1558. |
Verbs that do not take a preposition after them:
|Verb |No preposition |Sentence |
|Approach |X |Don’t approach the dog. |
|Ask |X |If you’ve a problem, ask your teacher. |
|Attack |X |America attacked Afghanistan in 2001. |
|Discuss |X |Let us discuss your problems. |
|Enter |X |You’re not supposed to enter the room. |
|Lack |X |The soup lacks salt. |
|Marry |X |Ahmad married Salma last June. |
|Invade |X |Mahmud of Ghazna invaded India 17 times. |
|Tell |X |I’ve told him what to do next. |
|Train |X |Ahmad trains the college cricket team. |
|Phone |X |She phoned her father this evening. |
|Meet |X |Let us meet this weekend. |
|Love |X |All mothers love their children. |
|Resemble |X |Ahmad resembles his elder brother. |
|Reach |X |I reached Pakistan just yesterday. |
|Order |X |The colonel ordered his subordinate ranks to stop retaliation and fall|
| | |back? |
|Control |X |Government is unable to control major economic problems. |
|Inform |X |He informed me that he was going to Lahore. |
|Hate |X |No one should hate his countrymen. |
|Dare |X |How dare you say this disgusting thing? |
Important Note: Some of the verbs are also used as nouns with no change of spelling. In that case, it is impossible to escape the use of a preposition with them. Nouns such as attack, love, order, control, and lack etc. are necessarily followed by appropriate prepositions. For corresponding prepositions to these nouns, see the list on prepositions with noun (Noun + Preposition).
Prepositions used before specific events, issues, devices, and activities:
|Preposition |Noun |Sentence |
|On |Holiday/Days of Week/14August/Eid/Christmas/|1. Can I come to see you on next weekend? |
| |Weekend |2. Ahmad will return from Germany on this Eid. |
|On |Business |Let us talk now on business. |
|On |Television/Radio/FM/Phone/ |Can we talk on phone/internet tonight? |
| |Internet | |
|On |(the) way/purpose/foot |Hassan addressed me angrily on purpose. |
| | |She doesn’t like to go anywhere on foot. |
|In |Cash/Credit |I urgently need a big amount of money in cash. |
|In |Writing |Before you copy, you need to ask for the permission of |
| | |author in writing. |
|In |Morning/Afternoon/Evening/ |Why don’t you go for a walk in morning? |
| |Daytime/rain | |
|In |General/Advance/June (Month)/1983(Year) |Ahmad informed us of his retirement in advance. |
|In |the way/the end (also at the end) |I would like to quote Quaid-e-Azam in/at the end. |
|At |Noon/Night/Breakfast/Lunch/ |He cannot come at night to join us. |
| |Dinner | |
|By |Bus/cycle/motorbike/car/coach/ |He will return from Saudi Arabia by ship. |
| |ferry/lorry/helicopter/plane/rail/ |I will have first experience of traveling by air this |
| |train/sea/ship/taxi/road |time. |
| | |Did you ever travel to Karachi by road? |
|By |Mistake/chance |Alexander Fleming by chance discovered penicillin. |
|By |Cheque |I don’t prefer payments made by cheque. |
|Up |to-date |Pak Army is equipped with up to-date weaponry. |
|Out |of-date |The theory you are explaining seems out of date. |
Some commonly used Preposition with Verbs:
|Verb |Preposition |Sentence |
|Accord |With |Current results closely accord with our predictions. |
|Adhere |To |It is difficult to adhere to old norms these days. |
|Agree |With |I agree with Ahmad in the issue of studies. |
|Allude |To |Holy Prophet did never allude to anyone’s mistakes in public. |
|Apply/Applied |For |Salma has applied for a teaching job at several schools. |
|Believe |In |Christians believe in the Bible as God’s book. |
|Belong |To |She belongs to a noble family of the city. |
|Apologize |For |You need not apologize for your misconceptions about me. |
|Ask/Asked |For |I feel hesitant to ask Ahmad for financial assistance. |
|Care |For |Nobody cares for traffic laws in Pakistan unless a sergeant is in the sight. |
|Approve |Of |She approved of my plan to go out for a walk. |
|Concentrate |On |We all should concentrate on English to get through B.A. |
|Deal |With |Police dealt with the robbers with iron hands. |
|Consist |Of |Our college library consists of ten thousand books. |
|Decide |On/Upon |He eventually decided on starting a business. |
|Depend |On |You should not depend on anyone in the period of crisis. |
|Laugh |At |They laughed at Zaheer when he showed up in shorts at the college. |
|Listen |To |Stop noising; let me listen to the teacher. |
|Rely |On |Relying on one’s own shoulders is the best thing to do for success. |
|Suffer |From |He suffers from asthma. |
|Aim |At |Salma should aim at scoring at least 60% of the total marks in graduation. |
|Confer |On/upon |God Almighty has conferred on/upon the Muslim world all kinds of blessings. |
|Prefer |To |I prefer mangoes to apples. |
|Comply |With |Saddam Hussein refused to comply with UN resolutions. |
|Complain |To/About |Please don’t complain to the manager. |
| | |She complained about the low quality of food to the hotel manager. |
|Contribute |To |Media has contributed to the formation of a global culture. |
|Conform |To |I cannot conform to the local customs. |
|Correspond |To/With |The subject matter of the book does not correspond to its title. |
| | |I would like to correspond with you through email. |
|Succeed |In |He succeeded in his final cricket trials. |
Rules for Certain Prepositions in Certain Situations
at + clock time (I returned home at 5:15 pm.)
in + part of a day (Let us meet again in the afternoon today. Exception: at noon, at night)
on + a particular day (Pakistan came into being on 14 August/August 14, 1947.)
at + public place (Ahmad will wait for us at Quaid-e-Azam Library.)
in + longer period (Two World Wars were fought in 20th century. Didn’t we meet in June?)
Exercise
1. Congratulations ________ your success.
2. The bus crashed ________ a tree.
3. This all depended ________ the weather.
4. Can we discuss ________ your study issues?
5. She divided the cake _________ four parts.
6. I’ll see you ________ next Friday.
7. I’m not free ________ 1st of January.
8. Tell me ________ what time it starts.
9. Let’s meet _______ this weekend.
10. He phoned me _______ the evening.
11. I like walking _______ the rain.
12. The answer is _______ page 102.
13. Can I have details _______ your courses?
14. Who is the man ________ the picture?
15. Why is she dressed _______ red?
16. _______ my opinion, your position is weak.
17. She is looking _______ a rented house.
18. She aims ________ delivering successive lectures this week.
19. There is no recent increase _______ prices.
20. She was not looking ________ him when he addressed her.
21. Have you paid ________ the drink?
22. Have we met ________ last December?
23. He is interested _______ sports and movies.
24. Who will be responsible ________ the security lapse?
25. Please remind me ________ the class time.
26. You should not laugh ________ the beggars.
27. May God confer ________ Muslims all blessings of life.
28. He is good ________ photography.
29. Do you have any alternative ________ these plans?
30. Pakistanis are in no way inferior ________ the Americans.
STAGE 3
Determiners, Quantifiers and Articles
Determiners, quantifiers and articles are those little words that precede and modify nouns. For instance:
the teacher, a college, a bit of honey, that person, those people, whatever purpose, either way, your choice
Sometimes these words will tell the reader or listener whether we are referring to a specific or general thing (the main restaurant of city; a horse; my kingdom for a horse, etc.); sometimes they tell how much or how many (lots of trees, several books, a great deal of confusion). Let us now have look into their respective functions.
Determiners
Determiners are a limited class of noun modifiers that determine the referents of noun phrases. Determiners are thus said to “mark” nouns. That is to say, you know a determiner will be followed by a noun. Some categories of determiners are limited (there are only three articles i.e. a, an, & the, a handful of possessive pronouns, etc.), but the possessive nouns are as limitless as nouns themselves. This limited nature of most determiner categories, however, explains why determiners are grouped apart from adjectives even though both serve the function of modifying noun. We can imagine that the language will never tire of inventing new adjectives. However, the determiners (except for the possessive nouns), on the other hand, are well established, and this class of words is not going to grow in number.
The categories of determiners are as follows: (i) the articles (an, a, & the);[25] (ii) the possessive nouns/apostrophes (Asim’s, the priest’s, my mother’s, etc.);[26] (iii) the possessive pronouns (his, your, their, whose, etc.); (iv) the numbers (one, two, three, etc.); (v) the indefinite pronouns (few, more, each, every, either, all, both, some, any, etc.); and (vi) the demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those, such). It is interesting that a number of these determiners have already been discussed under different headings of Parts of Speech. However, we regard them determiners as collectively to avoid confusion in their extremely mixed-up use.
Quantifiers
Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They answer the question regarding how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on one’s understanding of the distinction between Countable and Uncountable Nouns. For our purpose of understanding quantifier’s function with count and non-count nouns in the current instance, we will choose the count noun trees and the non-count noun dancing:
The following quantifiers will work with countable nouns:
many trees (a great number of trees)
a few trees (a small number of trees)
few trees (less than the required number of trees)
several trees (more than three mutually distinct trees)
a couple of trees (two of many trees)
none of the trees (not any tree from at least three trees)
The following quantifiers will work with uncountable nouns:
not much dancing
a little dancing
little dancing
a bit of dancing
a good deal of dancing
a great deal of dancing
no dancing
The following quantifiers work with both countable and uncountable nouns:
|Quantifier |Countable Noun |Uncountable Noun |
|all of the |trees |dancing |
|some |trees |dancing |
|most of the |trees |dancing |
|enough |trees |dancing |
|a lot of |trees |dancing |
|lots of |trees |dancing |
|plenty of |trees |dancing |
|a lack of |trees |dancing |
In formal academic writings, it is usually preferable to use many and much rather than phrases such as a lot of, lots of and plenty of.
Quantifiers Little versus A Little and Few versus A Few
There is an important difference between “a little” and “little” (used with uncountable words) and between “a few” and “few” (used with countable words). If I say that “Salma has a little experience in management” that means that although Salma is no great expert, she does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that “Salma has little experience in management” that means that she does not have enough experience. If I say that Zaheer owns a few books on Punjabi literature that means that he has some books—not a lot of books, but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Zaheer owns few books on Punjabi literature, that means he does not have enough number of books for our purposes and we would better go to a library.
Articles
The word ‘article’ has been derived from Latin word articulus meaning ‘a joint’. Thus, an article is a joint in a sentence that not only balances the sentence structure but also forms connection on several instances like a conjunction. Interestingly, we do not have articles in Urdu and Punjabi. Therefore, our students have hard time understanding the very presence as well as the function of the articles. On the contrary, almost all European languages, with a few exceptions, have articles, and this makes easier for European students to understand English articles. English has three articles, i.e. a, an, & the. These articles may be considered a kind of adjectives in their characteristic function. “The” is called the “definite article”, for it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; “a” and “an” are called “indefinite articles”, for they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified countable noun). This is to suggest that the indefinite articles leave the person, thing or place spoken of indefinite. They are, grammatically, the forms of the same word, which implies “one”. These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun or something else acting as a noun.
Here is a caution for those teaching and learning English. Even after you learn all the principles behind the use of English articles, you will find an abundance of situations where choosing the correct article or choosing whether to use one article or not will prove chancy. For instance; “Icy highways are dangerous” and “The icy highways are dangerous” are such sentences that are correct both ways i.e. with and without article ‘the’. Moreover, ‘the’ does not mean “all”, but something particular. We generally say, for example; cars are fast. It is a generalization and we mean by dropping definite article before the subject that all cars are fast. However, when we say; the cars are fast, we want to say by adding the definite article that some particular cars are fast.
The Use of Definite Article
Definite article “the” will always precede the names of natural objects, heavenly bodies, rivers, newspapers, historical places, famous wars, TV channels, titles etc. See below, for instance, for the correct use of “the”
1. We normally use “the” for State, Kingdom, Republic etc.
i. States: the United States of America/the USA
ii. Kingdom: the United Kingdom/the UK
iii. Republic: the French Republic
2. We normally use “the” for the names of “canals, rivers, seas and oceans”.
the Suez Canal (Canal)
the River Nile or the Nile (River), the Indus River or the Indus
the Mediterranean Sea or the Mediterranean (Sea)
the Pacific Ocean or the Pacific
3. We normally use “the” for plural names of people and places.
the Clintons, the Gondals, the Maliks (families)
the Philippines (country)
the Virgins Islands, the British Isles (island groups)
the Himalayas, the Alps (mountain ranges)
For examples, look at the examples below:
I saw the Gondals today, because it was Mohsin’s birthday today.
Trinidad is the largest island in the West Indies.
Mount Everest is in the Himalayas.
4. And we also use “the” with the following sorts of names:
i. Hotels, Restaurants: the Seven Ways Hotel, the Husaniyyah Restaurant
ii. Banks: the National Bank of Pakistan, the State Bank, the Habib Bank, the Bank Alfalah
iii. Theaters, Cinemas: the Rose Cinema, the Lahore Theater
iv. Museums: the Lahore Museum, the National Museum of Pakistan, the British Museum
v. Buildings: the Haadi Building, the White House, the Presidency
vi. Newspapers: the Dawn, the Express, the Khabrain, the New York Times, the Pakistan Times
vii. TV Channels: the Geo, the CNN, the Express News, the HBO
viii. Organizations: the ATI, the United Nations, the BBC, the European Union, the OIC, the Quran Society
ix. Historical Places: the Lahore Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Big Ben, the Dome of the Rock, the Taj Palace, the Pyramids
x. Historical Events: the Crusades, the Independence War, the World War I, the French Revolution
xi. Heavenly Bodies: the Jupiter, the Sun, the Moon, the Alpha Centauri, the Milky Way
xii. Titles: the King of the Kings, the Viceroy, the Lion-heart, the Templer, the Secretary of State
5. We normally use “the” for the compound names made with “…of…”:
a. the Tower of London
b. the Tower of Pakistan
c. the Gulf of Bengal
d. the London School of Economics
e. the Bank of France
f. the Voice of America
g. the State Bank of Pakistan
h. the Statue of Liberty
i. the Tomb of Quaid-e-Azam
Moreover, the case of the definite article can be understood from the following:
Definite article is used with superlative degrees of adjectives;
Definite article is used as an adverb with comparative degrees of adjectives;
Definite article is employed to express the ‘force’ of a superlative;
Definite article is used before an adjective when the noun is a case already understood;
Definite article is used before a common noun to assign it the meaning of an abstract noun;
The mother (feeling of maternal love) in her woke up when she watched a movie about a mother and her lost child.
The scholar (the spirit of being scholarly) in him was discovered only a few days ago.
Definite article is used when a singular noun stands for a whole class;
Zero Articles
There is a situation in English that we call ‘zero articles’. This situation implies that some different kinds of noun never use articles. This is to say that we do not use articles with the names of languages (“He was learning Chinese.”); but English does use definite article “the” when the proper noun ‘Chinese’ takes the suffix ‘language’—thus as ‘the Chinese language’. Similarly, when the word ‘Chinese’ refers to the people of China, the definite article might come into practice (“The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics.”); the names of sports (“She plays badminton. He is good at basketball.”), and academic subjects (“She is taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.”) are also “zero article” words.
The Use of Indefinite Articles
Before we get into the function of indefinite article (a/an), it is important to understand the position of the two forms we have in this category. It must be kept in view that a and an two choices to the same end, and, therefore, their use only varies phonetically, and not grammatically. When a word begins with a vowel sound, it is preceded by an; and when a word begins with a consonant sound, a precedes it.
The words that indefinite article precedes can be of two types viz. (a) nouns, and (b) adjectives. Here below is a list of a and an with nouns.
|Indefinite Article a |Indefinite Article an |
|a man |an array |
|a girl |an inkpot |
|a cup |an elephant |
|a university |an individual |
|a book |an engineer |
|a company of soldiers |an orange |
The indefinite article precedes adjectives following the same rule as it does with noun. However, there is a simple difference that we need to keep in view all the time: that is, a noun always independently occurs after indefinite article; however, an adjective does not independently occur after indefinite article. This is to say that an adjective is always, like all other cases, dependent on a noun when it succeeds indefinite article and precedes a noun in its attributive function.[27] For instance, we can say ‘an innocent girl’, because in this phrase innocent (adjective) is dependent on girl (noun) and modifies it to convey the sense of that girl’s particular attribute; however, we cannot say ‘an innocent’, because while omitting girl (noun), innocent (adjective) although succeeds indefinite article, it does not modify a noun as is required according to the rule.
Here below is a list of a and an preceding adjectives.
|Indefinite Article a |Indefinite Article an |
|a great man |an honest man |
|a beautiful girl |an innocent little girl |
|a small cup |an interesting plan |
|a famous university |an imaginary animal |
|a nice book |an animated film |
|a brave soldier |an old building |
Indefinite article can be used to speak of any one member of a group or class. For instance:
• A cow has two horns. (i.e. all cows or any one of the cows)
• An MNA should serve the people.
Indefinite article generally occurs after a linking verb when the succeeding noun is a singular case. In this structure, indefinite article classifies things or people into different types or categories to tell their being coming of a certain type, class or category. For instance:
• My car is a 2004-Model Mercedes.
• Ahmad is an engineer.
• Would that I were a doctor.
• He is not ashamed to be a criminal for the whole of his life.
Indefinite article succeeds primary verb “to have” when it is used to express possession. For instance:
• My family has a large house near the river Jehlum.
• Do you have a laptop?
• Ahmad has an interesting storybook.
However, we cannot use indefinite article with possessive determiners, which are generally accepted as (so-called) possessive adjectives—also called associate adjectives. For instance, we cannot say; Ahmad is a my friend or that is a her book; instead, the correct way to express possession with the use of indefinite article is; Ahmad is a friend of mine and that is a book of hers. It must be noted that here we have employed possessive pronouns (mine, yours, hers, theirs) instead of possessive determiners (my, your, her, their).
Unlike definite article “the”, we cannot use indefinite article with the superlative degree of adjective. It is, for instance, incorrect to say; he is a best student in the class; instead, we will say; he is the best student in the class.
Ahmad is an ablest person of my company. (Incorrect)
Ahmad is the ablest person of my company. (Correct)
A most informative book I have ever read is What Quran Says. (Incorrect)
The most informative book I have ever read is What Quran Says. (Correct)
STAGE 4: Punctuation
To punctuate means “to interrupt something at intervals” or “to divide writing into sentences and phrases by using special marks”. Punctuation is, in fact, the process of doing all that. The word “punctuation” is from Latin punctuare, “to mark with points”, which further goes back to derive its root from Old Latin pūnctus, “a prick or point”. Phonetically, the variation in intonation and pauses of different lengths are transcribed using various types of symbols. To these symbols we call “punctuation marks” in the language of grammar. The primary function of these marks is to make sense in written language and record the intonation according to its rise and fall and pauses of short and long lengths.
Punctuation is, like in any other modern language, an important chapter in English grammar. Different languages have different tendencies as far as punctuation is concerned, and the significance of punctuation also varies due to a language’s being morphological or syntactical. English is one of those languages that can in no way avoid the use of punctuation marks. The two most recurrent punctuation marks are “period/full stop” (.) and “comma” (,). In case we only stop using these two, let alone others, English language would be no more meaningful in its script.
Before we get into the definitions and functions of various punctuation marks, let us have a glance at the chart of the symbols.
|Period/Full Stop |(.) |Dash/Long Hyphen |(—) |
|Comma |(,) |Parentheses |( ) |
|Exclamation Mark |(!) |Brackets |( [] ) |
|Question Mark |(?) |Ellipsis |(…) |
|Colon |(:) |Quotation Marks |(“ ”) |
|Semicolon |(;) |Slash or Virgule |(/) |
|Hyphen |(-) |Apostrophe |(’s or ’) |
After having seen the symbols of punctuation, now we will discuss them in brief according to the important and most frequent places of their use. This brief discussion will certainly help Pakistani students to improve their writing of English. It should be especially noted that, unlike Urdu or other eastern languages, English almost 100% depends on punctuation. A good use of punctuation marks not only leaves a healthy impression on the reader, but also makes a piece of writing easy to understand. Let us now have a look into the use of the punctuation marks.
Period/Full Stop
We use a period/full stop ( . ) at the end of a sentence that makes a statement. A full stop shows the end of a statement including all of its points. There is no space between the last letter and the full stop. However, we add one space between the full stop and the first letter of the next sentence.
a. We have to be in the classroom before it is 9 am.
We use full stops with abbreviations. D.P.O., M.M.A., P.P.P., I.S.I., F.B.I. etc. Generally there is no space between the abbreviations and the full stops. Nevertheless, acronyms (usually made up of the first letter from a series of words, which we pronounce as words, not as a series of letters) do not require full stops. For example: GEPCO, NATO, NADRA, WAPDA (also written as Gepco, Nato, Nadra, Wapda) etc.
Comma ( , )
Comma is generally used to set off two verb phrases or clauses of a sentence. It is also employed between an adverbial conjunction and the remaining sentence to draw balance. However, when two verb phrases describing the action of the same subject are separated with the conjunction ‘and’, we do not use a comma. For example:
I. Ali works hard and gets a star everyday.
II. I can drive car and bus with an equal expertise.
Nevertheless, we place a comma when there are two subjects and two actions in the sentence despite the presence of conjunction ‘and’.
a. Asif goes to school, and his younger brother stays at home.
We use comma to set off reporting verb from a reported speech when dealing with direct narration of something or somebody:
a. Ali said to me, “You’re my friend.
Similarly, a quoted statement (i.e. a quotation) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma:
a. We all know the famous Hadith, “The best among the people is one who is most beneficent to mankind”, and it’s why we try to benefit our Muslim brothers.
Exclamation Mark ( ! )
We use an exclamation mark/point ( ! ) at the end of an emphatic declaration, emotional situation, interjection, or command.
a. “No!” he yelled. “Do it now!”
b. Ah! It was a bad day.
An exclamation mark may be used to close questions that are meant to convey extreme emotion, as below:
a. What on earth are you doing! Stop it!
An exclamation mark works like a full stop. It ends a sentence when inserted instead of a full stop. There is no space between the preceding word and the exclamation mark. However, we add one space between the exclamation mark and the succeeding word.
In academic prose, an exclamation point is used rarely, if at all, and in newspaper writing the exclamation point is virtually nonexistent. However, in novels, dramas and storybooks, which include dialogues and situations, exclamation marks are frequently used to render situation as more real.
Question Mark ( ? )
We employ a question mark ( ? ) at the end of a direct question. However, indirect questions do not require question marks.
I. What do you about the criminal? (Direct question)
II. Judge asked him why he was lying in the court. (Indirect question)
It is considered bad form to use a question mark in combination with other marks, although that is often done in informal prose in an attempt to convey complex tones: He told you what!? This combination (or similar combination) of punctuation marks is sometimes called an “interrobang”, but the interrobang currently has no role in academic writing.
A tag question is a device used to turn a statement into a question. It nearly always consists of a pronoun, a helping verb, and sometimes the word ‘not’. Although it begins as a statement, the tag question prevails when it comes to the end-mark; so use a question mark. We normally use contracted forms of auxiliaries in tag questions.
I. He should stop smoking, shouldn’t he?
II. They’re not playing very well, are they?
Sometimes, we use question marks at the end of apparently affirmative sentences. Why? In fact, such affirmative sentences that take question marks are only apparently affirmative but inwardly a direct question. It is an easy job for a native speaker of English to understand such sentences. It may sound strange to Pakistani students that most questions are asked by the native English speaker in affirmative overtone. Nevertheless, it generally occurs in direct speech between the 1st person (speaker) and the 2nd person (immediate listener). See below for instance:
a. He’s coming home this evening? (Actually “Is he coming home this evening?”)
b. That restaurant is yours? (“Is that restaurant yours?”)
c. Hey, you’re still sleeping? (“Are you still sleeping?”)
Quotation Marks ( “ ” )
We use quotation marks ( “ ” ) to set off material that represents quoted or spoken language. Quotation marks also set off the titles of things that do not normally stand by themselves: short stories, poems, and articles, for instance.
I. My favorite epic-poem is Waris Shah’s “Heer”.
II. I have twice read Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”.
In direct narration, we always use full quotation marks (i.e. double quotes) to specify the reported speech. Similarly, to introduce a quotation in a sentence, we quote the immediate words of the quoted person inside full quotation marks.
I. “I don’t care,” said he, “what do you think about it?” (Direct narration)
II. Aristotle was sure of his scholarship despite publicly saying, “I know nothing.” (Quotation)
However, we sometimes emphasize or specify a word, phrase or clause using only single quotes. For example:
a. The ‘final’ Word of God is Glorious Quran.
Semi Colon (;)
The semi colon (;) is used to distinguish coordinate clauses which are joined by such coordinating conjunctions that express position, or introduce an inference; as, therefore, otherwise, however, so, then, thereafter, yet etc.
a. Eat more fruit; otherwise, you will become skinny.
b. He lives in my neighborhood; therefore, we see each other off and on.
It is also used to separate parallel clauses, which the writer desires to emphasize by providing a longer pause between them. Moreover, such complete sentences that are interdependent are generally connected with semi colons to express their integrity and shorten their independent position. Sometimes we want to describe many independent things in one expression i.e. in one sentence; thus we employ semi colon. This situation may be reversed and put in another way: it is used to distinguish or separate ‘loosely related’ clauses.
a. Coconut tree gives us fruit; it gives us drink; it gives us oil; it gives us ropes; it gives us rafters; it gives us materials for roofing; it gives us firewood; in short, it supplies us nearly all necessary things.[28]
b. The food for thought is meditation; the food for soul is spiritual practices; the food for philosophical tendencies is speculation, and there is food for everything.
Similarly, sometimes we quote or categorize things. For this particular purpose, we use semi colon before quoting any statements or naming the things we categorize.
a. Thus says the Lord in His Holy Book; “Do not make mischief in earth.”
b. We have a few things to discuss presently; (a) teaching methods (b) debating techniques (c) arguments and counter arguments.
Apostrophe (’s or ’)
Apostrophe marks the possessive case of a noun—expressed as opposed to the possessive case of pronoun. Apostrophe situation uses an upper comma followed by an ‘s’ without any space normally used between words. For instance; Samina’s cell phone, Hassan’s book, upper room’s key etc.
In British English, the use of apostrophe after any words ending on –s or –ce drops the s and maintains only the upper comma (e.g. the thesis’ description is not clear; Pace’ all floors are wide and airy). However, American English does not follow this rule and retains the full use of apostrophe.
When contracting auxiliaries, we use the apostrophe (i.e. the upper comma) to form short helping verb cases. For instance, I’ll, you’re, she’s, hasn’t, won’t, isn’t, wouldn’t etc.
Similarly, the upper comma is also used to form plurals of the numeric figures and letters. For instance, minus three 2’s and two 5’s; our PC’s are not working properly; all of the Q’s were easy to answer. Modern English, however, does use another easier way of expressing plurality of numbers and letters. In this modern usage, upper comma is not used anywhere and lowercase “s” is straightaway inserted in the end of numbers and letters. For instance; three 2s and two 5s, PCs, PhDs, Qs etc.
The Brackets
The brackets ([]) are used in the following situations:
We can use them to adduce explanatory words or phrases within quoted language.
The Slash or Virgule
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A slash or slant or solidus or virgule [ / ] is used to indicate a choice between the words it separates.
a. Using the pass/fail option backfired on her; she could've gotten an A.
The slash can be translated as “or” and should not be used where the word “or” could not be used in its place. To avoid gender problems with pronouns, some writers use he/she, his/her, and him/her. Many authorities despise that construction and urge writers either to pluralize when possible and appropriate (to they, their, them) or to use he or she, etc. instead. Notice there is no space between the slash and the letters on either side of it.
There is, however, a space when the slash is used to indicate a line-break in quoted poetry: "The woods are lovely, dark, and deep / but I have promises to keep." (This way of quoting poetry is limited to four or five lines of verse, within the normal flow of text.)
When using slashes in a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for a World Wide Web address (), be especially sure not to include spaces and not to confuse the slash with its backward cousin, \, used as a path separator in Windows (for example, c:\program files\Adobe).
The Dash
The dash is a handy device, informal and essentially playful, telling you that you're about to take off on a different track but still in some way connected with the present course — only you have to remember that the dash is there, and either put a second dash at the end of the notion to let the reader know that he is back on course, or else end the sentence, as here, with a period.
Use a dash [ — ] or dashes as a super-comma or set of super-commas to set off parenthetical elements, especially when those elements contain internal forms of punctuation:
a. All four of them—Saima, Samina, Salma, and Sadia—are doing well at the school.
Do not use dashes to set apart material when commas would do the same job in a better way. Usually, there are no spaces between the dash and the letters on either side of a dash.
In writing dialogue, the dash is used to show breaks in thought and shifts in tone:
I. "How many times have I asked you not to—" Jason suddenly stopped talking and looked out the window.
II. "Not to do what?" I prompted.
III. "Not to — Oh heck, I forget!"
A dash is sometimes used to set off concluding lists and explanations in a more informal and abrupt manner than the colon. We seldom see the dash used this way in formal, academic prose.
Modern word processors provide for two kinds of dashes: the regular dash or em dash (which is the same width as the letter "M," — ) and the en dash (which is about half the width, the same as the letter "N," – ). We use the em dash for most purposes and keep its smaller brother, the en dash, for marking the space between dates in a chronological range: "Kennedy's presidency (1961–1963) marked an extraordinary era. . . ."; in time: 6:30–8:45 p.m.; and between numbers and letters in an indexing scheme: table 13–C, CT Statute 144–A.
The en dash is also used to join compound modifiers made up of elements that are themselves either open compounds (frequently two-word proper nouns) or already hyphenated compounds: the Puerto Rican–United States collaboration, the New York–New Jersey border, post-Darwinian–pre-Freudian theorems. The Gregg Reference Manual and the Chicago Manual of Style both recommend using the en dash whenever a compound modifier is combined with a participle as in "a Frank Lloyd Wright–designed building," "a White House–backed proposal," and "a foreign exchanged–related issue." A string of modifiers in a single compound, though, is joined with hyphens: hilarious, never-to-be-forgotten moments. If you are using an old-fashioned typewriter that cannot create an en dash, you can denote to your typesetter or editor that a hyphen is to be converted to an en dash by using a hyphen and hand-writing the letter "n" above it.
Some reference manuals are urging editors and publishers to get rid of the en dash altogether and to use the em dash exclusively, but en and em are still handy words to know when you're trying to get rid of those extra e's at the end of a Scrabble game. Finally, we use what is called a 3-em dash (or six typewriter hyphens) when we're showing that someone's name or a word has been omitted (perhaps for legal reasons or issues of taste):
Professors ______ and ______ were suspended without pay for their refusal to grade papers.
The Hyphen
A hyphen is used to join the parts of a compound word. A hyphen "icon" embedded in some text — - — indicates either that a hyphen is called for at that point, or (if you have a hyphen there already) that the hyphen is not appropriate. We hope that this page will explain why.
Bottom of Form 1
The rules for hyphenating at line endings are so complicated that no one can be expected to keep track of them. If you're ever in a situation where you have to hyphenate at line-breaks, go to a dictionary—unless you can explain why you would break experience between the e and the r, that is, and then you can do whatever you want. Remember that if you adjust one line-break, that may well affect subsequent line-breaks in the text.[29]
Hyphens have other uses
1. creating compound words, particularly modifiers before nouns (the well-known actor, my six-year-old daughter, the out-of-date curriculum
2. writing numbers twenty-one to ninety-nine and fractions (five-eighths, one-fourth)
3. creating compounds on-the-fly for fly-by-night organizations
4. adding certain prefixes to words: When a prefix comes before a capitalized word or the prefix is capitalized, use a hyphen (non-English, A-frame, I-formation). The prefixes self-, all-, and ex- nearly always require a hyphen (ex-husband, all-inclusive, self-control), and when the prefix ends with the same letter that begins the word, you will often use a hyphen (anti-intellectual, de-emphasize), but not always (unnatural, coordinate, cooperate).[30]
There is no space between a hyphen and the character on either side of it.
Suspended Compounds
With a series of nearly identical compounds, we sometimes delay the final term of the final term until the last instance, allowing the hyphen to act as a kind of place holder, as in:
a) The third- and fourth-grade teachers met with the parents.
b) Both full- and part-time employees will get raises this year.
c) We don't see many 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children around here.
Capitalization
Capital Letters
Capitalization is an act of writing a word with a capital letter. English has a very general rule for capitalization that every sentence begins with a capital letter. There is no exception in this rule, and it is this area of English grammar where it appears no less than a science.
I. A penny saved is a penny earned.
II. People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
Moreover, a proper noun always begins with a capital letter.
A proper noun names a ‘specific person, place, or thing’. Proper nouns include names of the people, titles, eves, festivals, languages and nationalities, and the names of days and months (but not of seasons). For example:
|Common Nouns |Proper Nouns |
|woman |Saima |
|king |Julius Caesar |
|my uncle |Uncle Qamar |
|country president |President Musharraf |
|a new detergent |Ariel |
|my religious studies class |What Quran Says (book) |
|studying a language |German |
|month |June |
|holiday |Eid/Thanksgiving |
The personal pronoun “I” is always spelled as a capital letter.
a. When I think of traveling, I always plan to go to Lahore.
A capital letter begins the first, last, and any important word (except prepositions, conjunctions and articles) in the title of a book, magazine article, story, poem, movie, or other work.
a. Have you read President Musharraf's book, In the Line of Fire?
When quoting someone’s original words, such as sayings, poetic verses or even statements of ordinary humans, we almost always capitalize the initial letter of the first word falling inside the quotation marks.
a. Shakespeare says in Hamlet, “Frailty, thy name is woman.”
b. Ahmad had an offer for me as he yesterday proposed, “This is a very good salary; so will you join us in our new enterprise?”
c. It is Milton saying, “Awake arise or be for ever fallen.”
Stage 5
Linguistic Assistance
Diminutives
Diminutives are formed from certain nouns to express smallness, intimacy or contempt. Here is a list of commonly used diminutives.
|Word |Diminutive Form |Word |Diminutive Form |
|Ankle |Anklet |Lamb |Lambkin |
|Arm |Armlet |Lance |Lancet |
|Baron |Baronet |Leaf |Leaflet |
|Book |Booklet |Man |Manikin |
|Brook |Brooklet |Nest |Nesting |
|Bull |Bullock |Owl |Owlet |
|Cat |Kitten |Part |Particle |
|Crown |Coronet |Poet |Poetaster |
|Dame |Damsel |Ring |Ringlet |
|Dear |Darling |River |Rivulet |
|Duck |Duckling |Shade |Shadow |
|Eagle |Eaglet |Stream |Streamlet |
|Eye |Eyelet |Tower |Turret |
|Hill |Hillock |Cock |Chicken |
|Cigar |Cigarette |Circle |Circlet |
|Isle |Islet |Pouch |Pocket |
|Rose |Rosette |Song |Sonnet |
|Table |Tablet |Mouth |Muzzle |
|Nose |Nozzle |Sack |Satchel |
|Throat |Throttle |Thumb |Thimble |
|Goose |Gooseling |Nurse |Nurseling |
|Weak |Weakling |Grain |Granule |
|Bird |Birdie |Lass |Lassee |
|Puss |Pussy |Top |Tip |
Plurals
Adding “s” to the end of a singular noun generally forms plurals in English (e.g. boy, boys; girl, girls; book, books; cell, cells; letter, letters; cap, caps; person, persons; shirt, shirts; tree, trees and so on). However, some nouns have different endings than these regular plurals. All such singular nouns, apart from those Anglicized from other languages, are changed in plural forms in accordance with their respective endings. Let us have a categorical look on all such nouns below.
Nouns ending in “-s,-ch, -sh, -o, and -x” receive “-es” in their plural forms.
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Branch |Branches |Box |Boxes |Match |Matches |
|Brush |Brushes |Dish |Dishes |Mango |Mangoes |
|Buffalo |Buffaloes |Echo |Echoes |Negro |Negroes |
|Cargo |Cargoes |Hero |Heroes |Potato |Potatoes |
|Class |Classes |Kiss |Kisses |Tax |Taxes |
|Volcano |Volcanoes |Watch |Watches |Witch |Witches |
| |also Volcanos | | | | |
However some singular nouns ending in -o form regular plurals and receive only -s rather than -es in plural cases.
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Canto |Cantos |Commando |Commandos |Dynamo |Dynamos |
|Kilo |Kilos |Memento |Mementos |Photo |Photos |
|Piano |Pianos |Quarto |Quartos |Logo |Logos |
|Ratio |Ratios |Solo |Solos |Stereo |Stereos |
|Homo |Homos |Pro |Pros | | |
Nouns that end in –y and if this –y succeeds a consonant, plurals are formed in this situation by replacing –y with –ies. For instance:
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Army |Armies |City |Cities |Hobby |Hobbies |
|Baby |Babies |Lady |Ladies |Story |Stories |
Anglicized Greek Singulars-Plurals
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Axis |Axes |Basis |Bases |
|Analysis |Analyses |Crisis |Crises |
|Parenthesis |Parentheses |Phenomenon |Phenomena |
|Automaton |Automata |Polyhedron |Polyhedra |
|Stoma |Stomata |Schema |Schemata |
| |Stomas | |Schemas |
|Paralysis |Paralyses |Diagnosis |Diagnoses |
|Criterion |Criteria |Hypothesis |Hypotheses |
|Thesis |Theses |Stigma |Stigmata |
| | | |Stigmas |
|Dogma |Dogmata |-- |-- |
| |Dogmas | | |
Anglicized Latin Singulars-Plurals
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Alumna |Alumnae |Erratum |Errata |Formula |Formulae |
| | | | | |Formulas |
|Alumnus |Alumni | | | | |
|Index |Indices |Matrix |Matrices |Memorandum |Memoranda |
| | | |Matrixes | | |
|Vertex |Vertices |Radius |Radii |Terminus |Termini |
| | | | | |Terminuses |
|Agendum |Agenda |Addendum |Addenda |Datum |Data |
|Also Agenda |Agendas | | |Also Data |Data |
|Forum |Fora |Medium |Media |Millennium |Millennia |
| |Forums | |Mediums | | |
| | |Also Media |Medias | | |
|Syllabus |Syllabi |Viscous |Viscera |Corpus |Corpora |
|Fungus |Fungi |Cactus |Cacti |Octopus |Octopi |
| | | |Cactuses | |Octopuses |
|Focus |Foci |Genus |Genera |Corrigendum |Corrigenda |
|Alga |Algae |Appendix |Appendices |Spectrum |Spectra |
|Also Algae | | | | | |
Anglicized Hebrew Singulars-Plurals
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Cherub |Cherubim |El |Elohim |Seraph |Seraphim |
| |Cherubs | | | |Seraphs |
Anglicized French Singulars-Plurals
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Madame |Mesdames |Monsieur |Messieurs |Dame |Damsel |
|Madam | | | | | |
|Bureau |Bureaux |Beau |Beaux |Tableau |Tableaux |
| |Bureaus | |Beaus | |Tableaus |
|Chateau |Chateaux |-- |-- |-- |-- |
| |Chateaus | | | | |
Anglicized Italian Singulars-Plurals
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Bandit |Banditti |Signor |Signori |Signora |Signore |
| |Bandits |Also Signore | | | |
Compound Plurals
|Singular |Plurals |
|Commander in Chief (Commander-in-Chief) |Commanders in Chief (Commanders-in-Chief) |
|Coat-of-Mail |Coats-of-Mail |
|Son-in-Law |Sons-in-Law |
|Daughter-in-Law |Daughters-in-Law |
|Stepson |Stepsons |
|Stepdaughter |Stepdaughters |
|Stepbrother |Stepbrothers |
|Stepsister |Stepsisters |
|Passer-by (also Passerby) |Passers-by (Passersby) |
|Maidservant |Maidservants |
|Manservant |Menservants |
|Onlooker |Onlookers |
|Looker-on |Lookers-on |
|Man-of-War |Men-of-War |
|Man-of-Courage |Men-of-Courage |
|Friendly-fire |Friendly-fires |
|Governor-General |Governors-General |
|Court Martial |Courts Martial |
|Attorney-General |Attorneys-General |
|Woman-doctor |Women-doctors |
|Man-child |Men-children |
|Prime Minister |Prime Ministers |
|Major General |Major Generals |
|Lieutenant General |Lieutenant Generals |
|Head of State |Heads of States/Heads of State |
Irregular Plurals
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Brother |Brothers |Child |Children |Cloth |Clothes |
| |Brethren | | | |Cloths |
|Cow |Kine |Die |Dies |Egg |Eggys |
| |Cows | |Dice | |Eggs |
|Medium |Media |Ox |Oxen |Penny |Pennies |
| |Also Mediums | | | |Pence |
|Person |Persons |Sister |Sisters |Hose |Hosen |
| |People | |Sistren | |Hoses |
Ablaut or Mutated Plurals (Such plurals as are formed by the simple change of inner vowel(s) and vowel sound.)
|Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |Singular |Plural |
|Goose |Geese |Foot |Feet |Louse |Lice |
|Man |Men |Mouse |Mice |Tooth |Teeth |
| | | |(But: | | |
| | | |Computer Mouses) | | |
|Woman |Women |-- |-- |-- |-- |
Collective English Nouns Used As Plural
Alms, Annals, Assets, Bellows, Breeches, Cattle, Chattels, Drawers, Eaves, Environs, Gentry, Glasses, Jeans, Obsequies, Nuptials, Pants, People, Pincers, Poultry, Pajamas, Riches, Scissors, Shorts, Spectacles, Thanks, Tidings, Tights, Tongs, Trousers, Underwears, Vermin
Nouns Used Alike in Singular & Plural Cases
Aircraft, Bison, Cannon (also cannons), Cod, Deer, Dozen, Fishes, Gross, Hundred, Moose, News, Pair, Pike, Salmon, Score, Series, Sheep, Spacecraft, Species, Swine, Thousand, Trout
Nation-Nationalities
|Singular National |Plurals Nationals |Nation/Nationality |
|Englishman |The Englishmen |The English (England) |
|Englishwoman |The Englishwomen | |
|Dutchman |The Dutchmen |The Dutch (Holland) |
|Dutchwoman |The Dutchwomen | |
|Frenchman |The Frenchmen |The French (France) |
|Frenchwoman |The Frenchwomen | |
|Irishman |The Irishmen |The Irish (Ireland) |
|Irishwoman |The Irishwomen | |
|Scotsman |The Scotsmen |The Scots (Scotland) |
|Scotswoman |The Scotsmen | |
|Welshman |Welshmen |The Welsh (Wales) |
|Welshwoman |Welshwomen | |
|Dane |Danes |The Danes (Denmark) |
| | |The Danish |
|Norwegian |Norwegians |The Norwegians (Norway) |
|Spaniard |Spaniards |The Spaniards (Spain) |
| | |The Spanish |
|Fin |Fins |The Fins (Finland) |
| | |The Finnish |
|Swede |Swedes |The Swedes (Sweden) |
| | |The Swedish |
|Indian |Indians |The Indians (India) |
|Chinese |Chinese |The Chinese (China) |
|Japanese |Japanese |The Japanese (Japan) |
|Pakistani |Pakistanis |The Pakistanis (Pakistan) |
Synonyms
|Word |Synonym(s) |Word |Synonym(s) |
|(Verb) | |(Noun & Adjective) | |
|Abstain |Refrain, |Abject |Worthless, mean |
|Abandon |Desert, Leave, Forsake, |Abomination |Disgust, abhorrence |
| |Quit | | |
|Abjure |Forswear, recant |Abortive |Vain, useless, futile |
|Abolish |Nullify, annul, annihilate|Absurd |Stupid, foolish |
|Absolve |Pardon, forgive, exempt |Battle |War, Encounter |
|Admire |Praise, Appreciate |Character |Conduct |
|Abide |Bide, endure |Corpse |Carcass, dead body |
|Allow |Permit, Assent |Custom |Habit |
|Alter |Change, Transform |Crime |Vice, sin |
|Answer |Reply, Respond |House |Home |
|Appear |Seem, |Part |Portion, Share |
|Assist |Aid, Help |Price |Cost, value |
|Avenge |Revenge |Roof |Ceiling |
|Banish |Exile, Expel, Dismiss |Ancient |Olden, Old, Historical |
|Bring |Fetch |Addicted |Devoted |
|Defend |Protect |Beautiful |Handsome, Pretty, Lovely |
|Deny |Refuse |Big |Large, Great |
|Discover |Find, invent, detect, |Dead |Deceased, Lifeless |
| |disclose | | |
|Deceive |Cheat |Obstinate |Stubborn |
|Hear |Listen |Verbal |Oral |
|Look |See |Envious |Jealous |
|Regret |Sorry |Afraid |Timid, scared |
|Witness |See |Agony |Pain, affliction, torment, anguish|
|Alleviate |Mitigate, lessen, relieve,|Aim |Goal, object, intention, |
| |soften | |determination |
Animals, Their Children and Their Sounds
|Animal |Baby Animal |Sound |
|Bear |Cub |Growl |
|Boar, Pig, Swine, |Porkling |Grunt |
|Cat |Kitten |Mew, Purr |
|Cow, Ox |Calf |Low, Bellow |
|Buffalo |Calf |Low, Bellow |
|Deer |Fawn | |
|Dog |Puppy |Bark, Howl, Yelp |
|Duck |Duckling |Quack |
|Eagle |Eaglet |Scream |
|Elephant |Baby Elephant |Squeal, Trumpet |
|Fox |Cub |Bark, Yelp |
|Frog, Toad |Tadpole |Croak |
|Goat |Kid |Bleat |
|Goose |Gosling |Gaggle |
|Hare |Leveret | |
|Hen |Chicken |Cackle |
|Horse |Colt, Foal |Neigh |
|Lion |Whelt |Roar |
|Sheep |Lamb |Bleat |
|Swan |Cygint | |
|Tiger |Cub |Roar |
|Wolf |Cub |Howl, Yell |
300 Most Common Pitfalls in Pakistani Use of English
|Incorrect |Correct |
|1. Open this book on page 100. |Open this book at page 100. |
|2. He was born in nineteen hundreds fifty-two. |He was born in nineteen hundred fifty-two. |
|3. He does not know wrong from right. |He does not know right from wrong. |
|4. The English is difficult to learn. |English is difficult to learn. |
| |The English language is difficult to learn. |
|5. Bible is a sacred book of Christians. |The Bible is a sacred book of Christians. |
|Quran is a sacred book of Muslims. |The Quran is a sacred book of Muslims. |
|6. His father gave him many advices. |His father gave him many pieces of advice. |
| |His father gave him much advice. |
|7. That book gives us many informations about |That book gives us much information about Shahab-ud-Din|
|Shahab-ud-Din Ghauri. |Ghauri. ` |
|8. The furnitures of this house are not very costly. |The furniture of this house is not very costly. |
|9. He is one of the best poet this country has ever |He is one of the best poets this country has ever |
|produced. |produced. |
|10. He prefers to write with blue ink. |He prefers to write in blue ink. |
|11. Where you spent your last summer vacations. |Where did you spend your last summer vacation? |
|12. The hen has lain eight eggs. |The hen has laid eight eggs. |
|13. She enjoys very bad health. |She has very bad health. |
|14. He never said anything of the kind. |He said nothing of the kind. |
|15. I should be glad if you will come in the evening. |I should be glad if you would come in the evening. |
|16. I am the one who am to blame. |I am the one who is to blame. |
|17. At his sight, I trembled with fear. |At the sight of him, I trembled with fear. |
|18. We should pray God everyday. |We should pray to God everyday. |
|19. The subject of her essay is about Politeness. |The subject of her essay is “Politeness”. |
|20. As I am ill, so I will not be able to attend college|As I am ill, I will not be able to attend college |
|today. |today. |
|21. I do not know who are you. |I do not know who you are. |
|22. So quickly we walked that we reached the school in |So quickly did we walk that we reached the school in |
|time. |time. |
|23. I neither met Ahmad or his father. |I met neither Ahmad nor his father. |
|24. Greek is not only difficult to read, but also to |Greek is difficult not only to read, but also to write.|
|write. | |
|25. I did not intend to punish the boy, but only to |I intended not to punish the boy, but only to prevent |
|prevent further offence. |further offence. |
|26. He says that his mother is sick. |He says that his mother is ill. |
|27. Please see my certificates. |Please look at my certificates. |
|28. He meditates upon revenge. |He meditates revenge. |
|29. He has no influence upon the king. |He has no influence over the king. |
|30. It is half past five in my watch. |It is half past five by my watch. |
|31. He is true to his words. |He is true to his word. |
|32. The magistrate passed order for his acquittal. |The magistrate passed orders for his acquittal. |
|33. His family members have gone to Murree. |The members of his family have gone to Murree. |
|34. The examination begins from Monday. |The examination begins on Monday. |
|34. Health is more preferable than riches. |Health is preferable to riches. |
|36. His claim is prior than yours. |His claim is prior to yours. |
|37. He is the most happiest man on the earth. |He is the happiest man on the earth. |
|38. The elephant is larger than any animal. |The elephant is larger than any other animal. |
|39. Solomon was wiser than any king. |Solomon was wiser than any other king. |
|40. No boy in the class is so intelligent as Ahmad. |No other boy in the class is so intelligent as Ahmad. |
|41. He is the worthiest and sympathetic man in the town.|He is the worthiest and the most sympathetic man in the|
| |town. |
|42. Hassan has been suffering from fever from Friday. |Hassan has been suffering from fever since Friday. |
|43. He has been absent since ten days. |He has been absent for ten days. |
|44. I have not seen Ahmad since a long time. |I have not seen Ahmad for a long time. |
|45. My brother died since a fortnight. |My brother died a fortnight since/ago. |
|46. I will not be here before two months. |I will not be here for two months. |
|47. You must finish this work before two hours. |You must finish this work within two hours. |
|48. I expect a letter from her after a week. |I expect a letter from her in a week. |
|49. I received his letter long before. |I received his letter long ago. |
|50. The train will arrive just now. |The train will arrive presently. |
|51. Every flower and every leaf proclaim the glory of |Every flower and every leaf proclaims the glory of |
|the Almighty. |Almighty. |
|52. The sum and substance of his speech are as follow. |The sum and substance of his speech is as follows. |
|53. I received his letter long before. |I received his letter long ago. |
|54. The bus will arrive just now. |The bus will arrive presently. |
|55. Character, and not riches, win us respect. |Character, and not riches, wins us respect. |
|56. Every flower and every leaf proclaim the glory of |Every flower and every leaf proclaims the glory of God.|
|God. | |
|57. The sum and substance of his speech are as follow. |The sum and substance of his is as follows. |
|58. Sixty rupees are not a large sum for this toy. |Sixty rupees is not a large sum for this toy. |
|59. Principles of Physics are a good book. |Principles of Physics is a good book. |
|60. The majority was present at the meeting. |The majority were present at the meeting. |
|61. None but those having some teaching experience needs|None but those having some teaching experience need |
|apply. |apply. |
|62. It were the girls that defied their teacher’s |It was the girls that defied their teacher’s orders. |
|orders. | |
|63. Everyone should be careful of one’s health. |Everyone should be careful of his health. |
|64. Neither the students nor the teacher was there. |Neither the teacher nor the students were there. |
|65. Walking along the Mall Road, his head dashed against|As he was walking along the Mall Road, his head dashed |
|a lamppost. |against the lamppost. |
| |While he was walking along the Mall Road, his head |
| |dashed against the lamppost. |
|66. Being a fine day, they went to the lake to enjoy a |It being a fine day, they went to the lake to enjoy a |
|picnic. |picnic. |
| |As it was a fine day, they went to the lake to enjoy a |
| |picnic. |
|67. Failing in the first attempt, no second attempt was |Failing in the first attempt, he made no second |
|made. |attempt. |
|68. He has an urgent business at home. |He has an urgent piece of business at home. |
|69. He has many businesses today. |He has much business today. |
|70. There was no temple there but I visited. |There was no temple there that I did not visit. |
|71. He as well as I am wrong. |He is wrong as well as I. |
|72. We have come here to take your leave. |We have come here to take leave for you. |
|73. I cannot endure her separation. |I cannot endure separation from her. |
|74. Do you know who are you referring to? |Do you know whom you are referring? |
|75. You should follow their advice who are superior to |You should follow the advice of those who are superior |
|you in intellect. |to you in intellect. |
|76. He dares not speak against me. |He dares not to speak against me. |
|77. I was greatly wondered at what met my eyes. |I was greatly astonished at what met my eyes. |
|78. I admitted my brother to the G.C. College. |I got my brother admitted to the G.C. College. |
|79. He took admission into Bab-ul-Ilm Public School. |He was admitted to Bab-ul-Ilm Public School. |
|80. He did nothing but sang. |He did nothing but sing. |
|81. I am feeling feverish. |I feel feverish. |
|82. I intend to inform his misbehavior to his father. |I intend to his father of his misbehavior. |
|83. Please pardon me for giving you this trouble. |Please pardon me for the trouble I am giving you. |
| |Please excuse me for the trouble I am putting you to. |
|84. Many kinds of fruits grow in Balochistan, such as |Many kinds of fruit, such as apples, palms, and |
|apples, palms, apricots etc. |apricots, grow in Balochistan. |
|85. With regard my conduct, I beg to submit as follows. |With regard to my conduct, I beg to submit as follows. |
| |As regards my conduct, I beg to submit as follows. |
|86. He told these news to his mother. |He told his mother this news. |
|87. He packed his luggages. |He packed his luggage. |
|88. She provided the blinds with food and clothes. |She provided the blind with food and clothes. |
|89. The poors of our city are starving. |The poor of our city are starving. |
|90. Scouts wear half pants. |Scouts wear shorts. |
|91. There is no place in his compartment. |There is no room in his compartment. |
| |There is no space in his compartment. |
|92. Ahmad hit an over boundary. |Ahmad hit a six. |
|93. We saw a joker at the circus. |We saw a clown at the circus. |
|94. We had a good play of cricket. |We had a good game of cricket. |
|95. I saw a theater last night. |I saw a play last night. |
| |I saw theater last night. |
|96. Won’t you like to take part in drama? |Won’t you like to act? |
| |Won’t you like to act in drama? |
|97. He is a tall gentleman. |He is a tall man. |
|98. These females have come here to talk to you. |These women have come here to talk to you. |
|99. He got a bad companionship. |He got into bad company. |
|100. Here is my cup please fill. |Here is my cup; please fill it. |
|101. I asked for my book, but he did not give me. |I asked for my book, but he did not give it to me. |
|102. The boy who stands first he will get a prize. |The boy who stands first will get a prize. |
|103. I with some friends went for a walk. |I went for a walk with some friends. |
|104. The teacher tested the boy if he could speak |The teacher tested if the boy could speak English. |
|English. | |
|105. Ahsan is elder than me. |Ahsan is older than I. |
|106. He will spend his remaining life here. |He will spend the rest of his life here. |
|107. That is a worth seeing building. |That is a building worth seeing. |
|108. He got nearly cent percent marks. |He got nearly full marks. |
|109. She got an employment in the National Bank. |She got employment in the National Bank. |
|110. You should make noise. |You should not make a noise. |
|111. What a fun! |What fun! |
|112. I do not care for you. |I do not care what you do. |
|113. He does not care for his money. |He does not take care of his money. |
|114. He got angry before I said a word. |He got angry before I had said a word. |
|115. If I would have worked hard, I would have passed. |If I had worked hard, I would have passed. |
|116. I left playing. |I stopped playing. |
|I have left playing. |I have stopped playing. |
|117. I take my food. |I have my food. |
|118. I want that I should get leave. |I want to get leave. |
|119. I like to play hockey. |I want to play hockey. |
| |I would like to play hockey. |
|120. He is troubling me. |He is giving me trouble. |
|121. He gave a speech. |He made a speech. |
| |He delivered a speech. |
|122. She would not hear me. |She would not listen to me. |
|123. I cannot pull on with my work. |I cannot manage my work. |
|124. He has ordered for a new racquet. |He has ordered a new racquet. |
|125. Open the light. |Turn on the light. |
|126. Shut the light. |Turn off the light. |
|127. He was very kind enough to comply with my request. |He was kind enough to comply with my request. |
|128. He behaved cowardly. |He behaved in a cowardly manner. |
| |He behaved like a coward. |
|129. If he works hard, then he will pass. |If he works hard, he will pass. |
|130. Because he is clever, therefore he gets good marks.|Because he is clever, he gets good marks. |
|131. He is ill since three months. |He has been ill for three months. |
|132. I will explain him this. |I will explain this to him. |
|133. Send this letter on my address. |Send this letter to my address. |
|134. He suggested me this. |He suggested this to me. |
|135. He goes in the school. |He goes to the school. |
|136. We always go to picnic. |We always go on picnic. |
|137. He was favorite to his friends. |He was favorite with his friends. |
|138. I did not ask any question to him. |I did not ask him any question. |
|139. The match starts from four o’clock. |The match starts at four o’clock. |
|140. He rides on a car. |He rides in a car. |
|141. Ahmad bought five dozens eggs. |Ahmad bought five dozen eggs. |
|142. Muslims recite Glorious Quran every Morning. |The Muslims recite the Glorious Quran every morning. |
|143. Do not speak a lie. |Do not tell a lie. |
|144. Look ‘research’ in the dictionary. |Look up ‘research’ in the dictionary. |
|145. They are anxious to visit Swat. |They are eager to visit Swat. |
|146. Please answer my letter immediately. |Please reply my letter immediately. |
|147. Ahmad’s confidential report is full of averse |Ahmad’s confidential report is full of adverse remarks.|
|remarks. | |
|148. He is well beware that his friend is cunning. |He is well aware that his friend is cunning. |
|149. King Akbar had many childish habits. |King Akbar had many child-like habits. |
|150. Convey my complements to your siblings. |Convey my compliments to your siblings. |
|151. In fact, my signature on the check bear difference.|In fact, my signature on the cheque bear difference. |
|152. The final rites of his diseased father were |The final rites of his deceased father were performed |
|performed today. |today. |
|153. Columbus explored America in 15th century. |Columbus discovered America in 15th century. |
|154. I know my writing is eligible. |I know my writing is illegible. |
|155. We added farther into the amount. |We added further into the amount. |
|156. The convict will be hung today. |The convict will be hanged today. |
|157. He, as a serial-killer, earned a great fame. |He, as a serial-killer, earned a great notoriety. |
|158. Everyone knows that Aslam is a man of principals. |Everyone knows that Aslam is a man of principles. |
|159. Morning walk is beneficent to health. |Morning walk is beneficial to health. |
|160. Zaheer sells diary products. |Zaheer sells dairy products. |
|161. He seems to be conscientious of his faults. |He seems to be conscious of his faults. |
|162. Samina has a very noisy voice. |Samina has a very loud voice. |
|163. Hey, it’s harmful to lean out of the train. |Hey, it’s dangerous to lean out of the train. |
|164. My teacher asked why I am late. |My teacher asked why I was late. |
|165. He and I am going to visit Lahore together. |He and I are going to visit Lahore together. |
|166. All of the money I had were spent. |All of the money I had was spent. |
|167. Slow and steady win the race. |Slow and steady wins the race. |
|168. Neither Ahmad nor his sister like apples. |Neither Ahmad nor his sister likes apples. |
|169. Politics are my main area of interest. |Politics is my main area of interest. |
|170. The sceneries of Kalaam are amazing. |The scenery of Kalaam is amazing. |
|171. Ahmad was wearing a trouser when playing. |Ahmad was wearing a pair of trousers when playing. Or |
| |Ahmad was wearing trousers when playing. |
|172. Can you give me your scissor? |Can you give me your scissors? Or |
| |Can you give me your pair of scissors? |
|173. It is strange that Salma has stopped her study. |It is strange that Salma has stopped her studies. |
|174. The United Nations have become American puppet. |The United Nations has become American puppet. |
|175. I will go nowhere in these December vacations. |I will go nowhere in these December vacation. |
|176. The locker’s door needs to be fixed. |The door of locker needs to be fixed. |
|177. That book’s price is out of my reach. |The price of that book is out of my reach. |
|178. Hi there, it’s me (it is me). |Hi there, it’s I (it is I). |
|179. Let you and I have some tea together. |Let us have some tea together. |
|180. Every teacher and every student should earn a good |Every teacher and every student should earn a good name|
|name for their college. |for his college. |
|181. One must not forget his responsibilities. |One must not forget one’s responsibilities. |
|182. Neither of the three girls have arrived. |None of the three girls has arrived. |
|183. None of the two students visit our shop regularly. |Neither of the two students visits our shop regularly. |
|184. Everybody/Everyone who see you respect you. |Everybody/Everyone who sees you respects you. |
|185. Neither of the sisters got what they expected. |Neither of the sisters got what she expected. |
|186. I am, your sincerely. Or |I am, yours sincerely. |
|I am, your’s sincerely. | |
|187. Either Ahmad or Aslam go there daily. |Either Ahmad or Aslam goes there daily. |
|188. Your shoes are like Faisal. |Your shoes are like Faisal’s. |
|189. Our institute is one the best institutue of the |Our institute is one of the best institutes of the |
|city. |city. |
|190. Ahmad is elder that I. |Ahmad is elder to me. |
|191. Salma is older than me. |Salma is older than I. |
|192. Ahmad and Hassan are kind to one another. |Ahmad and Hassan are kind to each other. |
|193. A several boys and girls visited the park. |Several boys and girls visited the park. |
|194. He did not give me some money. |He did not give me any money. |
|195. He advanced foolishly arguments. |He advanced foolish arguments. or |
| |He advanced arguments foolishly. |
|196. In fact, any members were present at the meeting. |In fact, some members were present at the meeting. |
|197. Many a students are intelligent. |Many a student is industrious. |
|198. There are no less than one dozen bananas in the |There are no fewer than one dozen bananas in the |
|basket. |basket. |
|199. I am quite good, and how about you? |I am quite well, and how about you? |
|200. I want little sugar please. |I want some sugar please. |
|201. Little knowledge is dangerous. |A little knowledge is dangerous. |
|202. I don’t want to buy something. |I don’t want to buy anything. |
|203. All is good that ends good. |All is well that ends well. |
|204. Good begun is half done. |Well begun is half done. |
|205. She was a woman in thousand. |She was a woman in a thousand. |
|206. Boy you wanted to see was there. |The boy you wanted to see was there. |
|207. Nazim inaugurated the Spring Festival. |The Nazim inaugurated the Spring Festival. |
|208. Himalayas means a home of snow. |The Himalayas mans a home of snow. |
|209. Indus is the longest river in Pakistan. |The Indus is the longest river in Pakistan. |
|210. She still has lot of work to do. |She still has a lot of work to do. |
|211. Ahmad is seeking employment. |Ahmad is seeking an employment. |
|212. He is a honest person. |He is an honest person. |
|213. English live in England. |The English live in England. |
|214. “What Quran Says” is best book available in market.|“What Quran Says” is the best book available in market.|
|215. More you study better you achieve. |The more you study the better you achieve. |
|216. The man is a social animal. |Man is a social animal. |
|217. The gold is a precious metal. |Gold is a precious metal. |
|218. Rich should help poor. |The rich should help the poor. |
|219. Always speak truth. |Always speak the truth. |
|220. The Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan. |Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan. |
|221. The both brothers were good football players. |Both brothers were good football players. |
|222. Elizabeth second is the current queen of England. |Elizabeth the second is the current queen of England. |
|223. Do you have a 100 rupees note? |Do you have a 100 rupee note? |
|224. Tradition of Besakhi Festival in Punjab is very |The tradition of Besakhi Festival in Punjab is very |
|old. |old. |
|225. Can you please send me Rs. 1000 in money order? |Can you please send me Rs. 1000 by money order? |
|226. I hope that you are hail and harty. |I hope that you are hale and hearty. |
|227. Ahmad and Salma are the best pair I have ever met. |Ahmad and Salma are the best couple I have ever met. |
|228. With reference your letter, I want to inform you |With reference to your letter, I want to inform you |
|that… |that… |
|229. Promotion always demands hardworking. |Promotion always demands hard work. |
|230. Your hairs have grown white. |Your hair has grown white. |
|231. Mathematics/physics/ethics are excellently taught |Mathematics/physics/ethics is excellently taught in |
|in this institute. |this institute. |
|232. Ahmad’s weight is 62 kilos. |Ahmad’s weight is 62 kilo. |
|233. He has bought a new underwear. |He has bought a new pair of underwears. |
|234. Measle has broken out in the village. (or) |Measles have broken out in the village. |
|Measles has broken out in the village. | |
|235. I and she are friends. (or) |She and I are friends. |
|I and he are friends. |He and I are friends. |
|236. Every soldier and every policeman should fight for |Every soldier and every policeman should fight for his |
|their country. |country. |
|237. Naila is my older sister. |Naila is my elder sister. |
|238. In fact, he never has no money to buy us something.|In fact, he never has any money to buy us something. |
|239. Of these two roads leading to the city, the right |Of these two roads leading to the city, the right one |
|one is the shortest. |is shorter. |
|240. She is M.A. in philosophy. |She is an M.A. in philosophy. |
Stage 6
COMPOSITION
PARAPHRASING
ENGLISH DERIVES THE TERM PARAPHRASE VIA LATIN PARAPHRASIS FROM THE GREEK WORDS PARA PHRASEIN, MEAING “ADDITIONAL MANNER OF EXPRESSION”. PARAPHRASING, ACCORDING TO OXFORD DICTIONARY, MEANS “EXPRESSING WHAT SOMEBODY HAS SAID OR WRITTEN USING DIFFERENT WORDS, ESPECIALLY IN ORDER TO MAKE IT EASIER TO UNDERSTAND.” PARA IN THE GREEK LANGUAGE MEANS “BEYOND” OR “ADDITIONAL”. PHRASE MEANS “TO TELL OR SAY SOMETHING IN A PARTICULAR WAY”. HOWEVER, WHEN PARA OCCURS WITH PHRASE TO MAKE A COMPOUND AS PARAPHRASE, IT MEANS “SAYING SOMETHING USING A PARTICULAR WAY”, OR AS WREN AND MARTIN PUT IT, SAYING, “EQUIVALENT SENTENCE”.[31] PARAPHRASING IS ALSO CALLED PARAPHRASIS, A NAME GIVEN AFTER ITS LATIN DERIVATIVE.[32] IN OUR PAKISTANI USE OF ENGLISH, WE ALMOST ALWAYS USE THE WORD “EXPLANATION” INSTEAD OF “PARAPHRASING” TO REFER TO THE ISSUE UNDER CONSIDERATION. EXPLANATION, IN FACT, FORMS ONLY ONE ASPECT OF THE PARAPHRASING.
In the world of grammar, the question is, what can be the objectives of this grammatical device of paraphrasing? A noted grammarian puts it in this way; “What is aimed at in a paraphrase is a free rendering of the sense of the passage in order to secure greater clearness and simplicity. To paraphrase a passage is to express its meaning in a language different from that of the original.”[33] In other words, the language of what is paraphrased is replaced with a new—peculiarly writer’s own—diction, but the content as well as theme undergoes no change whatsoever. Thus, paraphrasing seems to have gained popularity as the mode of the restatement of ideas, facts, and information of a certain statement/literary piece in a different, somewhat relaxed and simplified language. However, what is important to mind while practicing paraphrasing is that one is not supposed to ‘convert good English into bad’. It is strange that this usually happens in our country. In majority of the cases, the actual writing and the paraphrase of the students stand poles apart.
When in a study of grammar, a question pops up that: what can be the objectives of this grammatical device of paraphrasing? A noted grammarian puts it in this way; “What is aimed at in a paraphrase is a free rendering of the sense of the passage in order to secure greater clearness and simplicity. To paraphrase a passage is to express its meaning in a language different from that of the original.”[34] In other words, the language of what is paraphrased is replaced with a new—peculiarly the subsequent writer’s own—diction, but the contents as well as theme undergoes no change whatsoever. Thus, paraphrasing seems to have gained popularity as the mode of the restatement of ideas, facts, and information of a certain statement/literary piece in a different, somewhat relaxed and simplified language. However, what is important to mind while practicing paraphrasing is that one is not supposed to ‘convert good English into bad’. It is strange that this usually happens in our country. In majority of the cases, the actual writing and the paraphrase of the students stand poles apart.
Benefits of Paraphrasing
In addition to have a ‘purpose’, paraphrasing must be an ‘end’ in itself in order to prove its raison d’étre. A paraphrase is made for two primary reasons, (i) to someone understand a certain statement or piece of writing that he had not heard or read, and (ii) to prove that we have completely comprehended the meaning of the statement or piece of writing and our understanding is capable enough to restate it. Paraphrase can help Pakistani students in many ways in the process of understanding English. Paraphrasing is, for instance, a very good practice to judge one’s ability of understanding what one reads. One masters translation if one is good at paraphrasing. Since reading is always at the back of learning, it is a perfect way to get a good much of acquaintance with English vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. Similarly, paraphrasing improves one’s expression, for it trains one to focus one’s mind on reading, translating, reproducing and writing. One’s ability of expressing becomes clearer and superior as one gets along with the art of paraphrasing.
Paraphrasing is undoubtedly a valuable means of explanation. The art of explanation finds its perfection in the art of paraphrasing. Paraphrasing has, per se, all the properties of a good piece of literary writing, and thus it is capable of transmitting the message of even an obscure poetry. Paraphrase is, in fact, a combination of several literary devices and qualities that are generally disjoint. Per our opinion, the best quality that is manifest in paraphrasing is the superior art of translation. It is one’s expertise of translation that makes a good paraphrase. However, this is not an inter-lingual translation, but a translation that can be spoken of as ‘intra-lingual’. It may appear to some a very difficult task, which it is indeed, but the good news about such a practice is that a successful paraphrase is a very worthwhile task.
Paraphrasing may well be distinguished in two ways, i.e. the paraphrase of poetry and the paraphrase of prose. Our primary concern lies with the paraphrase of poetry. Both types are almost similar in many areas. However, the paraphrase of poetry is somewhat lengthy, explanatory and different in word order as compared to the paraphrase of prose. Poetry has, in its entirety, a diction of its own. Some expressions and constructions are peculiar to poetry, which can in no way find place with prose. Therefore, any paraphrasing of a piece of poetry cannot become a simplified illustration of a pithy expression, a lucid saying or a maxim. It is, rather, a change of form as well as diction. In this process, it is quite inescapable to omit a few qualities of the verse for the simple reason that they cannot reappear in the prose. What must be given consideration in such a situation is to find and employ appropriate equivalents of the words, phrases and expressions omitted. On the other hand, a ‘compressed statement’ or a ‘proverb’ is much easier to tackle in paraphrasis. Its diction does not slip away as does that of poetry, and what one is required to do is only to retain the ideas and replace the words. Such a paraphrasis of prose should be, at least, double the size of the original statement or writing.
A Good Paraphrase
A good paraphrase should necessarily have these qualities:
1. Correct Translation
2. Simplicity and Clearness
3. Relevance
4. Expansion and Explanation
5. Completeness and Wholeness
1. Correct Translation
Paraphrase is, in one way or another, a piece of translation. The better the translation, the more impressive the paraphrase. However, paraphrase is not a translation of a language into another, as stated above, but a translation of the words and ideas of the original writer into the words (only words) of the paraphrasing writer. No new ideas can be introduced or some of the original omitted—as to make a pick and choose work. It is only the words, constructions and expressions that are to be altered in entirety. To get everything accomplished in a satisfactory way, it is important that this ‘intra-lingual’ translation is correct. The case with Pakistani students may, nevertheless, be different, for they need in most of the cases to translate a piece of writing into Urdu (or their native language) first, and it is only after that primary translation that they retranslate the whole translated thing back into the original language. Hence, the process invites complexities.
2. Simplicity and Clearness
As the final verdict on English, Oxford Dictionary, declares paraphrasing an art of “expressing what somebody has said or written using different words, especially in order to make it easier to understand”, the wisest thing to do is to follow this line as a rule. Nowhere can a simple and clear language benefit more than it does in paraphrasing. The chief goal of the art of paraphrasing is the ‘simpler’ and ‘clearer’ exposition of something originally said or written in less a simple way. If a paraphrase lacks this quality, that is only a ‘bad’ paraphrase—or no paraphrase at all.
3. Relevance
Relevance can be listed amongst the most desired qualities while attempting a paraphrasis. Beyond doubt, a paraphrase should be relevant—that is to say in our academic language ‘to the point’. Since paraphrasing is the process of the transformation of one diction into another, the process itself gets compelled to minimize the possibility of irrelevance. After a correct translation, it is the merit of relevance that has the central role to play.
4. Expansion and Explanation
Although expansion being a completely different art, it is intertwined with explanation in the art of paraphrasing. One must not forget that the fundamental function of paraphrasis is to interpret something using a simple language. This is impossible until one gets into some degree of expansion. It is certainly not possible to exhaust the subject without expanding the issue as to achieve the degree of a reasonable explanation. Therefore, one should perceive of paraphrasing as an act of interpreting a statement or piece of writing that introduces new words and phrases without a limit. The length may be the choice of the interpreter, for there is no rule regarding a standard length of the paraphrase.
5. Completeness and Wholeness
A paraphrase is a reproduction of the original statement or piece of writing as a whole. It represents in complete the facts, information and details of the original piece of writing. Nothing of the original writing is skipped or left without being addressed. In this case, it is neither a summary nor a calculation of every line and every idea of the original writing; it actually means a restatement of an originally terse statement or a piece of poetry in a somewhat easy language covering everything of the original. Nothing of this is broken apart, nor is everything summarized in the ordinary sense. Completeness means that the paraphrasis should be complete in every respect, whereas wholeness means that everything should be discussed, at a broader scale, as a whole.
Test of Paraphrase
When doing the criticism of a paraphrase, we have a test to evaluate the merits and demerits of a paraphrase. In this process, we will check:
a. If a paraphrase has all the ideas of the original statement or piece of writing.
b. If there is no addition of any new ideas.
c. If the words and constructions are not difficult—since difficulty of language goes against the spirit of paraphrasing.
d. If the paraphrase makes complete sense even to an ordinary reader, i.e. an inexpert.
e. If the paraphrase is not affected by the diction and vocabulary of the original statement or piece of writing.
f. If it does not pull away from the spirit of the original, i.e. it has been made sure that the standard of the original text and the paraphrase match.
If a paraphrase clears this test, it is marked as “successful paraphrase”. In case any of the above stated principles have been ignored—or even compromised—such a paraphrase will be ranked among “poor attempts”.
Paraphrase (1)
“No time to turn at Beauty’s glance,
And watch her feet how they can dance,
No time to wait till her mouth can,
Enrich that smile her eyes began.”
(William Henry Davies, Leisure)
Theme:
Humankind is facing an extreme lack of time in the present mechanical age. Metaphorically speaking, human beings have become machines, busy and bound within a roundabout cycle of time. Our 24-hour cycle seems to have become much shorter than the lag our busy life desires. The beauty of Nature that finds itself manifest in every object of the world stands beyond the reach of our eyesight. There is a curtain between us and the Nature that veils everything before our eyes and we are, in spite of having the power of seeing, unable to witness what aesthetic heights are culminated in the rhythmic dance of the goddess of Beauty.
Paraphrase (2)
“O you detained in the glamour of present civilization, listen:
Uncertainty of Faith is worse than bondage.”
(Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Bāng-e-Darā)
THEME: THE WORST OF THE TIMES IS THE STATE OF BEING UNCERTAIN, WHICH IS ACCREDITED EVEN LOWER THAN SLAVERY.
PARAPHRASE (3)
“IN THE SWEAT OF THY FACE SHALT THOU EAT BREAD,
TILL THOU RETURN UNTO THE GROUND;
FOR OUT OF IT WAST THOU TAKEN:
FOR DUST THOU ART, AND UNTO DUST SHALT THOU RETURN.”
(HOLY BIBLE, BOOK OF GENESIS 3:19)
THEME:
ESSAY WRITING
“LITERARY COMPOSITION IS THE ART OF EXPRESSING THOUGHT OR FEELING EFFECTIVELY BY WORDS”, SAYS A MODERN GRAMMARIAN. THE WORD “ESSAY”, WHEN FUNCTIONING AS VERB, MEANS “TO ATTEMPT OR STRIVE”; HOWEVER, IN LITERATURE ESSAY STANDS FOR “A LITERARY COMPOSITION ON ANY SUBJECT.” ESSAY IS A MEDIUM OF COMPOSITION THAT HAS BECOME A STANDARD STYLE, ESPECIALLY IN ACADEMICS, OF NON-FICTIONAL WRITING. TODAY, FROM SCHOLARLY OPINIONS TO NEWSPAPER COLUMNS, FROM COMPOSITIONS GIVING INFORMATION TO NARRATIVE DETAILS, ALMOST EVERY NON-FICTIONAL PIECE OF WRITING FALLS INTO THE CATEGORY OF ESSAY. SOME FAMOUS ESSAYS IN ENGLISH ARE THOSE WRITTEN BY SIR FRANCIS BACON AND LORD MCCAULEY, WHEREOF THE FORMER’S ESSAYS ARE COMPRESSED AND ELOQUENT AND THE LATTER’S ARE VERBOSE AND LENGTHY. WE WILL ADD BELOW A SPECIMEN ESSAY BY FRANCIS BACON TO LET OUR READERS HAVE A MOST INSPIRING INSIGHT INTO THE PITHY AND ELOQUENT COMPOSITION OF ESSAY.
In the current instance, we are going to deal with the academic essay exclusively—the one that students are required to commit to writing while taking post-matriculation examinations.
Structure
An essay must be balanced and relevant to the subject. If outlines are a requirement asked by the examiner, make up your mind to follow a sequence of things and commit this sequence on the paper in an indented or numbered way. Outlines serve as the skeleton of the body of text, without which, no essay can be congruous or concise. If the outlines are not demanded, still spend some time to make a mental sketch of what you are going to write and then divide your subject into different sections. Now these sections will function as your outlines, for each of them will represent at least one organic part of the composition. An outline does not mean to write something as a heading in the paper, but it stands for a guiding idea that knits one after another all-important features of the essay. An essay should, according to an expert, “begin with the most recent general survey of the topic” covering and including in the essay the latest research on the topic.[35]
To begin the essay in a reasonable way, do not get into the detailed discussion on the subject straightaway; rather insert a small introductory paragraph to the subject at first. Use small sentences at this stage to avoid syntactic lapses. Moreover, the employing of subject-definition from some standard dictionaries, such as Oxford Dictionary or Webster Dictionary, would be a great device to leave a healthy impression. Similarly, scholarly quotations would be appreciated as well.
A good essay will essentially possess the characteristics described immediately below:
a. Organic unity
b. Sequential order
c. Brevity and eloquence
d. Impersonal touch (unless asked for your own opinion)
e. An argumentative & summarizing conclusion
Language & Syntax
Language should be neither too easy nor too complex. Simple, understandable language with few mistakes is far-better than sophisticated language with quite a few mistakes. Errors of syntax have extremely negative effect on the reader; therefore, it is strongly suggested to avoid syntax mistakes as much as possible. For essay writing, a good understanding of tenses (active & passive voices) is inevitable. A mind teemed with ideas is unable to pen down those ideas until it has the power of language. This language-factor further demands smart selection of words and a good understanding of their use.
OUTLINES
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines ‘outline’ as “a description of the main facts or points involved in something.” The use of ‘outlines’ in essay-writing is a very effective technique to organize our disorderly thoughts and focus on the subject. This is simply to make sure that we do not make any mistakes while committing our thoughts to writing. Well-structured and balanced outlines are an end in themselves in addition to a purpose, for well-structured outlines make it far easy and simple to organize all the text putting ideas in a sequence and write the essay. This balancing and structuring of outlines help us move ‘point to point’ and ‘step to step’ with great ease, which, in turn, creates a ‘naturalness’ in the flow of the essay. In the smooth flow of the essay, thereby, pops up what is called the “punch line” leading forth to the conclusion.
Outlines can be written in two ways. We can either use complete sentences containing finite verb or write outlines in a “heading” style. I prefer the heading style, and it is this style that has been employed in this book. Giving complete sentences or headings as outlines under traditional 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 outline-markers or excluding these markers make no real difference. However, what is important at this stage is the organization of the outlines. The ‘title’ should be placed at the top, and then should follow the ‘introduction’. The upcoming outlines should cover the ‘main body’ of the essay that is usually classed in different sections. Each section is represented by a ‘paragraph’, and it is technically appropriate to supply an outline for each of such sections. Conclusion comes in the end. The conclusion has two chief objectives: (i) the summary of supporting information and evidences showing how the essay writer has reached this conclusion, and (ii) essay writers concluding remarks.
An outline helps us determine the length of the essay in addition to organize our thoughts. Furthermore, outlines are also a great help at determining the length of paragraphs. We should do well to bear in mind that a good organization of outlines can make our work of writing an essay as easy and simple as ‘filling in banks’. We can say, therefore, with great ease that outlines guide us from beginning through middle to the end of the essay.
Specimen Essay
Of Studies
Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privateness and retiring; for ornament is in discourse; and for ability is in the judgement and disposition of business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies make judgement wholly by their rules is the humour of a scholar. They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies; simple men admire them; and wise men use them: for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them and above them, won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weight and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested: that is, some books are to be read only in parts; other to be read but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others: but that would be only in the less important arguments and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little he had need have a present wit; and if he read little he had need have much cunning to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. Abeunt studia in mores. Nay there is no stond or impediment in the wit but may be wrought out by fit studies: like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. So if a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or find differences, let him study the schoolmen; for they Cymini sectores. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study lawyers’ cases. So every defect of mind may have a special receipt.
(Sir Francis Bacon)
Essay. 1
Democracy
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Democracy
a. Genesis of Democracy
b. Linguistic Aspect & Implications of Democracy
2. Historical Development
a. Democracy in Medieval Europe
b. Democracy in Present World
3. Democracy in Comparison with Monarchy, Oligarchy & Dictatorship
4. Some Problems Inherent in Democratic System
5. Epilogue
English word “democracy” is a compound of two Greek words, namely, demos, ‘people’, and kratos, ‘rule’. In this sense, democracy stands to mean the ‘rule of people’. In modern context, political scientists define the word, saying, that the sovereignty of state lies with its masses in the democratic setup. Ancient Greek people were the first one to practice democracy in their city-states. However, the world after Greek civilization forgot democracy, and thus it had to be rediscovered in the historic accord of Magna Karta. Since 1215 CE until French Revolution, the growth of democracy was relatively slow in Europe. However, after the fall of monarchy in France in 1789, democracy became imperative for the European nations. They discarded the monarchical, oligarchical and theological systems of medieval days, and adopted the new vision of the new world based on “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”.
Democracy in the present world has two principal expositions called ‘Presidential’ and ‘Parliamentarian’ forms of government. Presidential form of government in its most accomplished format is being practiced in USA today, whereas Parliamentary form of government is being practiced by Great Britain most skillfully. All other democratic countries owe their democratic setups to these two nations.
Some other political systems witnessed by the world are monarchy, oligarchy and dictatorship. Strange enough that monarchy and dictatorship vest the absolute power of state in one single person. History has seen the play of monarchs and dictators, and then eventually it discarded them in the favor of democracy. Another resembling system is oligarchy, which accounts for the rule of many people or groups simultaneously. However, this again falls short when measured against the riches of democracy.
Despite the apparent beauties of democracy, there are certain problems inherent in its nature. Democracy does not suit the taste of certain nations in the Orient. Moreover, the vote of a highly educated citizen and that of an illiterate have equal power. The turnout in almost every instance explains that hardly 50% of the eligible voters cast their votes. Further, change in government takes place after a specified tenure and the policies are rarely resumed by the following administration.
It can be summed up here that democracy is a very effective political system. Despite its minor drawbacks, democracy addresses the political needs of man in most effective manner. Thus, modern man has forgotten all other political systems in the presence of democracy.
Essay. 2
Corruption
or
How to Fight Corruption
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Corruption
a. Individual Corruption
b. Corrupt Setup
2. What Major Factors Cater Corruption?
a. Death of Conscience
b. Selfishness and Self-Centeredness
c. Spending beyond Means
3. Some Other Roots of Corruption
a. Inflation & Price Hike
b. Loose Legal Grip
4. Practical Remedies
a. Remodeling of Administrative Setup
b. Inflation and Unemployment Be Checked
c. Public Awareness
5. Epilogue
Corruption is a word that is looked down upon throughout the world. Indeed this tendency is not wrong, for corruption is a state of negative skills. It mainly deals with the phenomenon of earning living; hence earning it by crooked means implies the state of being corrupt. There may still be another kind of corruption, which, although out of our scope, has no lesser deteriorating effects. To this kind we call “moral corruption”, and it emerges from the degeneration of human character. Corruption is such a social evil that the whole world, since all ages, has been fighting with; but to our sorrow, by no means can an absolute check be put on it. A corrupt person always seeks after illegal means to boost his income; thence becoming selfish. By and large, corruption is the worst form of exploiting and usurping others’ rights.
There may be two broad categories of economic corruption when critically analyzed. These categories are (a) individual corruption and (b) collective corruption. On individual level, a corrupt person cannot be honest with his duties due to bad company, intriguing economic needs and negativity of thinking. This gradually mounts to the death of his conscience, which, in turn, bears the tendency of cheating on others and forgetting to be answerable to God. The second type belongs to the whole social and economic sphere. In this category, not only individuals, but whole departments are involved in cheating on others and murdering their rights. In our country, it is primarily this type that has permeated across the nation. From a peon to the head of state, everyone is, in one way or another, corrupt, hence culpable.
We should bear in mind that corruption cannot be curbed or cured in absolute sense. Nothing can avail us while living in a dynamic society to uproot the problem of corruption. All techniques thereby turn turtle against the harsh realities. However, some pragmatic remedies can reduce the magnitude of this bedeviling phenomenon.
Let us now turn to some practical remedies. At this stage, it is important to keep solely our own nation in view.
The administrative structure of Pakistan, since the birth of country, has not been corrected or exacted. It has been moving ever since in the very wrong direction it started with. To overcome the problem of corruption, a radical transformation of whole society is but a basic need. Secondly, the problems of inflation and unemployment have almost killed the spirit of living a standard life among our people; it is thus important that government take measures for adjusting prices and fixing unemployment issues. Lastly, awareness should be promoted on mass scale using mass media as well as the moral injunctions of Islam. Standardizing education will be another step forward to educate people concerning their rights and duties. If one protects one’s rights, it naturally leads to the offering of one’s duties in the best possible way.
Essay. 3
The Use of Internet in Our Education System
Outlines
1. Introduction
2. Pakistan and Other World: A Comparison of Educational Structures
3. Blessings of Internet as a Means of Education
a. Worldwide Accessibility
b. Mass Media of Information
4. Present Situation
a. Healthy Latest Developments
b. Influences of the Developments
5. Suggestions and Conclusion
Internet is a peerless blessing of modern age. To count and consider the benefits of Internet, our vocabulary may fall short. The fact is that the educational system of Pakistan is still lingering behind the world of today. Most countries of the world have developed much more sophisticated and practical educational setups. The commonality among all those foreign educational structures is the centrality of information technology and worldwide web. Nowhere in the world, indeed, has Internet been spared in education sector, but only in Pakistan. It is our system, beginning from roofless primary schools to the most elaborated national universities, where the technological blessing of Internet has permanently been overlooked.
The Western Europe and America started using Internet service in their education systems some two decades ago. The Second World, that is, the communist world also hastened to follow the suit and developed disciplines giving room to the use of Internet in their education system. India may be another example to cite, where I.T. has become national pride and by dint of their advanced educational structure, India is lining up among major world powers.
With great sorrow is this stated that Pakistani schools, colleges and universities remained deprived of computers and Internet services until recent past. We could not evolve a philosophy that to what ends we would employ Internet in education system. Our recognition of Internet suffered with severe problems, because Internet has until now been only a means of entertainment for our nation.
In these circumstances, a new day dawned; a blow of fresh air felt, and our students heard good news that Pakistani educational structure was soon going to be blessed with Internet facilities. Now it will revolutionize our whole understanding of education and educational communication. The world has already shrunk into a global village. The distances have reduced and postal-letters have changed into emails. Today is the time of electronic books and soft-research-copies. A student sitting in his school lab can access the richest American library in Washington within minutes. Today, dictionaries of all languages, all latest researches, and all sorts of information are at our easy disposal. No man of past had ever thought of so great an advancement of human communication and sources of learning.
Towards end, it would be appropriate to shower some suggestions regarding the role of Internet in our educational setup. It is suggest-worthy that more IT universities like Virtual University be established; discipline of Worldwide Web be made a part of Computer Science department in every college and university; every high school be furnished with a lab of at least 20 PCs. And the most important, a high-speed Internet connection must be given for free by the government to every educational institution.
Essay 4.
Terrorism
OUTLINES
1. An Introduction to Terrorism
a. Brief Historical Survey
b. Modern Tendencies
2. Terrorism and Muslims
a. Is Every Muslim A Terrorist?
b. Western Bias
3. Difference between Terrorism and Jihad
a. Role of Al-Qaeda
b. Role of Taliban
c. Obsession of Ordinary Muslims
4. The Need of the Hour
a. A Review of American Policies
b. Changing War on Terror into Dialogue on Terror
5. Epilogue
Terrorism is a word that has drawn really big attention of the present world. Terrorism means “creating fear among people in a systematic way.” This word was used for the first time during French Revolution. The recent discovery of terrorism is based on a modern definition of the word, which was invented after the attacks of 9/11.
The current layer of terrorism got birth during the Afghan Jihad from 1979 to 1988. After Russian retreat from Afghanistan, the Jihadis spread all over the world. Usama bin Laden established his Jihadi organization called “Al-Qaeda”. Taliban began to emerge, and afterwards they quickly took over Afghanistan. After the plane attacks on World Trade Center and Pentagon on 11 September 2001, the whole world has completely changed.
Terrorism is not basically an invention of the Muslims; instead, Christians introduced it as a technique of spreading fear during Crusades. Later on, it continued to be a Christian tactics during war and peace times. 1st and 2nd World Wars were the peak of Christian terrorism that kept the world under its terror for many decades.
The label of terrorism is being pasted only on the Muslim world today. Every Muslim is seen by the West with suspicion. Every bearded person is believed to be a terrorist. This shows Western bias against the Muslims. Islam believes in Jihad and Jihad is a word America really hates. That is why Western media does not distinguish between Jihad and terrorism.
Here, we need to understand the difference between terrorism and Jihad. Every Muslim is a Mujahid, but every Muslim is not a terrorist. The negative role of Al-Qaeda and sick Jihad of Taliban have defamed the Muslim world. Further, an ordinary Muslim is completely obsessed with this situation. He does not know whether Al-Qaeda and Taliban are striving for Jihad or terrorism. However, the latest layer of terrorism in the form of suicide attacks and target killing has made all Muslims realize that this cannot be Jihad.
On the other hand, America and Europe need to understand their duties. A review of American policy on War on Terror is a greatly needed step today. America should with no delay change the War on Terror into the Dialogue on Terror. This will bring peace to the world.
In the final say, it is again stated that terrorism is an evil; hence it needs to be addressed. However, terrorism should not be subdued by force, but culminated through wise and peaceful measures.
ESSAY. 5
Atomic Energy and Scientific Progress
or
Atom for Peace
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Atom
2. Atomic Energy Used for Destructive Ends
3. Atomic Energy Used in Service of Mankind
4. Atom’s Use to Cure Fatal Diseases
5. Help in Agriculture
6. Critical Appreciation
Atom is a Greek word, which means ‘a thing that cannot be cut apart and broken’. However, it is no longer undivided and unbroken today; the scientists have broken it into further smaller particles. They are called electrons, protons, and neutrons. They release great power and energy.
It was the great scientist Albert Einstein who began to work on the theory of producing energy from atom in 1905. He explained many new things. At first, he showed that mater and energy are two different forms of the same thing. In other words, mater can be converted into energy and vice versa. Second, a small amount of mater can produce a great amount of energy.
The discovery of atomic energy is one of the wonders of modern science. Atomic energy is a double-edged weapon. It can be utilized for destructive as well as peaceful ends. The scientists first of all used it for destructive ends. They prepared atomic bombs that could destroy towns and cities within moments. It was in 1945 that two atomic bombs, Little Boy and Fat Boy, destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki. They killed hundreds of thousands human beings and deserted vast areas of land. Now all the big powers possess much more dangerous atomic and hydrogen bombs. They can raze the world to ground if they are carelessly used. Atomic energy can also be used for the welfare of mankind. The scientists in USA, England, France, Canada, Pakistan and Germany are at work for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. An “Atom for Peace” conference was held at Geneva to consider the positive use of nuclear energy. The USA has already started to use this energy to propel submarines and space-rockets. Presently, electricity is being produced from nuclear energy in USA, Russia, Britain, Germany, and similar. Our scientists are also trying to build up nuclear power plants. The scientists are also working to find out ways of using atomic power as fuel in ships, airplanes, motorcars etc. Today, atomic reactors for boiling water exist in different countries of the world. Atomic energy is safely used to conquer many fatal diseases. Radium is an important branch of medical sciences. Thus, atomic energy is of immense help to alleviate human suffering.
Nuclear energy has also brought a revolution in the field of industry. Petrol and coal are other well-known sources of energy and power. The supply of these two natural resources is, sooner or later, coming to an end. The world is in search of an alternative source of power. It is, of course, nuclear energy. Electronic machines, computers and nuclear elements are being used in our industry. They are used in the plastic, glass, paper, textile, rubber, and cement industries.
Atomic energy is of great help in agriculture. Barren lands can be tilled into smiling fields with the help of atomic formulas, computerized tractors and machines. Crops can be ripened in a very short time. The yield of crops per acre can also be multiplied. In this way, the scientists are trying to solve the shortage of food problem. Therefore, we can say that atomic energy can be used with full advantages for the welfare of mankind.
ESSAY. 6
Careers for Women
or
Professions for Educated Women
Outlines
1. Introduction
a. Women in Past
b. Women in Present Age
2. Career Opportunities
a. Major Areas for Female Career
b. Main Field Women like to Join
3. Women’s Contribution in Development
4. The Women of Pakistan
5. Epilogue
In the ancient world, the state of women was extremely miserable. They were treated in a disgraceful way and were considered equal to slaves viz. half-humans. The exclusive profession for the women was to serve and entertain their men. If any other activity was to be carried out by her, that required her man’s permission in advance. The whole of the ancient literature, with few exceptions, is full of such expressions that regard women as a lowly creature. The women were confined to the kitchen and nursery. However, things have now changed to a reasonable degree. Education, print and electronic media, and cultural globalization have changed their outlook so much so that they have become conscious of their rights. They have started taking active part in every field of life.
Education has refined and polished the mental faculties of this so-called “half-human”. Hence, with great success has today’s woman proved her worth in all walks of life. The women of modern age have practically come forward to lend a helping hand to the male gender. They can do any kind of job, which fits their physique, ability and aptitude. There are quite a number of jobs, which women can perform with greatest care and comfort.
Firstly, the profession of nursing is greatly suitable to the genius and aptitude of women. Our country is in a great need of lady doctors. Our women, in fact, feel hesitation to disclose their womanly secrets to male doctors. They cannot tell them their trouble frankly. This difficulty could be solved if we have more lady doctors. Mother of the Nation, Fatima Jinnah, can be, as a dentist, a fitting example for the ladies ambitious to become doctors.
Secondly, lady officers are also required in all areas of government services. There are female traffic wardens and police officers these days, and this thing has successfully fixed a number of problems in the concerned area. Moreover, they can successfully accomplish assignments while working in high offices, such as District Management, Foreign Office, Railways, Postal Services, and the similar. Likewise, private companies like banks, finances, telecommunications etc. are also open for the woman of 21st century.
Thirdly, in the same way, teaching is another profession, which our women can easily adopt. They are very suitable for the teaching of small children. They have motherly love for them. On the other hand, women having high education can become lecturers and professors to teach in colleges and universities.
Fourthly, women with practical knowledge and enterprise can become sale girls, managers and advertising agents. There are many other professions ready to welcome girls. They can become airhostesses in different airlines. Women should come forward to do such jobs that are suitable to their aptitude.
In these ways, of course, women can serve the country and contribute in the development of our beloved Pakistan.
ESSAY. 7
Superstitions
Outlines
1. A Brief Introduction to Superstition
a. Ancient Practice of Superstitions
b. Superstition in Modern Times
2. Superstitions in West
3. Superstitions in Pakistan
4. Reasons behind Superstitious Systems
5. Need for the Spread of Scientific Knowledge
6. Epilogue
J.K. Lavater once said, “Superstition always inspires bitterness; religion grandeur of mind.” Superstition is such a belief that has no basis either in science or in religion. In fact, superstition is founded on fear and ignorance. It thereafter leads men to form false ideas and ideals. Belief in omens and oracles also belong to the domain of superstition. This practice has never ceased to exist in human society. It is strange that even the wisest of men have been found influenced by the superstition, which is such an awesome thing that reminds us Francis Bacon’s words: “In all superstition, wise men follow fools.”
A tree is judged by its fruits and the fruits of superstition are all evil. It has been responsible for a vast amount of cruelty, misery and madness. In old times, men offered sacrifices to please imaginary gods. In the Middle Ages, the belief in witchcraft paved the way of old women’s persecution, who were believed to be witches. Even today in the civilized countries, superstition produces narrow-mindedness, fanaticism and fear.
Superstitions are too numerous and they vary with nations and localities in kind and degree. In Asia and Africa, people are perhaps more superstitious than they are in Europe. People all over the world believe in one superstition or another. Certain things or moments are believed to bring ‘luck’ and other things or moments are believed less lucky—or sometimes unlucky. An English villager would associate good-luck with black cats and horseshoes. He will, however, associate bad-luck with the howling of dogs, spilling of salt, number 13, and walking under a ladder.
In our country, too, we have similar superstitions. The sight of a corps is considered ominous. One should not undertake a journey if one sneezes at the time of start. Similarly, the encounter with a black cat is also held as having evil-effects for journey. Some old women are thought to have supernatural powers. The screeching of owls and ravens is also believed as bad omen in Pakistan as well as in England. However, owl is a symbol of ‘wisdom’ in West and a symbol of wickedness and stupidity in Pakistan.
A similar belief is held in East and West in ghosts. It has been observed that the so-called ghosts are common in our villages. The illiterate villagers are more superstitious than the educated ones. It is ignorance and lack of education, which gives birth to superstitions. That is why people have more faith in quacks, and witchdoctors than in medical doctors and psychiatrists.
Superstitions always hamper the progress of both individuals and society. Popular superstitions have a long history of evolution. We inherit jinni-creatures from our ancestors that still haunt our forests.
Many cruel things have been done in the past because of belief in superstitions. It was a common say in Middle Ages; “She was found guilty of witchcraft and thus burnt alive as witch.” Only education can eliminate superstitions from our societies. Knowledge increases, superstition decreases. The advancement in scientific knowledge has aided us to check our irrational fears and superstitions.
ESSAY. 8
Islam—A Complete Code of Life
or
The Religion of Islam
Outlines
1. What is a Code of Life?
a. Need of Religion as Code of Life
b. Our Modern Understanding of Code of Life
2. Islam is the only Code of Life
a. All Definitions Prove Islam as the most Perfect Code of Life
b. Islam Fits in Modern Age
3. Pakistan & Islam
4. Humanism in Islam
5. Woman’s Status in Islam
6. Social, Economic & Political Sides of Islam
7. Epilogue
A “code of life” means such a system that owns and accommodates all essential aspects of human life. It not only owns, but also regulates human life in accordance with the natural needs, wants and instincts of mankind. Our present understanding of ‘code of life’ may contradict with that of past, but the matter of fact is that only a religion can overwhelm the social life of man.
Islam, by all means and definitions, is the most perfect code of life. No other religion, scientific precept, social theory or ideology of life can compete Islam’s role in this area. From birth to death, from sleeping to awakening, from ignorance to knowledge, and from ethics to law, all dimensions of life find fulfillment in Islamic doctrine.
Islam is against the concept of nationalism. It does not allow the formation of any social order based on narrow nationalistic interests. It aims at uniting the whole humanity. Hence, Islam intends to set up a universal social order free from all discriminations of race and geography. Its religious aspect is organically related to its social aspect. Islam does not restrict itself to mosque.
Pakistan is an Islamic state. It came into being on 14th of August, 1947, in the name of Islam. Thus, Pakistan is different from many other countries in the respect of ideology. All other countries found the seeds of existence in nationalism or communalism; Pakistan was, however, made by Islam, for Islam, and it will always be about Islam. Other countries of world unify their people on the bases of language, color and ethnicity. Contrarily, Pakistan is the only country where Islam is the sole binding force of the whole nation. More than 150 languages are spoken in Pakistan; over 100 ethnicities reside here; people have different castes, clans and cultures; thus, no other but the force of Islam keeps them fully united.
In the economic life, Islam intends to create a society that is free from all types of exploitation and usurpation. Islam lays great stress on the just distribution of wealth. It urges rich people to help the poor and needy in crucial times. It has established a system of Zakat to cater the economic purposes. On the political side, the Quran says that absolute power rests with God alone. Therefore, all governments or states become ‘agents’ of the Supreme Ruler, God. As such, they have to obey the commands of God and frame their laws according to Quran and Sunnah.
Islam guides us about the duties of government, criminal law, war and peace, taxation, business, and ownership of land. It also lays enormous stress on the rights of neighbors. We can, therefore, conclude with full confidence that Islam is a perfect religion that offers a solution to all our problems; hence, a code of life, manifestly.
ESSAY. 9
Inflation
or
Price-Hike
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Inflation
2. The Impact of Inflation/Price-Hike on Common Mann
3. Why Inflation Occurs?
4. Some Good Means to Overcome Inflation Problem
5. International & National Economic Conditions in Comparison
6. Epilogue
The prices of necessities of life are rising consistently. The problem of rising prices has become a universal problem. This problem has assumed an acute form in the developing countries like Pakistan. The majority of people in our country belong to the low-income group. Usually they have limited sources of income. Very often the income of people is fixed. Therefore, the hike of prices of essential goods hits them hard. The result is that the standard of living of the poor is dwindling day by day.
Since people do not have means to buy the necessities of life. They are compelled to use unfair means to have them. Those government servants who cannot make both ends meet become corrupt. The gulf between the rich and the poor goes on widening until it results in some revolutions in the name of equality and justice.
Rising prices also affect national life in the economic field. The businessmen think of adulteration, black marketing and others similar methods to maximize their profits. Since the prices of goods are beyond the reach of common man, the standard of living goes on falling gradually. There are many factors that cause rise in prices. First, the most important of these is the increase in population. If we compare it with the increase in means of production and economic development, the rise in prices becomes inevitable.
Second, if the demand is high than the supply, the goods will naturally be sold at higher prices. Sometimes, the government imposes duties and taxes on certain commodities, and thereby the prices of such commodities go up. The wrongs of smuggling and black-marketing of necessities also account for their shortage, mounting the prices rapidly.
Third, if a businessman has monopoly in the production and sale of a certain commodity, he can raise its prices at will. In developing countries like Pakistan, the developmental activities usually cause inflation. The fund and loans that are given by foreign countries as well as IMF and the World Bank are supposed to be invested on developmental projects. If they are fairly handled, they increase the circulation of money in the country. When people have more money in their pockets, they will be prepared to have more and better facilities life offers. However, this foreign money always vanishes in some selective pockets.
All these economic pressures join hands and create a serious problem for the common man. More than 90% of our population is, therefore, never at peace.
Our first duty should be to check the birthrate. Secondly, the government should not impose so many taxes, duties or surcharges on those commodities that are considered necessary for human life. Such taxes simply suffocate the poor. Besides that, the most important duty of government is to keep an eye on he production and sale of essential goods. Undue profit making should not be allowed in any way or any case.
ESSAY. 10
The Value of English in Modern Age
or
English as Global Lingua Franca
or
English in Pakistan
Outlines
1. An Introduction to English Language
2. English in Past
a. English & Greek
b. English & Latin
3. Classical English & Modern English
4. English in Pakistan
5. Shortcomings of English
6. International Lingua Franca
7. Can We Neglect English?
8. Epilogue
English is a language that has a long historical background. It came into its current expression in 15th century, and thereafter, English saw another rise in 16th century Renaissance movement. English inherited most of its vocabulary from Greek and Latin languages. French also left a good deal of influence on it. English was completely different in classical times, and it found much lesser value and appreciation than Latin even among its own people. However, modern English is a wonderful language, which has won appreciation from every circle. Today, it has become a global language.
English came into Subcontinent with English invaders. Since then, the people of Subcontinent have been under its influence. It was Sir Syed Ahmad Khan who urged upon the Muslims to study English for the first time. Under his advice, the Muslims learnt English and began to compete the Hindus in every field of life.
English is the language of international community. It is spoken and read in almost every country of the world. It has linked various parts of the world and thereby has promoted understanding among people of different countries. Pakistan is a country where people love to study and speak their mother tongues. However, they also like to study and speak English. Pakistanis have a good command over English, as more than 90% of businesses in Pakistan are run using English. Further, it is our office language. Similarly, all of our foreign trade with foreign countries is done in English. Therefore, the knowledge of English is compulsory for Pakistanis to get an employment. It is taught in our schools, colleges and universities. Intellectuals use English for the communication of refined ideas. However, all this does not underrate the importance of Urdu language.
Becoming more precise on Pakistan, English has played a crucial role in our struggle for freedom. All activities of Independence Movement were carried out through the medium of English. Hence, as Pakistanis, we are sure to say that we cannot neglect English. It has its roots very deep in our society. It has been the official language of Subcontinent for more than two centuries.
The importance of English in the modern world is undeniable. English is the only language that can foster unity among different countries of the world—hence international lingua franca. English has since long become language of knowledge and learning. All our scientific and technical knowledge comes from this language. It deals with commerce and trade in rich expression. The knowledge of medicine, engineering, technology, surgery and military equipments is communicated by one country to another in English.
The most advanced understanding in poetry, drama, novel, and other branches of literature are climactically found in English. No other language gives us standard terminology and symbols in various branches of literature, science and technology.
We can conclude on logical grounds that the future of English in Pakistan as well as throughout the world is secure and bright.
ESSAY. 11
My Aim in Life
or
My Goal in Life/My Ambition in Life/The Dream of My Life
or
The Profession of My Choice
Outlines
1. The Place of Aim in One’s Life
a. The Role Aim Plays in Active Life
b. A Life without Aim or Ambition
c. Idle’s Brain is Devil’s Workshop
2. My Dream of Life
a. Law Studies as My Favorite Discipline
b. Advocacy: My Way of Serving Nation
3. Justification for Choosing to Become Lawyer
4. The Status of Legal Practitioners in Modern States
5. Justice, Judiciary & Lawyers
5. Epilogue
Aim, ambition or dream in life constitutes the most crucial part of human thinking. It is but natural that everybody sets some goals before him, and these targets serve as his guiding principles. These principles assign dimensions to every striver. Indeed a man without aim or goal in life is no worth than animals, and all efforts of such a man eventually prove fruitless.
Doubtless that idles have no contribution in the activity of life. Aim in life never lets us sit idly and become good for nothing. It is rather a transcendent thing, something that demands constant struggle and high ideals.
My dream of life, i.e. the highest aim, is to become a law practitioner. This desire runs in my veins with blood, as I find myself incomplete without thinking of it. My mind is greatly inclined to the discipline of law. It doubly works on law studies than it works on anything else. Becoming lawyer does not have any material ends, but only the goal of serving humanity. I understand that justice has become the most costly but least available thing in our country today. Therefore, I see a great chance that fate is going to bestow me to help people get justice. I will, thus, contribute in the development of my country by bringing people justice and awareness of the value of justice.
I know there are a lot of opportunities of making wealth in legal practice. However, I find asylum in the thought of service only. Legal advocacy is, in a sense, an equation of medical science; both heal humans—medical science heals the body and legal advocacy heals the problems of exploitation and criminality. Thus, society is purged of the evils that plague our lives.
Modern state is a fully independent political institution. Judiciary is the 3rd article of the state, and, of course, advocacy and judiciary are essential to each other. They are intertwined and neither of the two can function without the other. Therefore, it would be wise to say that the function of state as well as its existence depends, to a reasonable degree, on law practice. If criminals are punished, innocent relieved and deprived given rights, country will function in much superior way. Law practice indirectly influences the peace of society. Here lawyers appear to be a bridge between common man and the courts of justice.
Lawyers’ movement in recent past has proven that only independent judiciary and a supporting advocacy can stabilize the country. Restoration of judiciary is a landmark of the lawyers, for which nation owes them a debt of gratitude.
Thus, I find myself fully justified for dreaming to become a lawyer. Some may argue against this ambition, but it cannot prevent me from achieving my goal. As a human being, I have the full right to choose for myself whatever fits my aptitude.
ESSAY. 12
My Favorite Personality in History
or
My Favorite Hero/My Favorite Historical Figure
Outlines
1. An Introduction to My Favorite Personality
a. Brief Background
b. Field of Specialty
2. Why I Ranked Him Above Many Others?
3. Achievements of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
a. Worldly Achievements
b. Moral Achievements
c. Spiritual Achievements
4. His Message
a. The Influence of Message
b. Durability of the Message
5. A Final Say
The Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (PBUH), is my favorite personality in history. I have many reasons to call him my favorite personality. This statement of mine does not seek its origin in the dedication and respect Muslims have for the Prophet (PBUH), but it originates from well-recorded historical facts. It would not hold water if I, as a follower of him, rank the Prophet (PBUH) above others on purely religious grounds. The justification of the current argument requires logical, methodical and historical evidences that, when comparing with other great men, would prove the Prophet (PBUH) matchless.
Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was born on April 20, CE 570, as orphan. His birthplace was Makkah. He was only six when his mother died and only eight when caring grandfather also passed away. Then his uncle took him into his custodianship and catered for his every desire. He spent a blotless youth-life and married Khadijah, a widow and 15 years senior to him, when he was 25. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was a merchant those days. His genius as well as dealing found appreciation from every acquaintance of him.
In the age of 40, Holy Prophet (PBUH) entered the final, but most decisive phase, phase. Now he was going to change the world once for all. His message was about to strike the world’s heart. Thus, he finally declared his Prophethood and invited people to his religion—the religion of Allah. He publicly announced:
“There is no god but Allah (and) Muhammad (PBUH) is His Messenger.”
This event took place in CE 610. The new message of monotheism brought an earthquake in the minds of pagan Arabs. They could not believe that quiet Muhammad (PBUH) could speak of such a sublime thing. Secondly, they were not ready to replace 360 gods with one single God of Muhammad (PBUH). They cursed him calling ‘magician, poet and oracle’. The Prophet (PBUH) and his early followers heavily suffered, but they were firm in their faith in God Almighty. No one could stir their ideals, and finally they became a force.
Makkah expelled new religion and its followers in CE 622. Muslims and their Prophet (PBUH) took refuge in Madinah. It since became the everlasting home of Islam and the “City of the Prophet” (PBUH). Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) returned Makkah as a conqueror in CE 630 and forgave all of his enemies. He set slaves free, abolished usury, gave rights to women, and unified Arabia.
Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) performed his Farewell Hajj in CE 632 and there he delivered his Final Sermon, the future manifesto of mankind. He thereby became the liberator of humanity and the greatest reformer of all times. World embraced the influence of his message and responded eagerly to his call. It was because of these particulars that famous American author Michael Hart ranked him on top among the 100 greatest men in his book “The 100”.
I am certain that there is no other human being of an equal standing in history. Thus, I am justified to choose Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as my favorite hero on merit.
ESSAY. 13
Load Shedding
or
The Power/Energy Crisis in Pakistan
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Current Power Crisis
2. A Short History of Energy Crisis
3. The Available Electricity
4. The Power Consumption in Pakistan
5. Different Means of Power Production
a. Hydel Power
b. Thermal Power
c. Nuclear Power
6. Epilogue
The energy crisis has brought Pakistani industrial machinery to a standstill. This has, in turn, reduced Pakistani economy to a zero condition, cutting down GDP. Moreover, common man is extremely disturbed due to the energy crisis.
Energy crisis is not a recent phenomenon; rather it appeared at least a decade ago. Pakistan was producing enough energy to export in 1995, but now the situation has reversed. This may be due to many factors. 13% increase in power consumption has been observed from 2002 to 2007, says an official survey. The shortfall will further increase by the end of 2010. Today, the available electricity is 15055 Megawatts and the demand is 19000 MW. This is primarily due to the growing middle class. The second factor may be the rapid growth of industry accounting for 31% of the total energy. Household sector is the largest consumer of electricity in Pakistan, which covers 42% of the total power. Of course, it is this sector that has been hit hard by the energy crisis.
By the end of 2007, Pakistan was running short of electricity as much as 4000 megawatts. By the end of 2010, the shortfall will become 5500 MW. Pakistani water reservoirs have a total capacity of producing 56000-megawatt electricity. However, Pakistan is producing only 34% of the total power from water i.e. 6000 MW. Apart from hydel power, the major area of producing power is thermal power. It accounts for 60% of Pakistan’s power production. The last and the least used is nuclear power. It accounts for only 6% of total energy.
The area of energy production was completely neglected by the government during the last decade. The present situation is extremely grave. Nights are generally dark in Pakistan, as streetlights and house lights remain off. Load shedding is always done without a schedule. Sometimes the duration of power stoppage mounts up to 16 hours a day. All this is unacceptable in a modern state of 21st century.
Currently, Water and Power Development Authorities (Wapda) is taking steps to keep the situation under control. A number of small dams are under construction at various sites. Similarly, nuclear energy plants are also being erected in different cities. The coal of Thar is also under consideration for the production of electricity. This may be the easiest means of producing energy on long-term basis.
Finally, we can simply urge on the government to cope with the worsening situation of energy crisis to relieve the citizens. We strongly hope that the problem will be fixed in compliance with government’s promises.
ESSAY. 14
National Unity
or
Nationalism/Why We should be United
Outlines
1. Natural Love for the Country
2. East or West, Home is the Best
3. Pakistan: A Homeland of Different Cultures
a. Race, Languages & Colors
b. Belief in Unity & Harmony
4. Islam: The Binding Force
5. Lessons from History
a. Pakistan Movement
b. War of 1965
c. Fall of Decca
6. Epilogue
National unity is the most desired thing in the modern world of interdependence. The modern concept of “nation” is radically different from the old one, and it is why we need to understand in the light of this new concept that how unity of the nation matters a lot today. In old times, people believed in community and race, and thought that these two entities were their nations. However, today we have a better, wider definition. Citizens of an independent country have a unified identity for the international world. People are today either Americans, Indians, Germans, English or Pakistanis. Nobody thinks of the provinces, districts or cities that one belongs, but only the country.
It is but natural that everyone loves his birthplace. A common maxim also states the same fact, saying, “East or West, home is the best.” This natural tendency helps us modify our passion of patriotism, so that we may put it into some channel for the progress of country. This very tendency is helpful for creating national unity.
Pakistan is indeed the home of many different cultures. Pashtoons, Sindhis, Balochis, Punjabis, Saraikis, Kashmiris, and the like reside this land; they speak different languages and have different complexions. However, they all are Pakistanis, for all of them believe in the governing entity of state, Pakistan. Thus, they consider themselves the part of the same nation, and thereby they use their efforts to bring unity and harmony among the people of Pakistan. Sometimes, ethnic slogans are raised by certain shortsighted politicians, but only a few respond them and majority rejects such villains.
Islam is the greatest binding force of Pakistan. It ties people up in the bond of religion, assigning them common religious ideals. Although sectarianism exists to a certain degree in Pakistan, but recent developments exhibit that people of Pakistan do not favor sectarianism. Indeed, it is the need of the hour that sectarianism be curbed, and the philosophy of “to live and let live” be promoted.
There are numerous lessons for us in our history regarding unity and nationalism. Pakistan Movement only succeeded because of the unity of the Muslims of Subcontinent. India was beaten back in the War of 1965 because the whole nation stood united behind Pak Army. However, when ‘national unity’ was at stake in 1971, and Bengalis went for Bengali nationalism—rejecting the ideal of Pakistani Nation—our enemies took the full benefit of the situation and broke Pakistan apart.
The only words that can be effective in the conclusion are that national unity is a precious thing. Only those nations make progress that are internally united. Our country is currently passing through the most crucial period of its history, and it is the real time to show harmony, patriotism and nationalism. This will, of course, become our contribution in saving Pakistan.
ESSAY. 15
Science and Mankind
or
Science at the Service of Mankind/Merits and Demerits of Modern Science/Is Science A Curse?
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Modern Science
a. A Brief Historical Background
b. Industrial Revolution
2. Wonders of Modern Science
3. Blessings of Modern Science
a. Facilities of Life
b. A Successful Journey from “survival to living’
4. Some Problems with Modern Science
a. Too Materialistic Approach
b. No Ends in Itself
5. Epilogue
The scientific revolution of 20th century has created a whole new world that we reside today. It is, in all aspects, a new world. The man of past could have never thought of flying airplanes, or traveling on fast-moving trains or vehicles. All these are the wonders of science. How did this all happen?
The Renaissance Revolution of 16th century laid the foundations of modern science. Industrial Revolution in 18th century was the immediate product of scientific researches. Industrial Revolution later on paved the way for Technological Revolution of 20th century. And today, we have vast areas for the study of science. Since then, the man has never seen back.
The wonders of modern science include internet services, space discoveries, safe air traveling, globally operating electronic media, luxury vehicles, comfortable houses, so on and so forth. These are such phenomena that distinguish the world of today from all ancient times. Due to the blessings of modern science, man has seen a successful journey from ancient ‘survival’ to modern ‘comfortable living’. The population of the world that was only one billion at the dawn of 20th century has now mounted to 6.2 billion within one century. The possibility of death in diseases, natural disasters, accidents etc. has reduced to the minimal point. All this became true due to the scientific researches, and the facilities it conferred upon us.
Despite all the merits of modern science, it has some demerits too. The portrayal of blessings does not mean that modern science is error-free. There are huge problems in certain areas of science. First of all, it is too materialistic and does not care for the spiritual needs of man. Further, it is indifferent to morality and ethics; it does not support the idea of religion, and, in most cases, it takes us away from our beliefs. Moreover, the amount of wealth spent on less beneficial space science can, if spent, deliver mankind from the problem of poverty and disease; but no scientists think of this. Scientists are men of laboratories rather than living, emotional humans. The worst of all, the invention of nuclear weapons has become a constant threat for the world. The tragedies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are the brutalities of modern science, which should in no way be repeated. These problems need to be addressed to make science accurate and infallible.
We can safely conclude in the end that modern science is a worth-appreciating thing. It is a blessing for mankind in itself, although human beings some time use it for negative ends.
ESSAY 16
Unemployment
Outlines
1. Introduction
a. Magnitude of Unemployment
b. Economic Depression
2. Unemployment around the Globe
3. Categorizing Unemployed Folks
4. Major Causes of Unemployment
a. Pakistan as an Agrarian Society
b. Smallness of Industry
c. Transfer of Capital
5. Major Areas to be Addressed
6. A Final Say
An individual that does not own any means of earning living can be said to be in a state of unemployment. He is, therefore, called an unemployed person. Unemployment has appeared in the recent years as a global problem. Recent economic depression has added to the intensity of the problem. Several businesses like banks and other trade and commerce companies have closed down due to economic pressure, and this has, in turn, created more unemployment.
Today, in almost every country of the world, university graduates carrying their degrees in hands move from place to place for jobs. But the jobs are few. This situation is more critical in underdeveloped and developing countries as compared to the developed countries. In 3rd World countries like Pakistan, people with high qualification, including those with foreign qualification, wander hither and thither aimlessly. They are out for jobs, but jobs are scarce. This situation may be seen at two levels, i.e. (a) unemployment among educated people and (b) unemployment among uneducated people. Moreover, daily-wages laborers are yet another class that can technically be called an unemployed people.
There may be plenty of causes for unemployment on such a large scale. Primarily, Pakistan is an agricultural country and the majority of people depend on agriculture and livestock for earning living. However, since this area has not been modernized on scientific bases, our educated youth is unwilling to adopt it for a permanent profession. Similarly, feudal lords have dominated this realm and their servants are generally not paid in line with their services. Moreover, industry is still on its nascent stages, and we see that it has not diffused in many dense areas of the country. Only 2% of the total employment is offered by the factories and mills in Pakistan. This is indeed not an encouraging situation. Next, education sector also deserves reforms, for it is this sector where our economic needs stumble. The quality of education is very low and only those with extraordinary individual efforts get through it. The old British system of producing clerks, constables and peons is still working in the same lines.
Rapid increase in population and transfer of capital to foreign countries also account for unemployment. Rich people, instead of investing in Pakistan, move their money abroad, perhaps, out of social insecurity and greed for fixed profit. This practice must be discouraged. Government should take measures to shorten currently existing economic gap between the rich, upper middle class and the poor. Pakistani capitalists should invest their money in Pakistan to create more jobs for their compatriots. Education system should produce quality professionals, such as engineers, technicians, scientists and similar.
We should learn from other countries to cope with growing unemployment. If we continue to ignore unemployment threat, our country will be on the verge of ruin very soon. The frustration of unemployed youth can easily be overcome by introducing new means of employment.
ESSAY. 17
Coeducation
(also spelled Co-Education)
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Coeducation
2. Coeducation, West & Pakistan
3. Drawbacks of Coeducation
a. Anti-Oriental System of Education
b. Un-Islamic Mode of Education
c. Free Mixing of Both Genders: A Hanging Sword
4. Some Merits of Coeducation
5. Comparison of Merits and Demerits
6. The Final Word
The word ‘coeducation’ stands for a system of education in which both girls and boys study together. Originally, this is a Western system and is widely being practiced in all Western countries. Our country, Pakistan, has also seen in the recent years a shift from segregated education system to combine education system. In the following lines, we will attempt to understand some of the major problems this system is destined to have, whereas a few merits—the only merits of combine education—will also be given some consideration.
Primarily, it is a fact that coeducation has a number of inherent problems. Today, some people want to adopt coeducation to implement it in our schools and colleges, but they simply ignore the fact that Pakistan is an Islamic country. Moreover, the cultural values and traditions of the Orient, also, do not allow the free mixing of boys and girls—even if it is for the sake of education. Ours is a backward country and the people are not yet so modern as to see the broad scenarios of such an educational system.
At next, psychologically speaking, it has been observed that the female students are not generally well-off when studying together with the boys. This is due to their inner shyness and instinctual reluctance. They feel psychological pressure, when among boys, even in the issues of dresses and bodily care; thus, in most of the instances they have to overdress and overcoat themselves.
What has been observed from educational experiments around the globe is that coeducation cannot raise educational standard. Sexual temptation coupled with flirtation is a dominant feature of such a system wherein two opposite genders get together. They usually fool around instead of answering the call for attending their studies. Textbooks become fewer and immoral writings, such as cheap poetry and substandard stories, replace them in students’ bags. Standard of education can only be raised by facilitating and modernizing our educational infrastructure on scientific lines.
Our schools and colleges are already overcrowded and thus we need to build hundreds of new educational institutions every year. Therefore, it is no wise to cut half the number of boys and girls in their respective institutions to refill those seats with the candidates of opposite gender.
There may be a few merits found in the system of combine education, and it is certainly no justice to ignore them. Coeducation can bring the sense of equality between the two genders. This may be an aid to the female class in an allegedly male-dominated society. Secondly, the thought of competition will develop among girls and boys in coeducation. It can enhance the progress of society, becoming the standard of a progressive social thought.
However, despite these merits of coeducation, it is wise to stay away from this system of free mixing. When drawing a comparison between the merits and demerits of coeducation, one will see that it is the side of demerits that accounts for the larger share. Therefore, let us conclude that coeducation is not in line with the inclination of Pakistani minds. Let us stand resolute to resist all such efforts that are made to diffuse coeducation in Pakistan.
ESSAY. 18
Female Education
or
Education for Women/Education is the Real Ornament of Women
ESSAY. 19
Drug-Addiction
or
Addiction/Use of Drugs
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Drug-Addiction
a. The Genesis of the Problem
b. Present Situation
2. Chief Causes of Drug-Addiction
a. Lack of Awareness among Masses
b. Corrupt Network of Police and Anti-Narcotics Force
Negative Effects of Drug-Addiction on Society
a. Socio-Economic Disturbance
b. Rise in Crime Rate
c. Plethora of Evils being Father by Drug-Addiction
d. National Instability
Some Pragmatic Remedies
a. Better Educational Infrastructure
b. Awareness of Public Regarding Drug-Addiction
c. Remodeling of Administrative Structure
d. Reforms in Economic Setup
Epilogue
Indeed it is an observable reality that drug-addiction is a problem with a nationwide existence. Drugs had, in fact, only a nominal existence in Pakistan until 1970s. However, wide availability of drugs was a direct result of Soviet-Afghan War, which pushed two million refugees into Pakistani territory. These Afghan refugees brought with them the gifts of opium, heroin as well as handguns.
Certainly, drug-addiction has become such a curse today that has threatened the very bases of our social structure. It has fathered a number of economic, social, religious, and moral problems. The peace of our society, which was once ideal, has greatly been disturbed by this ever-growing, ubiquitous problem.
A historical fact is that drug-addiction has taken an alarming position during the last decade. Although it has nominal existence prior to that, yet its current posture seems to have become a national crisis. It is why that the cancer of drug-addiction needs to be curbed or cured immediately.
It is sorrowfully stated that the problem in question has not exclusively threatened Pakistan, but it has a worldwide existence. According to a recent survey, drug-addiction has seriously disturbed the whole world. Every country of the world is, today, seriously considering the issue to get rid of it.
The intensity of drug-addiction in Pakistan has recently grown to its utmost extent. Surprisingly, it has not spared any of the social, educational or economic institutions. The causes behind this crucial situation are numerous. The chief cause of the spread of drug-addiction is the untidy and corrupt network of Police and Anti-Narcotics Force. The disease of being insincere as well as unserious to the duty has got a strong hold over high-ranking officers. Temptation of wealth has killed the spirit of serving motherland. Proper time and consideration are not given to the socio-economic issues, and this results in the birth of several unheard problems.
Our government has almost failed to put a stoppage to the bedeviling results of drug-addiction. Drugs are freely sold on public places and young generation is the primary buyer of it. City streets contain the stench of drugs, and one can see our youth openly using drugs every now and then. No immediate steps are being taken against it. The most fundamental cause of drug-addiction is lack of awareness as well as education in our nation. This single drawback leads to a plethora of problems.
Concerning the remedies, it is suggest-worthy that a better cooperation between the government and masses be established, for it will be of great help in this situation. Further, the administrative structure should be remodeled without delay. Some effective steps should be taken on other frontiers as well. Literacy rate and public awareness should be given boost to overcome the menace of drug-addiction. Workshops and seminars on the harms of drug-addiction should be conducted by the government and concerning NGOs to educate people. This will, at length, help people realize their rights and duties. National as well as religious unity can bring unpredicted results, particularly, in this issue. Islam is a perfect “code of life”, hence it can guide us through all difficult situations.
In conclusion, we can say with great certainty that the above-suggested steps can effectively uproot the problem of drug-addiction from Pakistan. Good governance and a check on this evil imply the welfare of our people. Indeed, this will stabilize our society giving it all sorts of brilliance and brightness.
ESSAY. 20
Nuclear Weapons
or
Nuclear War
Outlines
1. An Introduction to the Nuclear Weapons
2. Declared and Non-declared Nuclear States
3. A Short History of Nuclear Weapons
a. The Use of Nuclear Weapons
b. Certain Destruction Passed Off
Treaties for Saving the World from the Harms of Nuclear Warfare
Epilogue
A nuclear weapon is the strongest device in the list of modern weaponry we have today. It consists of uranium or plutonium atoms, which pass through the process of fusion for atomic enrichment. It contains so much power that a single nuclear device is sufficient to wipe out a whole big city from the face of earth.
There are eight declared nuclear states in the world today. Among these nuclear states are the United States of America, Russia, Great Britain, France, China, India, Pakistan and North Korea. Two other countries, namely Israel and Iran, are the non-declared nuclear states.
In the terminology of warfare, the nuclear weapons are termed as ‘non-conventional weapons’. Only on two instances have these terrible weapons been used in their history. Both of these instances were the successive nuclear attacks carried out by the United States of America against Japan. The first nuclear bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on the 5th of August, 1945. Another bomb was dropped on another Japanese city, Nagasaki, only 4 days later on the 9th of August, 1945. These two events mark the greatest tragedy of human history. Never since that black week have these weapons been used, which is certainly a good news. However, the possibility of the use of nuclear weapons was always present during the Cold War. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, for instance, was one of those critical moments when atomic warfare seemed only a pushbutton away. In the modern history, it is the nuclear arsenals of the two states of India and Pakistan that are seen by the world as the next potential threat to the world peace. In fact, they are traditional rival states now possessing sensitive nuclear devices.
Two famous treaties were negotiated by the declared nuclear states. These treaties are known by the world as “Non-Proliferation Treaty” (NPT), which came into effect in 1969, and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), which came into effect in 1995. Both of these treaties are meant to protect the world from the proliferation and a subsequent destruction likely to be caused by the nuclear weapons. India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea are among those potential countries that have not, as yet, signed these treaties.
Indeed it is a long aspired thing that the whole world, particularly the states that own nuclear arsenals, agree on nuclear disarmament. If it so happens that the world destroys all nuclear weapons, a safer future will become a guaranty.
ESSAY. 21
Pollution
or
Environmental Pollution
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Pollution
2. Effects of Pollution in Ecosystem
a. Extinction of Species
b. Global Warming
c. Large Scale Diffusion of Dangerous Diseases
3. Major Causes of Pollution
4. Concern of the World
5. Some Practical Remedies
6. A Final Say
Pollution has emerged in the twentieth century as one of the largest problems that humanity has been facing. Ecologically, this phenomenon is known as “environmental pollution”. It is destroying the environment, especially the habitats of different species. Atmosphere and biosphere are, being the primary hits, getting disturbed from the increase in pollution.
The bomb of pollution, historically speaking, burst after the inception of Industrial Revolution. Man became independent ruler of earth’s resources, and thus he began to use them according to his desires. Aided by these resources, man was able to build himself an unprecedented civilization of luxury. However, all this was achieved at some cost. Ever since the mid of 18th century, environmental pollution has been on a rapid growth. By the start of 21st century, it has come to the stage of alarming the whole world, thus becoming a global phenomenon. The effects it has exercised on the planet can be seen as global warming, deforestation, extinction of several species, destruction of green fields, decrease in agricultural yield (sterilization of agricultural land), so on and so forth.
Among the chief causes of pollution are industrial chemicals, poisonous gases, nuclear waste, contaminated smoke, overpopulation, urbanization, noise, pesticides and the similar. Millions of factories and a much larger number of automobiles are, in fact, two major threats to the environment, for they are the primary producers of chemical discharges, poisonous smokes, and noise. The effects of these pollutants, which have as yet been witnessed only at a starting point, are far from our perception. Our present generation is breathing in a polluted atmosphere, and it is likely that the population of our planet become a victim of dangerous diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, hepatitis, to name a few. The average life in the 3rd World countries has already fallen to a great extent. Children are born impaired and handicapped. Moreover, pollution factor has become a constant danger for the Ozone Layer, which is the protective shield of Earth. Earth uses this shield to safeguard itself against the radioactivity of the sun. If Ozone is destroyed, as pollution will eventually do it, humanity will greatly suffer—quite possibly it be pushed towards extinction. Glaciers are already on the verge of melting and boiling. They can cause a sudden rise in the sea level, if once melted.
There are hundreds of safety measures to tackle the pollution phenomenon. Every single country of the world is trying hard to figure out a solution for this problem. Our government should also take immediate steps to fix the issue. All pollution-generating factories and automobiles should be banned. Deforestation should be checked and any future losses prevented. Forestation and greenery should be promoted on a vast scale, particularly, under government’s supervision. Population and urbanization should be controlled and put in a channel. Public should also come forward to save our home planet’s environment. Indeed only such measures can resolve the pollution problem.
ESSAY. 21
Hobbies
or
My Hobby
Outlines
Every single individual of our species wants to enjoy the leisure time. The world is full of beautiful objects and scenes. Since all human beings have mutually different tendencies and aptitudes, the leisure of every person demands a different type of amusement. Some people like to travel; some enjoy sports; and some others stay at home and watch T.V. However, there are some individuals that appear strange as far as the leisure time is concerned, for they evolve peculiar hobbies which later on mean to them as the ‘pursuit for life’. Hobbies are, as such, these pursuits that are instrumental of keeping our lives warm and full of excitement.
Primarily, hobbies are the mindful spending of our free time in a good, constructive way. Sometimes, nevertheless, they take the shape of an organic chapter of our life. Such hobbies that turn into the pleasure-area of life often cost us too much. No hobbies, per se, ever owe us anything, nor do we require them for earning purposes. They are rather self-created habits, which remain with us forever.
Categorically, our leisurely activities may be divided into two types viz. healthy activities and unhealthy activities. The hobbies, in most cases, fall into the category of healthy activities. On the other hand, however, if they are becoming a waste of money or time, or even if they force us into some negative activity, they are unhealthy, hence must be avoided.
Now let us see some of the major hobbies that people frequently adopt. There may be as many hobbies in the world as people, for the human nature varies from person to person. However, there are some hobbies that are commonplace. For instance, coin collection, postal-ticket collection, cartoons, movies, video games, so on and so forth. Of course, these are all healthy activities and they should be adopted in accordance with one’s aptitude.
My hobby is book collection, which can, in other words, be called ‘book-keeping’. This is really a wonderful—rather dignifying—hobby, because it has earned me a lot of respect as well as bestowed me knowledge of every kind. I have about 500 books in my personal library over a variety of subjects. By putting great efforts, I have collected these books from various places of the country. I have visited almost all famous bookstores in Lahore and Islamabad to satisfy the thirst of my hobby. And in this way have I been able to organize a small personal library consisting of some 500 universally acclaimed books on different subjects. I understand that book-keeping is a little expensive hobby, but I can manage it. I save some of my pocket money and towards the end of every month I buy two or three new books. Buying these books does not mean, as one might perceive, that I simply store them and do not read them; rather, I get into these excellent readings in free time to enjoy their message and information in full. In fact, I love to make notable books my bed readings, especially, in the winter.
ESSAY. 22
Population Explosion
Outlines
Population is the backbone of a nation’s strength. It is the manpower that runs a country from top to bottom. The matter of fact is that in every walk of life, manpower is required as the fundamental element. However, the unbridled increase in population, which is not proportionate to the growth of economic means, is extremely dangerous for the very existence of a country. If the ratio of increase in population is not at par with the facilities and economic opportunities that a country offers her citizens, the country necessarily undergoes multi-faceted setbacks within a short lag of time. However, on the other hand, if a country is well-balanced on both sides and the birthrate is well in control, that country quickly begins to witness the fruitful results of her planning.
A rich country can be rich as long as she has a firm control over population growth; that is to suggest that the country is capable of creating enough jobs for the youth from time to time, providing qualitative training in different areas to all her citizens, insuring quality education from schools to universities, and, above all, making sure of the security of fundamental human rights. Conversely, a high ratio in population growth is always a potential threat to the economy of underdeveloped and developing countries. The name of Pakistan is also in this list, which shows her among the countries with high birthrate but low economic means. In Pakistan, every passing minute receives six new births. Due to the lack of medical facilities, the death rate of newborn per 1000 is above 50—a number considered alarming in the reports of World Health Organization (WHO).
ESSAY. 23
My National Hero
or
Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Outlines
A Brief Introduction to the Great Leader
Early Life and Education
Entry into Politics
“Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity”
From Jinnah to Quaid-e-Azam
The Creation of Pakistan
A Final Say
Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah is the founder of Pakistan and a man of high standing among the great leaders of the world. Certainly, he is the man who can rightly be considered the hero of our nation. He shaped the course of the history with his will and practical struggle.
Quaid-e-Azam was born on 25th of December, 1876, in Karachi. His family was a rich merchant family that had only recently migrated from Kathiawar. His father, Jinnah Poonja, was a successful leather merchant. After having obtained his early education from Sindh Madrisatul-Islam, Karachi, Quaid-e-Azam went to England on his father’s advice for further education. There he became a law student at Lincoln’s Inn and earned his degree of barristership after four years of study. Thus, he returned home and started legal practice at the bar of Karachi and later on continued it at Bombay.
Soon after, Quaid-e-Azam entered politics and joined Indian National Congress. His entry into politics was predetermined with the objectives of Hindu-Muslim unity and self-government of India. In 1913, he also became of member of All India Muslim League on the pursuance of Liaquat Ali Khan. It was the climactic period of Quaid’s struggle for Hindu-Muslim unity, and it was in the reward of his untiring efforts that he was declared “Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity”. His efforts to bring the two hostile nations close fructified in 1916 as Lucknow Pact was signed by Congress and Muslim League in concordance. However, the period to follow was of dismay and disintegration of Hindu-Muslim relations. Quaid-e-Azam soon realized the pro-Hindus policies of Congress, and he, therefore, resigned from Congress in 1920. Nevertheless, he did not give up his hope in the notion of Hindu-Muslim unity and continued to work for this objective as the head of Muslim League. To his disappointment, all his hopes turned turtle by the end of 1927 and he left India to permanently settle in England.
A major turn came about in Quaid’s political career in 1936 when he, putting a firm belief in Two Nation Theory, returned India for a decisive combat. He was a selfless, seasoned and disciplined politician. Similarly, he was a great visionary, who had, like Allama Iqbal, beforehand envisaged the birth of a Muslim state within Indian Subcontinent. Seeking this end, the Muslims of India passed a resolution for a separate Muslim country on 23 March, 1940. Thus, the struggle of the Muslims gained momentum as it had now found a vivid direction—the direction of freedom. This struggle became Independence Movement and thence the Muslims won independence within 7 years from British rule and Hindu dominance under the able leadership of Quaid-e-Azam. The new state came into being on 14 August, 1947, and it was named Pakistan. It was the beginning of a new era and a new struggle. Quaid-e-Azam became the first Governor General of Pakistan. Despite unstable health and weakness, Quaid worked day and night for the prosperity of Pakistan. Doctors advised him to take rest, but he did not listened to their word and continued to work restlessly. It was due to this constant work that he became extremely ill and breathed his last on 11th of September, 1948. His tomb is in Karachi.
The nation honored Muhammad Ali Jinnah with the titles of “Father of the Nation” and “Quaid-e-Azam” for his selfless services.
ESSAY. 24
Poet of the Orient Allama Muhammad Iqbal
or
My Favorite Poet
Outlines:
1. A Brief Introduction to My Favorite Poet
2. Early Life of Iqbal and His Childhood
3. Iqbal’s Poetry and Its Message
4. Iqbal, Politics and Pakistan
c. Remarkable Role in Indian Politics to Champion the Muslim Cause
d. Prophecy of Pakistan
5. Iqbal—the Poet of the Orient
6. Conclusion
ESSAY. 25
Fashion
Outlines:
An Introduction to Fashion
Fashion and Youth
The Psyche of Fashion
Sources of Fashion
III. Showbiz and Media
IV. College and Universities
Exposition of West
A Reasonable Approach
Fashion stands for a “popular way of behaving or doing an activity at a particular time.” Fashion is a style followed by the majority of the society, especially the youth. For instance, if a particular hairstyle gets popularity among the people, they begin to adopt it on a mass scale. Similarly, when a particular dress style makes its appearance in public and people begin to follow the style; all this is termed as ‘fashion’.
Sometimes a fashion lasts a little more than usual and sometimes it is only short-lived. Fashion per se originates from man’s instinctual desire to appear more appealing to the opposite sex. Interestingly, to this end, the people of both sexes use every means to look distinct and attractive. The impulse of blindly following a fashion is stronger in the women than in men. They are more susceptible towards new layers of fashion and it is why their fashion changes every once a while. Observing this weakness of women, Francois Rochefoucauld remarked; “A fashionable woman is always in love with herself.” Moreover, the instinct to show oneself off is always on climax among the youthful people, for the aged people have something serious to do and their priorities are different than that of the young people.
Fashion carries a psychological effect with it: that is, it evolves two vivid tendencies, the sense of pride and the sense of deprivation, in the people of a particular period. Those whose means and circumstances allow practicing the latest fashions become proud, as they generally look down upon those who do not or cannot follow the suit. The second is the group of the people who get jealous of the fashionable individuals due to the fact that they cannot themselves practice latest fashions due to poverty or some other reason. This sense of deprivation causes them feel inferiority complex resulting in the feeling of envy for others.
A number of motives play role in the emergence and spread of a fashion. Unlike past, the primary source of fashion amongst many is the electronic media today. Individuals belonging to show business, i.e. actors and actresses, are fashion-setters in the first place. Dress designers and makeup artists introduce new styles every now and then to run their businesses and therefore they hire the showbiz celebrities to meet their ends. Modeling is a department of showbiz that wholly rotates fashion, for models are paid for being fashion-worker. Catwalks are arranged in fashion halls to popularize new variety of dresses. Similarly, T.V. commercials play a potent role in the fashion of other products. Further, colleges and universities cannot acquit themselves of the calumny in the present case. At schools, children are too innocent to indulge in any fashion-practices. However, at college and above all at universities, the exposure of fashion is too great. Students coming of remote areas are quite often unable to stand the temptation. Such students, especially girls, fall too quickly in the habit of becoming ultramodern, thus, losing the morals our society is proud of.
It will dawn upon us after a careful observation that our society has no genuine fashion of its own. Our sole practice in this regard is to follow the West. Fashion is indeed the reflection of a society, its behaviors and customs. Western fashion paints a bleak picture of the West—devoid of any moral standards. It is strange, however, that the people of the Orient, especially Pakistani Muslims, blindly follow the immoral West. Fashion must be limited and according to the social norms in order to be practiced. Our youth has plenty of superior things to do and goals to follow than wasting their money and time to cater their petty wish of becoming fashionable.
ESSAY. 26
Patriotism
or
Why I Love Pakistan
Outlines
1. What does Love for Country Stand for?
2. Patriotism: The Best Manifestation of Love for the Country
3. Ideology of Pakistan and My Faithfulness to It
4. Pakistan: The Reward of a Long, Historic Struggle
5. A Land Blessed with All Mighty Blessings of Nature
6. I am Proud to be a Pakistani
Love for country is an instinctual part of human nature. Every one loves his country and feels utmost pleasure in so doing. Country becomes a living being for a patriotic soul and he experiences a sublime, ineffable identification of the self with the country. This love replicates our love for the parents, particularly mother. It is chiefly due to this extreme love and devotion that we call our country ‘motherland’.
Man is always in the need of building strong relationship with other fellow beings. This relationship stands for the mutual dependence of human beings, so much so that it takes the shape of a symbiotic relation. Man seeks to form a union of the people in strictly social and political terms—the social union being ‘society’ and the political union ‘country’. Nation-state is the strongest as well as largest political unit in modern times, and it is this phenomenon that we term our country today. We, therefore, feel no reluctance to identify ourselves as its citizens or members.
Now let us become a little personal in this current discussion. Islamic Republic of Pakistan is my country. I love Pakistan because she is my motherland. I was born free on this land; she brought me up and provided me with every kind of facilities required for life. Pakistan is the political union of four provinces, where people of different ethnicities, languages and colors live in perfect harmony, sharing their bond of compatriotism. Indeed they are one, fully united, under the name of Pakistan.
Personally speaking, love for the country is the greatest of all of my feelings. My country is the flesh of my flesh and bone of my bone. Pakistan was the reward of the century-long struggle of the Muslims of Subcontinent against the compound of British Rule and religious bias of Hindus. Only after a long episode of struggle and millions of sacrifices became it possible that God blessed us with this beautiful piece of land—the land we call “Pakistan”, meaning, ‘Holy Land’. The day of the creation of Pakistan was 27 Ramadan in Islamic Calendar, Friday, 14th of August, 1947. The creation of Pakistan could not be, thus, a mere coincidence or an accidental event of history; instead, it was a divine miracle that Pakistan came into being on the day of Quran’s revelation. Indubitably, Pakistan is the only country in the world with ‘ideological foundations’. Indeed the slogan raised by Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah and his team fully satisfies my ideology of nationalism and philosophy of life. Therefore, I have rather strong reason to love and serve my country. Unlike most of the European nations, where there was no struggle carried out in the making of the nation or country, the freedom manifest in the name of Pakistan could only be won after a great many sacrifices. Millions of people were killed and the number of homeless, penniless refugees was rather high. The Pakistanis are, moreover, a nation that has in its veins the blood of Islam. The evolution from the status of “Indian Muslims” to the dignifying identification of “Pakistanis” was a direct result of our spiritual leaders’ prayers, political leaders’ struggle and above all divine succor.
It is beyond doubt that all of us owe everything we possess to Pakistan. Our identity in the world is solely indebted to Pakistan. Pakistan is the land of love, harmony and religious forbearance. This land is profusely blessed with all mighty blessings of Nature. My country has high mountains, large rivers, beautiful lakes, lush green fields, mighty deserts, highly engineered canal system, and above all a spirited, extremely talented people. We are Pakistanis and I am proud to be so.
ESSAY. 27
My Concept of Quality Education
Outlines
1. An Introduction to Quality Education
2. Does Pakistani Education System Represent a Quality Education System?
3. Difference between Pakistani Western Educational Setups
a. Creativity
b. Information Technology
4. Upgrading of Educational Setup, How and When?
5. Epilogue
My concept of quality education does not seek its origin from a system of cramming and copying. My concept, rather, feeds upon the idea of a progressive thought and polishing of the students. My concept isn’t only a ‘purpose’ per se, but also an ‘end’ in itself. I’m sure that my concept isn’t crippled with the occupation of proving its raison d’étre, for our system of education is already on the verge of doom, and intriguing minds are in the search of an alternative.
I am convinced that an obsolete education system, as is ours, cannot hold its own when measured against the parameters of the world. We’re lagging behind by decades as far as education is concerned. Our educational setup needs radical reforms to introduce a better, more functional system.
A system where students are like audiocassettes and their teachers tape recorders, and teachers’ only job is to record these cassettes, such a system is bound to sink into annihilation. Communication of a progressive thought that, in turn, modifies one’s instinct of creativity is but the hallmark of a quality education. If we’re producing nice crammers, we’re, in fact, making no original contribution in the global development. Western countries have gone far ahead of us due to their much more pragmatic systems of education, where education means ‘making humans’ instead of ‘making clerks, constables, politicians or bureaucrats’.
Since humans are wise beings, there is no trouble for them to learn from start till end on an entirely different format. When a child starts his school, he can be taught how to utter new words and how to assign meaning to those uttered words. By every passing level, this ability should be enhanced and polished. Assignments, presentations and creative projects should be a part of the study. Paper setting and examinational setups also need to pass through a process of reformation. We should get rid of the monotonous means of evaluation we have in our education. Examination should be categorized according to school, college and university stages and it should be made sure that students take a practical part in the examination.
I believe my concept of quality education will be an aid to intellectual minds to start a higher study on the issue in question.
ESSAY. 28
Pleasures of Childhood
ESSAY. 29
Beauties of Nature
or
Riches of Nature
Outlines
Manifestation of God’s Artistic Hand in Nature
ESSAY. 30
Age of Machines
or
Modern Age and Machines
or
The Role of Machines in the Making of Modern Civilization
Outlines
1. An Introduction to the Age of Machines
a. Inception of Machines
b. Man’s Scientific Progress
2. The Industrial Revolution
3. Importance of Machines in the Present Civilization
a. We Cannot Do Without Machines
b. Machine: An Untiring Alternative of Manpower
4. Machines—Our Masters or Servants?
5. Redefinition of Life in the Age of Machines
a. Modern Mindset and Habits
b. Agrarian Society of Past
c. Industrial and Mechanic Society of Present
6. Epilogue
It was the 18th century of our Common Era when mankind witnessed the greatest of the historical revolutions. It was, in fact, a revolution of the birth of machine that we term as “Industrial Revolution”. The only revolution of note prior to the industrial one was the ancient agricultural revolution that historians call “Neolithic Revolution”.
By the close of 18th century, an industry operated by machines sprang up in England, which gradually spread in the neighboring countries afterwards. During 19th century, machines became rampant everywhere in Europe and America. Unlike ancient days, the modern industry was totally dependent on powerful machines; this situation continues to the date.
Precisely speaking, manpower was only required to assist these machines in working properly. The second need of manpower industry was in regard to propel the machines, set them to work, and stop them. Man’s status therefore reduced to that of a watchman or assistant. In a sense, it was a journey of man from an agricultural age to an industrial age, so much so that his life radically changed.
Ever since the inception of the machines, the life of our species has become extremely hectic. Today man is no more a man of leisure as the man of past was fortunate enough to be. In this age of science and technology, he has to rush all the time to earn living; the competition for the “survival of the fittest” has become rather challenging. Industry and machines continue working round the clock. The machines have become the master of mankind. The visible sight of our planet from a distance describes that factories raise their heads everywhere; automobiles supersede the number of men in the world; airplanes and space shuttles operate every moment; in short, the whole mechanism of life seems to have become dependent on machines. The modern mindset has grown completely new habits, which, by and large, express an orientation to machines. Indeed this is a pathetic situation.
In addition to the merits of machines, there are numerous demerits of the machines as well. There is no doubt that modern men give value to the machines more than the fellowmen. Machines, due to extensive fuel burning, have created environmental pollution on a mega scale and, as such, our earth’s atmosphere is no longer clean. The rate of accidents has risen to enormous degree and it is no wonder that modern man considers them a part of everyday life. In simple words, we can conclude that the man of mechanical age faces as many problems because of machines as he thinks there are facilities that he enjoys by their use.
ESSAY. 31
Wedding Ceremony in Pakistan
or
Features of a Traditional Pakistani Wedding
Outlines
1. A Snapshot of Pakistani Wedding Ceremonies
2. A Blend of Traditional and Modern Elements
3. Pre-Marriage Goodwill Songs for Happy Married Life of the Couple
4. Rasm-e-Henna
5. The Wedding
a. The Bridegroom
b. Marriage Procession
c. Nikah Ceremony
6. Bride’s Departure and New Home
7. Walima
Marriage is an event of great importance in the life of both man and woman. It is a literal beginning of a new life, in which the two genders join in a bond lasting for life.
The traditional wedding ceremony in Pakistan has a charm of its own. Pakistani weddings are, by and large, a typical emblem of the Orient. West’s isolated culture cannot even dream of such hearty and rejuvenating ceremonies as those of Pakistani weddings. A Pakistani wedding ceremony—particularly that of Punjabis—lasts for at least three days. Before the appointed day of marriage, several customs are followed by both families as a social practice. Boys and girls assemble at the homes of groom and bride every evening to sing the conventional “goodwill” songs. These festive songs are sung for about two weeks before the wedding.
One day ahead of the wedding date, Rasm-e-Henna is performed by the friends of the bridegroom on one hand and by the friends of the bride on the other. Both bridegroom and bride, covered in bridal-wreaths, are seated in the center of each party. Candles are lit in henna platters, yellow dresses are worn by the youth, henna is applied on hands, and rose petals are spread all over. Folk songs and cultural dances, such as “Luddi” and “Bhangra”, are the chief features of Rasm-e-Henna. This exciting ceremony ends late at night.
The bridegroom comes to the bride’s home leading a huge wedding procession, generally, in a motorcade on the appointed day. A musical band, usually termed as “Military Band”, plays before the procession as the bridegroom approaches bride’s place. They are warmly welcomed by the bride’s family. The “Dulha” is offered a glass of milk in front of the bride’s home, which costs him heavily. The sisters and friends of bride demand a big amount of money as the price of the milk. Afterwards, the procession halts at the reception hall where the “Baratis” are offered drinks and other refreshments. Currently, this custom has changed and marriage halls have replaced traditional reception halls. At next is the stage of Nikah. A priest and the official Nikah-registrar approach the bridegroom to conduct the “Nikah Ceremony”. The bridegroom publicly ratifies Nikah on religious principles and thence signs the “Nikah Nama”. When the Nikah ceremony is over, a show of gunpowder begins and lasts for several minutes. Soon afterwards, the bride departs from her family with her life partner who takes her to his home in a “decorated” car.
Everyone seems excited at bridegroom’s place. On the couple’s arrival, a small rocket is fired. Women and girls of the locality visit bridegroom’s house to sight the bride. This sighting eve entails comments of the visitors regarding the appearance and manners of the bride. The night to follow is called “Bridegroom’s Night”.
On the following day, the ceremony of Walima is performed. Walima is the Sunnah of Holy Prophet (PBUH), which has rooted itself deep in Pakistani culture. In fact, it is a grand feast organized by the bridegroom for all his relatives, especially the family of the bride. Walima marks the final stage of a traditional Pakistani wedding. And, in this way, a happy event of wedding comes to an end.
Letter and Application Writing
Letter writing is a social activity, which has been popular in human societies ever since the earliest known times of history. Correspondence of a certain type, in fact, never ceased to exist among the humans of ancient cultures. The activity of sending oral messages is very old that predates our written history; whereas the act of submitting travelers a crude form of written documents was a later development. Of course, such a development became possible only after the invention of the system of writing. Although that correspondence was a rudimentary type of what one might call a ‘letter’, the idea of writing to others was not altogether absent from ancient cultures.
Today, however, the practice of letter writing is gradually getting reduced due to the existence of modern means of telecommunication. It is indeed, in one way, the blessing of modern culture that we have “emails” and “text messages” as the fastest means of communication today. Although the combination of satellite and electronic inventions has reduced the time span on one hand and overcome the geographical limitations on the other, we still use the same terminology as is used by the physical mail system. For instance, we use the words like “mail, inbox, mailbox, address, subject, sender, delivery, letter, junk mail,” so on and so forth, for our satellite-based correspondence. Likewise, we send emails and text messages in an identical manner to our acquaintances and loved ones as were sent the letters. Moreover, certain kinds of applications and interdepartmental or official letters form an inseparable part of modern administrative setup. The political organization of modern states gives space to such a system of intradepartmental and interdepartmental correspondence that is largely based on (official) letters, notifications, and (invited) applications. Similarly, business letters orient the arena of business, and they have to be written to keep the world active and busy in the activities of business.
Considering all of these varieties in a broad sense, there may be two basic categories of letters, namely:
(1) Formal Letters
(2) Informal Letters
Formal Letters include all such letters that do not involve a ‘personal relation’. Such letters are written to press, official departments, and authorities. Moreover, business letters, applications for job or other applications, invitations, notices, complaints etc. also form a part of this category. What is important about such letters is that they have a very formal and to-the-point language in addition to having a uniform subject-matter. These letters should not start with salutations as “my dear sir, my dear” or other similar words expressing intimacy. Instead, it is important to begin such letters straightaway with “Sir” or “Madam”. Some grammars insist that “Sir” and “Madam” can be preceded by “dear”. However, we suggest our readers to avoid the hackneyed “dear” salutation, for this word creates an effect of personal relationship. Moreover, a careful mention of the name/designation and address of the addressee is of utmost importance in formal letters. However, these details can be omitted in informal letters if the writer so wills.
Informal Letters include letters to family, relatives and friends. The second name for these letters is “Personal Letters”. The contents of informal letters are radically different from the contents of formal letters. These letters are, in various ways, an everyday discussion between two intimate individuals. The only difference between a conversation and an informal letter being the involved distance. Moreover, an informal letter is a reflection of its writer. It is the very being of the letter-writer that is incarnated in words and these words are sent to someone very much endeared. All conventionality is thrown away in such letters, and informal letters, as the name reflects, do not stumble from the blocks of formalities. Writing an informal letter is like sending ones remembrance to the person on the other side, and thus it is important that this remembrance be as much clear and embracive as possible. The style of such letters is always natural and homely, and the language is simple and unaffected (from drudgeries of formality and refined expressions). Colloquialism can, to some extent, creep into the language of the Personal Letters. However, slang is not admissible in this kind even if the letter is written to a very close friend, and it should be, therefore, avoided.
Composition of a Letter
We have to follow the rules of a good conversation in a letter in addition to considering the rules of a good composition. A letter is always subjective and thereby it shares nothing—except for a good diction—with an essay. Essays are always objective and general, whereas a letter is always subjective and personal, hence a contact between “I” and “You”. When writing for academic purposes, it is imperative to include a “subject” before the actual writing of the letter begins.
The Date
Date is an integral part of a letter. It is to secure the place of letter’s writing time in history. Date is, in fact, the simplest and the easiest constituent of a letter, which is usually given no real consideration. It is why that the date is, in a number of instances, either incorrectly written or completely skipped.
In a letter, date can be written variably—using several ways. The date may be written in the following styles:
1) April 20, 2010 (as written in the current book)
2) 20 April, 2010
3) The 20th April, 2010
4) The 20th of April, 2010
5) April 20th, 2010
If one likes, one may insert a ‘period/dot’ (.) after the year, although this practice has become extremely rare in the present. For the months with longer names, we can use the first three/four letters of their names followed by a ‘dot’ (.) for precision. For instance:
1) Dec. 23rd, 2010
2) 23rd Sept., 2010
3) The 1st of Aug., 2010
4) Nov. 10, 2010
The Salutation
In formal letters, one can express intimacy using “dear” before the relation or name of the addressee. For instance, one can write My Dear Father, My Dear Mother, My Dear Sister, or just Dear Father, Dear Mother, Dear Sister; however, when writing to a friend, one should use name after “dear” as My Dear Ahmad or Dear Ahmad. For official letters/applications, it is recommended to employ only “Sir” in case of male and “Madam” in case of female. However, a sense of reverence can be expressed using “respected” before sir/madam as Respected Sir or Respected Madam. Other formal letters should also follow the rule of the official letters. Moreover, Dear Sir can be written if already there is some formal acquaintance, generally that of a business relation, instead of Sir alone.
The Close
This part of the letter is also called “Subscription”. The essential qualification for this section is that it should necessarily correspond with the salutation. In easy language, it can be said that the subscription or close of the letter is a reflection of the salutation. One will suffer with no difficulty to write a subscription in line with the salutation when one has already inserted a particular type of salutation. Before writing the salutation, one should be clear who one is writing to.
|Salutation |Subscription/Close |
|In a letter to; |Obediently, |
|Principal, Official Authorities, Teachers and |Obediently, yours, or Yours Obediently, |
|Business Links (Formal) |Respectfully, |
|Sir/Madam |Yours Respectfully, |
|Dear Sir, | |
|Dear Teacher, | |
|Dear Professor, | |
|In a letter to; |Sincerely, |
|Newspapers/Editors (Formal) |Sincerely, yours, or Yours Sincerely, |
|Sir/Madam, |Yours very sincerely, |
|Dear Sir/Madam |Truly, |
| |Truly, yours, or Yours truly, |
|In letters to; |Affectionately, |
|Relatives and Friends (Informal) |Affectionately, yours, or Yours affectionately, |
| |Yours very affectionately, |
| |Your affectionate son/daughter, sister/brother, |
| |Yours loving, |
| |Yours very loving, |
|In letters to; |Sincerely, |
|Friends |Sincerely, yours, or Yours sincerely, |
The Subject
Subject is not a necessity for a letter. However, it is always commendable if one uses the Subject when writing a letter.
Letter Sketch
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City)
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor, (The head of the newspaper organization)
The Daily Dawn, (The newspaper title/name)
Karachi (The head office of the newspaper)
Subject: USE UPPERCASE CHARACTERS AND UNDERLINE THE SUBJECT
Sir,
Introductory Paragraph: It should in no way exceed three sentences. This should include greetings, short introduction to the purpose of writing or the problem, and opening of the main discussion.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Main Body: The length of main body depends on the nature of the subject. It may precisely be pulled to a reasonable length. While writing to a newspaper, the main body should not only consist of the review of problem, but it should also contain some practical suggestions for the solution of the problem being discussed. To this end, main body can be subdivided into two paragraphs—one of reviewing problem and the other of suggestions.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Final Paragraph: In this paragraph, the letter-writer should close the letter in a formal way, hoping that his letter will find space in the newspaper. Moreover, formal greetings should be paid in the subscription. Transitional phrase like “coming to the end”, “towards end” or “in the final say” would last healthy influence if used in this paragraph.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Some Precautions:
i. A Letter to Editor should necessarily discuss some problem(s). Such a form of letter has basically been designed to draw public attention to those problems of society that usually remain unsolved.
ii. Never provide any of your personal information. Your name in the letter is “XYZ” and your city has been named as “ABC”.
iii. Do not get into unnecessary details.
iv. In formal letters, such as those to the newspapers, all informal words like “my dear, your loving, your affectionately” etc. must be avoided.
v. The designation of the addressee should properly be written and when writing to a newspaper, the letter should be directed to the “Chief Editor” or “Editor” only. Moreover, in the location column, the city of the “head office” of the newspaper should be named.
Specimen Letters
1. A condolence letter from Abraham Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby, a Civil War Gold Star (American Military Award) Mother
(This letter has also been included in famous Hollywood World War II film “Saving Private Ryan”. This film is based on the story of saving the last surviving brother of the four, fighting in World War II. This letter by Abraham Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby is read in the film as an “ideal example of a father of nation” to immediate the saving mission.)
Executive Mansion,
Washington,
November 21, 1864
Dear Madam,
I have been shown in the files of the War Department a statement of the Adjutant-General of Massachusetts, that you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle.
I feel how weak and fruitless must be any word of mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic they died to save.
I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours, to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of Freedom.
Yours very sincerely and respectfully,
A. Lincoln
A personal letter of Lord Byron to Goethe
(Written on the eve of his voyage to Greece)
Leghorn,
July 24th, 1823.
Illustrious Sir,
I cannot thank you as you ought to be thanked for the line, which my young friend, Mr. Sterling sent me of yours; and it would but ill become me to pretend to exchange verses with him who, for fifty years, has been the undisputed sovereign of European literature. You must, therefore, accept my most sincere acknowledgements in prose and in hasty prose too; for I am at the present on my voyage to Greece once more and surrounded by hurry and bustle, which hardly allow a moment even of gratitude and admiration to express themselves.
I sailed from Genoa some days ago, was driven back by a gale of wind and have since sailed and arrived here ‘Leghorn’, this morning, to receive on board some Greek passengers for their struggling country.
Here also I found your lines and Mr. Sterling’s letter; and I could not have had a more favourable omen, a more agreeable surprise, than a word of Goethe, written by his own hand. I am returning to Greece to see if I can be of any little use there: if ever I come back I will pay a visit to Weimar, to offer the sincere homage of one of the many millions of your admirers.
I have the honour to be, ever and most,
Your obliged,
Noel Byron.
Both of these letters are brief and cogent. They reflect the mastery of their writers over words and a perfect knowledge of the construction of words into sentences and arranging of the sentences in a most appealing order. Readers are advised to go through these letters before they start with the subsequently following letters in this section. It will certainly deepen their insight and sharpen their knowledge of letter writing.
Formal Letters
Letter No. 1
A Letter to a Newspaper on the Evils of Street Begging
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
April 20, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: STREET BEGGING BEING A BEDEVILING SOCIAL PROBLEM
NEEDS ATTENTION
Sir,
I should be much obliged if you allow me some space in your esteemed paper. This will enable me to bring home to your readers that the evils of street begging are becoming greater by every passing day.
Begging in streets is such a long established custom in our country that it seems to have become an unbreakable part of society. No bazaar, street, or garden is without beggars. From children to aged people are in the habit of begging, whereas some of them are healthy and able to earn living. In most cases, the beggars pester people at their doorsteps or cling to them while moving from one place to another. Sometimes, child-abduction mafia operates in this disguise.
Regarding solutions, I believe begging of all sorts is a curse; hence all of its forms should be banned. Government must take measures to accommodate needy beggars, while the able-bodied beggars be forced to work. Beggars suffering from infectious ailments should be hospitalized at government’s expense.
I hope my suggestions will be taken up and acted upon before begging paralyzes the society.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 2
A Letter to a Newspaper Drawing Attention to the Insanitary Condition of City/City Streets
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
May 5, 2010
The Chief Editor,
Daily The News,
Lahore
Subject: INSANITARY ATMOSPHERE OF THE AREA DEMANDS QUICK
OFFICIAL ATTENTION
Sir,
This instance of writing to your esteemed paper is indeed a way to enable myself to draw the attention of authorities to the poor sanitary condition of our city.
We have a Corporation and I guess over half a dozen Health Officers. However, unfortunately, these gentlemen are unaware of the miseries of the citizens. The citizens are forced to live by heaps of dirt scattered here and there in the flooded streets of insanitary city slums. Further, our sewerage line has also broken and thus streets have become dirty ponds. Let the Town Nazim or Sanitary Inspector take a walk through the streets, and I believe that the disturbing sights and smells will convince him of the necessity of taking quick steps for sanitation improvement.
I would like to suggest a few points to this end. First, the streets should be provided with concrete and covered drains. Secondly, every street should be supplied large dustbins to keep people from throwing filth in streets. Lastly, the citizens should be educated regarding the importance of sanitation using media and other similar ways.
I hope my suggestions will be taken up and acted upon before an epidemic really breaks out.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 3
A Letter to Editor on the Problems of Working Women
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: THE PROBLEMS OF WORKING WOMEN NEED TO BE ADDRESSED
Sir,
The current instance of writing to your daily is indeed a means to enable myself to draw the attention of authorities to the problems of working women.
Ours is a male-dominated society and a workingwoman faces countless problems here. The problem of transport is a major concern for the females. The bus and van conductors are never civilized towards women. Similarly, male gender is dominant in almost all departments. A woman has to work along with her male mates in a manly way, which is not a healthy situation for the soft-gender. Moreover, lonely women have no sense of security when out at work. Ruffians and loafers often chase women in markets and create disturbances for their free movement.
Some practical measures can offer remedy to this situation. First, ladies transport with female crew should be introduced. Government should add special seats for women in all official departments. Women should be spared from hard jobs. Lastly, free movement of ladies for their daily activities should be insured by state and society.
I believe my letter will find space in your esteemed paper to highlight these problems.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 4
A Letter to the Editor of a Newspaper about Traffic Mess on City Roads
Or
A Letter to the Mayor of Municipal Corporation on the Problem of Traffic Jams
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
|The Chief Editor, |The Mayor Municipal Corporation, |
|The Daily Dawn, |A.B.C. |
|Karachi | |
Subject: CITIZENS NEED AN IMMEDIATE RELIEF FROM TRAFFIC JAMS
Sir,
The current instance of writing you is indeed a means to enable myself to draw the attention of authorities to the bad condition of roads and problem of traffic jams.
The evil of traffic jams in addition to worst road conditions has become a permanent panic for the citizens. It is no doubt that traffic jams and road destruction are the problems of everyday life. Ditches and cavities emerge to last forever. Despite bad state of roads, no one bothers to wait. Similarly, traffic jams are always noisy and fussy. Disorderly traffic paralyzes transportation, and pressure horns further add to the problem. All this is due to the bad condition of roads and a crippled transportation system.
Quick steps can redeem people of this problem. First, roads should be properly constructed, maintained, and governed. Secondly, traffic signals should be installed in every important square. Thirdly, there should be a complete ban on pressure horns. Lastly, speed limits must be prescribed to avoid road destruction and accidents.
I hope my suggestions will be taken up and acted upon before this problem paralyzes our society.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 5
A Letter to the Editor on the Increasing Problem of Terrorism
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: PROBLEM OF TERRORISM ON INCREASE—SAVE PAKISANI
PUBLIC!
Sir,
The current instance of writing you is indeed a means to enable myself to draw the attention of authorities to the increasing problem of terrorism in Pakistan.
Terrorism has become widespread in the recent years, and it is still on a rapid increase. Our countrymen daily hear about suicide blasts and target killing. Some of them become victim of such brutalities carried in the name of Islam. All this is enough to scare peace-loving Pakistani citizens. No true Muslim can favor this type of so-called Jihad. Islam preaches a message of peace, fraternity and humanity. The Taliban and other foreign-aided militants want to break Pakistan into pieces.
This dark situation can be changed and days of peace can return. However, this needs bold steps to be taken by the government. Our government should not waste any more time in fighting against terror for America; instead all energies should be used to restore its writ and cope with foreign hand in terrorism. Intelligence agencies and security forces should be modernized in line with present needs. Religious scholars should also come to aid government and preach true Islamic teachings. Further, a strict national stance is a need of the hour to unify our nation.
I hope my letter will find place in your paper.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 6
A Letter to the Editor on the Problems/Flaws/Drawbacks of Prevalent Examination System
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: DRAWBACKS AND PROBLEMS OF PREVALENT EXAMINATION
SYSTEM
Sir,
Using the channel of your esteemed newspaper, I want to bring in light the public opinion about present examination system. Let me highlight a few things here.
It is a fact that our examinational setup is full of flaws; hence, it is no wonder to say that the current examination system is on the verge of doom. The flaws may be seen on various sides, such as paper-setting, paper-marking, inspection, time-duration, possibility of cheating, so on and so forth. The technique of cramming is the most detestable sin of our examination system. Students make selective preparations, as they are aware of the repeatedly given so-called important questions; thus, without personal effort and creativity, they memorize word for word all important questions and get maximum score. Similarly, inspection does not come to up to the desired standards. Many a times candidates exchange their sheets due to poor inspection. Sometimes the inspectors or examiners are even bribed; mark-sheets are tempered; question papers are leaded out; hence a dangerous situation.
We request to the authorities to form a commission comprising of esteemed educational experts to work out a better, more practicable and befitting examination system.
Sincerely, X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 7
A Letter to the Editor on the Bad/Worsening Situation of Law and Order in Your City
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: WORSENING SITUATION OF LAW AND ORDER IN THE CITY
Sir
With the help of your esteemed newspaper, I want to highlight the day-by-day worsening situation of law and order in the city. I, as a responsible citizen, am extremely concerned about the growing crime-rate, which demands immediate attention of the authorities. Let me explain a few facts here below:
Gangs of thieves are active in the city and thefts are occurring regularly. Similarly, daylight robberies are also on rapid growth. Some big merchants of the city have become beggars after having lost everything in such robberies. City slums are the pivots of street crimes. No one dares to walk alone in the less busy streets after it is dark. A big number of people have lost their valuables in such incidents. Abduction is another major concern of the city. Rich people are abducted for acquiring money. Minor or individual rows are commonplace also. Target killing seems to have plagued the city as well. People have no sense of protection.
Suicide attacks and other bomb blasts add to the graveness of the situation. The Police Department appears as if it is not bothered about the law and order situation. Some practical measures can curb these problems and peace can be restored in the city. These practical measures may include ‘deployment of police squads in sensitive areas, installment of hidden cameras and checkpoints, private security arrangements’ and the similar.
I will be grateful if you allow me some space in your newspaper.
Sincerely, X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 8
A Letter to the Editor about the Problems of Overloading and Overcharging of the fares in public transport
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: OVERLOADING AND OVERCHARGING OF FARES IN PUBLIC
TRANSPORT
Sir,
The current instance of writing to your esteemed paper is indeed a means to draw the attention of authorities to the problems of overloading and overcharging in public transport. Let me tell you a few facts regarding these problems below here.
There is no proper system of transportation in Pakistan. Local route van and buses overload and overcharge the passengers. Nobody cares for the humanity of the passengers, and they are treated by the drivers and conductors as lowly creatures. The class of transporters has their exclusive concern with fare and they perceive of passengers not as humans, but five, ten or twenty rupee person. Moreover, the government has announced an official fare for different routes, which is generally displayed inside vans and buses. However, conductors have a way of their own. They charge whatever amount they want, and if somebody resists, they force him to get down. Traffic sergeants seem to have no interest in this situation. Moreover, overloading has already caused several casualties. People fall from the buses and reach hospitals, but still no one tends to the situation.
Government should take immediate notice of the situation. Transporters should be given a code to follow. They should not become the masters of the passengers. Inspection should be done by the government on secret basis and responsible persons should be punished. This is the only way that the respect and money of the passengers will be saved and transportation values be strengthened.
I hope my letter will be allowed some space in your newspaper. Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 9
Letter to the Editor on the Problem of Drug-Addiction
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: ATTENTION REQUIRED FOR THE WORSENING PROBLEM OF
DRUG-ADDICTION
Sir,
I should be much obliged if you allow me some space in your esteemed paper. This will enable me to draw the public as well as official attention to the ever-growing problem of drug-addiction.
We all know that drug-addiction is a big problem of our society, which is worsening day by day. It is leaving extremely negative effects on the people, especially on youth. There is no proper education regarding the problem of drug-addiction in our country, hence masses are reckless of it. Concerned official department is also heedless due to the corrupt structure. Drug-addiction has almost paralyzed the society, as the society has now come to standstill. City slums and overcrowded areas are the centers of drug-addiction.
The government on the issue of drug-addiction should take immediate measures. The concerned department should be made active to cure the problem of drug-addiction. Moreover, common people should be educated in this regard using mass media and public workshops. Public should mutually cooperate to check drug-addiction and other similar problems on their own.
I hope my suggestions will be taken up and acted upon before we are doomed.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 10
A Letter to the Editor of a Newspaper about Vulgarity in Films
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: Films Need to be Censored Due to Vulgarity
Sir,
I will be much obliged if I am allowed some space in your esteemed daily. This will serve me as a channel to draw official attention towards the potential issue of vulgarity in films.
As it is in the notice of the public as well as media that the standard of film-making in Pakistan is on a rapid decadence. The moral heights and the purity of language that were once the specialty of our films have now changed into the nadirs of obscenity and vulgar language. It appears to us that there is no official regulation or ethic code prescribed for the film industry. It is in everyone’s knowledge that government has inducted a Censor Board for the censorship of vulgarity from the films. However, no effect has been noticed of the presence of this regulating body on the cinema screen. The matter of fact is that our youth is being led into moral decadence, and the composed society of ours is, due to the vulgarity in films, is gradually getting exposed.
I am hopeful that the government officials and concerned individuals will pay immediate attention on the potential issue discussed in this letter.
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 11
A Letter to a Reputed National Daily on the Poor/Declining Standard of Education in Pakistan
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: The Alarm of the Poor Standard of Education in Pakistan
Sir,
I will be much obliged if I am allowed some space in your esteemed daily. This will serve me as a channel to draw official attention towards the potential issue of the declining standard of education in the country.
It is a sad fact that the standard of education in Pakistan has seen a gradual decline during the past decade. Unfortunately, no concrete measures were taken by the government throughout our national history regarding the improvement of education. We still feel the lack of a central policy on education, as the people are fed up with new experiments conducted every now and then. Moreover, the private education sector has worsened the problem. There is a severe lack of facilities in the government schools and colleges. Further, none of our universities is currently ranked as among the top thousand universities of the world. The private education sector adds to the problem. There is a host of private schools and colleges everywhere. Moreover, high ratio of fees, mutually different uniforms and syllabi, inexperienced teachers with comparatively low education, so on and so forth, are all the hallmark of the private educational institutions.
It is but inevitable now that the government take some effective measures to reverse the situation. All government schools and colleges should be facilitated in line with modern needs. Our Federal Government should adopt a national accreditation policy to issue NOC to the new applicants as well as to evaluate the existing private institutions.
I am quite optimistic that my voice, the voice of the public, will be heard and my proposals will be taken up and acted upon.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 12
A Letter to the Editor on the Evil of Food Adulteration
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: The Problem of Food Adulteration and the Public Health
Sir,
I will be much obliged if I am allowed some space in your esteemed daily. This will serve me as a channel to draw official attention towards the potential issue of food adulteration.
Food adulteration is not new in human history, and it is why that our Holy Prophet warned those to be given severe punishments who
Letter No. 13
A Letter to a National Daily on the Potential Issue of Smoking in Examination Hall
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Editor,
The Nation,
Lahore
Subject: The Harms of Smoking in Examination Hall
Sir,
I will be extremely grateful if I am allowed some space in your esteemed daily. This will indeed get me a chance to draw official attention towards the harms of smoking in examination hall.
It has been on several instances observed that the examinees unhesitatingly smoke in examination halls. The reason behind this act of theirs is that, as the examinees excuse, they are by this way able to think clearly and recollect ideas. Certainly, this excuse is in no way justifiable. In fact, the most number of examinees do not smoke, and the smoke of cigarettes becomes a panic for them. Since the smoke permeates the hall-air, they cannot work handily, and it is due to the fact that the non-smokers generally feel giddy in such an atmosphere. It is strange that even the examiners and inspection authorities do not object to or curtail the practice of smoking in examination halls; rather, they very often smoke themselves. This practice also goes against the code of ethics. Further, there is the possibility of the hall getting caught in fire, which may very likely cause a big loss of life and money.
On the basis of the above enumerated grounds, I believe that the practice of smoking in examination halls should be banned without delay. I am sure that my voice, the voice of the majority, will be heard among the authorities.
Truly,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 14
A Letter to a Newspaper on the Problem of Environmental Pollution
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: The Harms of Pollution to Our Environment
Sir,
I will be much obliged if I am allowed some space in your esteemed daily. This will serve me as a channel to draw official attention towards the potential issue of environmental pollution.
Letter No. 15
A Letter to the Editor of a Newspaper on the Worsening Problem of Unemployment
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Chief Editor,
The Daily Dawn,
Karachi
Subject: Ever-growing Unemployment among Educated Youth
Sir,
I will be much obliged if I am allowed some space in your esteemed daily. This will serve me as a channel to draw official attention towards the potential problem of unemployment.
Letter No. 16
A Letter to the Editor of a Famous Newspaper, Complaining about Power Crisis
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
10 June, 2009
The Editor,
The Frontier Post,
Peshawar
Subject: The Power Crisis and Its Effects on Everyday Life
Sir,
It will be a great honor for me if my letter is given some space in the columns of your reputed daily. It will certainly serve our primary end to invite official attention towards the problems created by the ongoing power crisis in the country.
It is a fact that the current power crisis has become the biggest as well as longest crisis of our national history. It has, beyond doubt, made hell of our life. Not to speak of the load shedding factor, even the supply of electricity—whatever hours it is supplied—is unsatisfactory. It would have been acceptable if it were only about the load shedding thing, but, in fact, the unscheduled load shedding has added to the problem. It is the worst part of the story, let me say, that the concerned ministry has not been able to issue a schedule for the power stoppage. The power supply is generally terminated by Wapda power stations on critical moments; when it is the office time; when it is the cooking time; and many a times at night. Those people who cannot afford generators have become psycho cases because of the unbearable heat, closure of businesses, and other similar hindrances caused in everyday life by the long duration power failure. The matter of fact is that our nights have become sleepless and days workless. Neither politicians nor government officials are ready to hear the voice of the miserable public, let own solving the problem. It is an ironic situation for a modern state, a nuclear power par excellence, that she is unable to facilitate her people in 21st century by generating enough electricity.
I hope my letter will pull the attention of the concerned authorities before there erupts a strong agitation against the government ultimately changing into civil disobedience.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Application/Official Letter Sketch
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City)
20 April, 2010
Designation of the Authority, (e.g. The Governor Punjab,)
Location of the Seat (e.g. Lahore)
Subject: USE UPPERCASE CHARACTERS AND UNDERLINE THE SUBJECT
Sir,
Introductory Paragraph: It should be kept within a limit of one to two sentences. This should include greetings, short introduction to the purpose of writing or the problem, and opening of the main discussion.
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Main Body: The length of main body depends on the nature of the subject. It may precisely be pulled to a reasonable length; but it must not be too lengthy in applications. The chief objective of writing should be discussed in this passage without indulging in any irrelevancies. If it is a job-application, give details of your age, your educational background, your experience and what makes you qualify for this job in this section.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Final Paragraph: In this paragraph, the applicant should close the application in a formal way, hoping for the best. Moreover, formal greetings should be paid in the subscription. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Sincerely/Obediently,
X.Y.Z.
Hints for Writing Application
1. An application differs from a letter in at least two major ways: (i) an application is always addressed to an authority (generally official), and (ii) the text of an application is smaller and more “to-the-point” than a letter.
2. Application does not include any suggestions. Instead, an application may contain request or demand. Job application is, in fact, a request for being accepted in an offered job.
3. Some grammars suggest a way of writing Resume/Curriculum Vitae in applications that is radically against the rule of application writing. Resume/CV should be written after the close, as a CV is always, being a separate sheet of facts, enclosed with the written application. Therefore, it is incorrect to add a CV before the subscription of the applicant (X.Y.Z. for examinational purposes).
1. Graduate Lady Teacher Wanted in a Local School (Advertisement)
Or
Write an Application for the Post of Graduate Lady Teacher Advertised in Newspaper.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Principal,
Bab-ul-Ilm Public School,
ABC
Subject: Application Against the Advertised Post of Graduate Lady
Teacher
Sir/Madam,
This letter is in response to your advertisement in the daily Dawn of 1st April, 2010, inviting applications against the post of graduate lady teacher.
I am twenty years old and a graduate. I took my B.A. degree in 1st division from Punjab University last year. My electives were Economics and Persian. I have been working as a primary school teacher since March 2009 in a local school. I am mentally and physically fit and have a good taste for teaching. I believe I have all educational and other qualifications held mandatory for this post. I will happily work hard to give every satisfaction.
I am enclosing herewith copies of testimonials in addition to my CV. I hope that I will be given a chance to prove my ability.
Obediently, yours,
X.Y.Z.
Curriculum Vitae
|Full Name |X.Y.Z. |
|Father Name |I.J.K. |
|Religion |Islam |
|Nationality |Pakistani |
|Domicile |Punjab (ABC) |
|Educational Background |Details Below |
|Matriculation (Science) |From Gujranwala Board in 2005 in 1st division |
|Intermediate (F.Sc.) |From Gujranwala Board in 2007 in 1st division |
|Graduation (B.A.) |From Punjab University in 2009 in 1st division |
|Work Experience |1-year experience of working as a teacher of primary classes at a reputed school of |
| |the city. |
|Reference |M.N.O. |
|Contact Details |Examination Hall, ABC |
2. Write an Application to the Secretary Higher Education for the granting of scholarship for higher studies abroad.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Secretary Higher Education Commission,
Islamabad
Subject: REQUEST FOR BEING GRANTED SCHOLARSHIP FOR HIGHER
STUDIES ABROAD
Sir,
I am writing you to present my case for being awarded a scholarship to continue my studies abroad. This application is based on the notion that I deserve such an award owing to my excellent academic record.
Sir, I have completed my graduation in distinction, securing top position in district. Now I am ambitious to have a master’s degree in International Law. Unfortunately, no university in Pakistan offers this course. Thus, I am unable to find a way out. However, a great many universities in foreign countries offer course in International Law. To my misfortune, I am come of a poor family; therefore, I cannot afford to study abroad on my own. I request Higher Education Commission to assist me in this regard. Please consider my case for the granting of a “Study-Abroad Scholarship”. I will be extremely grateful in case my application is entertained.
I hope my case will be given due consideration.
Obediently,
X.Y.Z.
3. Write an Application to the General Manager of a Textile Mills for the Job of a Female Secretary.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The General Manager,
Sitara Textile Mills,
Faisalabad
Subject: APPLICATION FOR THE VACANT POSITION OF FEMALE
SECRETARY
Sir,
I came to know from the advertisement that your office needs a ‘female secretary’. I consider myself a befitting candidate for this post on various grounds.
I am a graduate and only 21 years of age. Further, I have 2-year experience of working as office secretary in a multinational firm. My fluency of English language is excellent, whereas I also know all important computer operations. I have always been active and smart at work, as all of my ex-colleagues held high opinion about my personality and skills. My expertise on managing documents was especially admired.
In accordance with your demand, I attach herewith my resume. I hope my application will be given due consideration.
Faithfully, yours,
X.Y.Z.
Resume
|Full Name |X.Y.Z. |
|Father Name |I.J.K. |
|Religion |Islam |
|Nationality |Pakistani |
|Domicile |Punjab (ABC) |
|Educational Background | |
|Matriculation (Science) |From Gujranwala Board in 2005 in 1st division |
|Intermediate (F.Sc.) |From Gujranwala Board in 2007 in 1st division |
|Graduation (B.A.) |From Punjab University in 2009 in 1st division |
|Work Experience |2-year experience of working as Office Secretary in a national firm. |
|Reference |M.N.O. |
|Contact Details |Examination Hall, ABC |
4. Application to the Principal for the Issuing of College Character Certificate.
Examination Hal,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Principal,
Government Degree College,
A.B.C.
Subject: APPLICATION FOR THE ISSUING OF COLLEGE CHARACTER
CERTIFICATE
Sir,
May I humbly request you to issue me the character certificate of my college career? I urgently require it to apply for a job offered by a multinational company. Below are the particulars regarding my stay at college:
1. I joined the college as first year student in 2004 and was held in high opinion by my teachers.
2. I passed Intermediate (F.Sc.) in distinction in 2006 and was awarded scholarship for having obtained high 1st division.
3. My passing of B.A. came about in 2008 and again I secured 1st division.
4. I was very regular at college and my attendance in all subjects remained above 90%.
5. I also took part in sports and debates and won different prizes for the college.
6. Nobody ever complained about my code and conduct, for I was a disciplined student. My behavior towards teachers and other staff was full of respect.
Please mention these facts in the character certificate and issue it to me within this week. I will be grateful for this act of kindness.
Obediently, yours,
X.Y.Z.
5. Write an Application for the Remission of Fine (for being Absent).
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Principal,
Government College for Boys,
A.B.C.
Subject: REMISSION OF THE FINE CHARGED FOR ABSENCE
Sir,
It is respectfully stated that I am unable to pay the fine I have been charged for being absent from the college. This request has many logical grounds to be backed with.
I could not attend college for the first three weeks of January due to pneumonia. The disease prolonged itself despite I continued to take medicine. Since no other student goes to the college from my village, as I live in the remotest area of the district, I could neither send an application nor a message by some other means.
Sir, I belong to a very poor family. Moreover, I work in part time to pay for my studies; my father is a laborer and our family of seven members is living hand to mouth. Further, I have also attached a medical certificate issued from regional civil hospital. Therefore, I request you to relieve me from the extra burden of Rs. 450 and remit my fine.
I hope my application will be considered kindly and my fine be remitted.
Obediently, yours,
X.Y.Z.
6. Write an Application to the secretary Education for the Opening of Primary/Middle School for Girls.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Secretary Education (Punjab),
Lahore
Subject: OPENING OF A PRIMARY/MIDDLE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS
Sir,
It is humbly stated that we, the residents of village R.S., district Lahore, want to bring to your kind notice that our village does not have a primary/middle school for girls. The Government of Punjab is trying utmost to spread education everywhere; however, it is sad that in the present age of science, our village is still deprived of education for females.
Most of the parents keep their daughters uneducated and ignorant due to this factor. However, a few rich parents send their daughters for education to other villages or cities. This is a very hard exercise for all of us. Let me tell you that a school can be opened in our village without much expenditure. The idle-sitting educated girls of the village can be employed as teachers to fill the staff. Further, vacant government buildings of our village, which are quite a few, can be used for the school purposes.
I hope our application will be given due consideration and entertained.
Obediently,
X.Y.Z.
7. Write an Application to the Principal of Your College Requesting to Grant You 15 Days Leave.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Principal,
Government College for Women,
A.B.C.
Subject: LEAVE FOR 15 DAYS REQUIRED FOR MEDICAL TREATMENT
Madam,
I have not been feeling very good for a few past days. Yesterday, I had a complete medical checkup and the doctor, a famous physician of the region, advised me to have a minimum rest of two weeks. I was given permission by the doctor during the previous checkup to continue my college, for the fever then seemed under control. However, the situation worsened the day before yesterday and I was admitted to our family doctor’s clinic immediately. After the checkup, it was discovered that the fever had elongated and for a complete recovery, it might take a period of two weeks.
Therefore, it is humbly requested to you that I be granted 15 days’ leave, so that I can take rest to escape further running down of health. I am hopeful that my application will be treated kindly and my request will be accepted.
Obediently, yours,
X.Y.Z.
8. Write an Application to the D.I.G. Police on the Bad/Worsening Situation of Law and Order in Your City.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The D.I.G.,
A.B.C. (Division)
Subject: WORSENING SITUATION OF LAW AND ORDER IN THE CITY
Sir
The purpose of today’s writing is to bring to your kind notice the day-by-day worsening situation of law and order in the city. I am, as a responsible citizen, extremely concerned about the growing crime-rate.
As you already know that thieves are active in the city and thefts are occurring regularly. Similarly, daylight robberies are also on rapid growth. Some big merchants of the city have become beggars after having lost everything in these robberies. City slums are the pivots of street crimes. No one dares to walk alone in the less busy streets after it is dark. A big number of people have lost their valuables in such incidents. Abduction is another major concern of the city. Rich people are abducted for acquiring money. Minor or individual rows are commonplace also. Target killing seems to have plagued the city as well. People have no sense of protection.
Suicide attacks and other bomb blasts add to the graveness of the situation. The Police Department appears as if it is not bothered about the law and order situation. Sir, if your department does not give protection to the citizens, who will guard them? Your attention to such issues can save hundreds of lives.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
9. Reply to an Advertisement for the Position of a Clerk/Junior Clerk.
|Advertisement |
|“Wanted a young man with reasonable knowledge of English and Urdu for Railway Office. State qualification, age, |
|experience, if any, and minimum pay acceptable. Apply to the Manager, Railway Corporation Stores, Lahore.” |
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
20 April, 2010
The Manager,
Railway Corporation Stores,
Lahore
Subject: APPLICATION FOR THE VACANCY OF CLERK/JUNIOR CLERK
Sir,
In response to your advertisement in “The Dawn” daily of 10th April, 2010, for the vacancy of clerk/junior clerk with the compulsory knowledge of English and Urdu for Railway Office, I beg respectfully to offer my services.
I am a graduate and only 21 years of age. Further, I have 1-year experience of working as a Junior Clerk in Lahore Development Authority. My fluency of English language is excellent, whereas Urdu is my mother language. I also know all important computer operations. I have always been active and smart at work, as all of my colleagues hold high opinion about my personality and skills. My expertise on managing documents and other clerical work is especially admired. I am ready to accept whatever salary is announced by the department.
In accordance with the departmental requirements, I attach herewith my resume. I hope my application will be given due consideration.
Sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Resume
|Full Name |X.Y.Z. |
|Father Name |I.J.K. |
|Religion |Islam |
|Nationality |Pakistani |
|Domicile |Punjab (Lahore) |
|Educational Background | |
|Matriculation (Science) |From Lahore Board in 2005 in 1st division |
|Intermediate (F.Sc.) |From Lahore Board in 2007 in 1st division |
|Graduation (B.A.) |From Punjab University in 2009 in 1st division |
|Work Experience |1-year experience of working as a clerk in Lahore Development Authority. |
|Reference |M.N.O. |
|Contact Details |Examination Hall, ABC |
10. Write an application/official letter to the Nazim of your city regarding the poor sanitary condition and broken Sewerage line of your area.
Or
Write an application to the Mayor of your city about the poor sanitary condition of your area.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
April 20, 2010
|The District Nazim, |The Mayor, |
|ABC |ABC |
Subject: POOR SANITARY CONDITION OF THE AREA DEMANDS QUICK
OFFICIAL ATTENTION
Sir,
The purpose behind writing you today is to bring home an extremely important but constantly ignored issue. I want you and other concerning authorities to have a look at the poor sanitary condition of our area.
It is true that we have a Health and Sanitary Corporation and I guess over half a dozen Health Officers. However, unfortunately, none of these gentlemen shows concern for the miseries of the citizens. The citizens are forced to live by heaps of dirt scattered here and there in the flooded streets of insanitary city slums. Further, our sewerage line has also broken and thus streets have become dirty ponds. Let the Sanitary Inspector take a walk through the streets, and, I believe, he will immediately get convinced when having been once in this insanitary atmosphere.
Since it is a public issue, I would like to suggest a few things. First, the streets should be provided with concrete and covered drains. Second, every street should be supplied large dustbins to keep people from throwing filth in the streets. Lastly, the citizens should be educated regarding the importance of sanitation using media and other similar ways.
I hope you, as the chief authority in the city, will give some consideration to this issue and take all necessary measures before an epidemic really breaks out.
Obediently,
X.Y.Z.
11. Write an application to the Principal of your college about the shortage of sports facilities in college.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
21 April, 2010
The Principal,
Government ABC College,
A.B.C.
Subject: SHORTAGE OF SPORTS FACILITIES IN THE COLLEGE
Sir,
Respectfully, it is stated that our college lacks the facilities of sports that almost every college offers. After having waiting for a long time, we consider it a high time to bring this problem into your kind notice.
It is no doubt that ours is a big college of the city. It not only accommodates the majority of the students of our city, but it also welcomes hundreds of students coming from adjacent areas. As a host of both urban and rural students, the responsibility of the college to facilitate the students grows several times. However, the case of our college is otherwise. The thing that has been desperately felt is the shortage of sports facilities. There is no playground in the college. Moreover, the nominal facilities offered to the sports section are also inadequate. Games like hockey, volleyball, handball, kabadi, and squash are always ignored, whereas the teams of cricket and football are ill-equipped. Further, the sportsmen are not given any relaxation from the tight study schedule. It is why neither of our two teams reached victory-stand in the university tournaments.
Since extracurricular activities, such as games, are also a part of healthy education, we are optimistic that you will take an instant notice of the shortage of sports facilities in the college. We should not forget that a healthy body has a healthy brain.
Obediently,
X.Y.Z.
12. Write an application to the Executive Engineer (Electricity) about the Power Breakdown in Your Area/Zone.
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
21 April, 2010
Executive Engineer (Electricity),
D.E.F. Division,
A.B.C.
Subject: Unscheduled Failure of Power
Sir,
The purpose of writing to your office is to draw your attention to the continual breakdown of power in our zone.
It is noticeable that this is not the complaint of only our locality, but almost all adjacent areas suffer with the same problem. I live in the western zone of the city, the locality called S.T.U. People have been tired with lodging complaints every now and then, for the response from the authorities has never been encouraging. The S.D.O. is, in fact, responsible for this suffering of ours. Despite our applications, he has not given any consideration to the issue—not even to issue a schedule for the power outages.
Sir, it is 21st century, but still our nights are dark and days perspiring. We have been denied our basic right of energy i.e. electricity, for which we have to pay heavy bills every month. Moreover, the water supply is also affected due to the power breakdown. All this has made our area into an inferno.
Now it is my request to you on the behalf of a whole locality that you take immediate steps to fix the problem. More dutiful individuals should be assigned responsibilities. A schedule should also be issued, and electricity should be resumed in the morning and evening at least, if not more.
Obediently,
X.Y.Z.
13. A Letter to the Ministry of Health Giving Some Suggestions to Eradicate Smoking from Society
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
March 23, 2008
The Secretary,
Ministry of Health,
Islamabad
Subject: Giving Suggestions on Eradicating Smoking from Society
Sir,
I want to draw your kind attention towards the ever-growing problem of smoking in our society. The issue of smoking certainly demands a sincere consideration.
Smoking is very much an addiction like the addiction of drugs. It is an interesting fact that all cigarette-packets bear the caution that smoking is injurious to health. However, ironically, the number of smokers is on a rapid increase. The youth is the primary prey of the smoking-cancer. Let alone the boys, now even the girls have begun smoking quite liberally. Certainly, this is an alarming situation, which seems to be on its worst.
I personally feel inclined to say that the time is ripe to take effective steps against the problem to eradicate it from the society once for all. I am obliged to suggest some measures in this regard, as below:
1. The publicity of tobacco products on T.V. and radio should be banned immediately.
2. Public workshops, seminars and walks should be organized nationwide to raise the level of awareness regarding the harms of smoking.
3. Smoking should be declared prohibited in transports and at all public places.
4. Well planned anti-smoking campaign should be launched using electronic and print media.
5. Civil society workers and NGOs should play an active as well as proactive role in this particular issue.
6. The ratio of taxes on tobacco products should be doubled as to discourage the buyer from buying any tobacco products resulting due to the high prices.
I am sure that if these steps are effectively taken, the result will be very fruitful and there will be healthy changes in the society within months.
Faithfully,
X.Y.Z.
Informal Letters
Letter No. 1
A letter to the teacher thanking him for the guidance he provided you in your studies/preparation of examination
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
May 10, 2010
Subject: Expressing Gratitude to the Teacher for His Guidance in Studies
Respected Teacher,
Assalam-O-Alaikum!
I was much excited to have received your kind letter yesterday. Thank you very much sir for expressing your concern through this letter and remembering me. I am doing fine in my studies as well as enjoying a good health.
Since it is, as a student, my duty to reply to your letter, I have decided to write you back in detail immediately. I want to inform you that I have obtained A-Grade in the Board examination. The result was announced only a few days ago. Every one is extremely happy on this remarkable success of mine. This brilliant performance is certainly indebted to your benevolent guidance that you provided me in the preparation of the Board examination. My parents also express a sense of gratitude and thank you for your selfless assistance. Sir, I will for ever more remember you in my happy memories as well as prayers for this act of kindness. May Allah Almighty bestow upon you a very good health and all the blessings of life. Amen!
I will soon pay a personal visit to your home to express my feelings of gratitude.
With regards,
Yours obediently,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 2
A letter to your father requesting him for increase in your monthly allowance
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
May 20, 2011
Subject: Request for Increase in Monthly Allowance
My Dear Father,
I received your very kind letter this noon. The news of your promotion came like a glad news in the nostalgic moments of hostel life, and I am extremely happy as to have been informed about this healthy development. Dear dad, I congratulate you from the recess of my heart.
Furthermore, I hope that everyone at home is doing fine. I was a little anxious about mom’s health, for she was not well for quite some time; but your letter brought me a sense of satisfaction that mother’s health is good now. Moreover, you will also be delighted with the information that my performance in studies has greatly improved. You can call it now ‘excellent’.
Taking advantage of this occasion, I want to tell you something very important. I have been having hard times in meeting hostel and tuition expenses for some time. My tuition fee, hostel rent, and other living expenses have almost doubled in the recent months. Similarly, every educational item has witnessed price-hike as well. In such circumstances, it has become extremely difficult for me to meet all of my expenses in the current monthly allowance. Thus, it is my request to my beloved father that you increase my monthly allowance by Rs. 2500. This will really help me in continuing my studies with peace of mind.
Pay special compliments to mother.
Affectionately, yours,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 3
A letter to your younger brother, who is studying in college, pointing him out the evils of cramming
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
March 23, 2009
Subject: Evils of Cramming and the Means of Good Study
Very Dear Ali,
I was delighted to have received your letter yesterday. Thank you for the prayers. I am doing fine and I am sure you will be enjoying your college life and progress in studies.
As you have stated in your letter the differences between the school and college atmosphere, I understand that there is a big gulf between the life of the two stages. It is my advice to you that you study regularly and attentively even at college. I know that the majority of the students are in the habit of cramming their lessons from guidebooks and other notes. They learn nothing in this way but lose what their minds possess.
Here is a caution for you: you should know that the cramming habit destroys a student’s creative genius. When cramming, a student does not use his own brain and depends totally on the cramming. Hence, his power of thinking gradually dies out. I strongly recommend you to use your own mind in your studies by keeping yourself away from cramming. Further, you should seek the guidance of your teachers for preparing yours lessons instead of using other ‘short-cuts’.
I am quite optimistic that you will act upon my advice.
With best regards,
Yours Affectionately,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 4
A letter to the friend congratulating him on his brilliant success/performance in examination
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
May 10, 2008
Subject: Congratulation to Friend on His Brilliant Success in Examination
Assalam-O-Alaikum Dear Ahmad,
I was extremely excited to learn from your letter about your brilliant performance in the Intermediate examination. It was a great news that filled me with a sense of joy as well as relief. I am sure this success is a great moment of joy for you and your family.
In fact, I was keenly waiting for the announcement of your result. My joy knew no bounds when I learnt that you had secured high 1st division in F.Sc. My friend, I congratulate you from the inner recesses of my heart on this remarkable performance. I do hope that you will show an equally brilliant performance in your future examinations and will always stand above the rest. I also expect that you will arrange a grand feast on this occasion of jubilation inviting all of your classmates and friends.
Please express my Salaam and compliments to your mom and dad.
With best wishes,
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z
Letter No. 5
A letter to your father informing him of your progress in studies
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
April 21, 2006
Subject: Informing Father about Progress in Studies
My Dear Daddy,
It was an unspeakable excitement to have received your affectionate letter in the hostel. My feeling of joy was on climax after reading it, and it is why I liked to share the joy-bringing words of yours with my roommates. Certainly, this letter has offered the effect of a healing medicine in the panic of nostalgia. I am glad to have the news that every one of our family members is enjoying good health.
As you have asked me in your letter to inform you about my progress in studies, you will be pleased to know that I am paying real attention on my studies. Due to the deeper concentration, I have shown a very high performance in the college mid-term tests. I stood 2nd in the class. Now, I am quite hopeful that, God-willing, I will repeat my excellent performance in the final examination with a hope of standing 1st in the class. To your further joy, I am very optimistic to secure a position in the Board results. Please, pray for my success unceasingly.
Pay my compliments to mom and love to young Ali.
With regards,
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 6
A letter to the friend expressing condolence on the death of his mother
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
February 28, 2008
Subject: Condoling the Death of Friend’s Mother
Dear Ahmad,
I was really shocked to hear the news of the untimely death of your mother. May her soul rest in peace and her grave be a place of Paradise under Divine benediction. Amen!
Ahmad, you should remember that Allah Almighty does whatever He likes. It is a fact that we all have to taste death sooner or later. We can do nothing in this matter but to for the forgiveness of departing souls. The best thing to do after someone’s death is to recite Holy Quran and invoke Allah’s mercy through supplications.
Your mother’s death is indeed a great loss to your family. However, I advise you to bear this loss patiently; as it is the promise of Allah in Holy Quran:
“Verily, Allah is with those who are patient.”
I will, God-willing, visit you soon for offering Fatehah. Please convey my condolence to your father as well.
With best wishes,
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 7
A letter to your father expressing your feeling of dislike for the hostel life
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
January 1, 2011
Subject: The Problems of Hostel Life
Dear Papa,
It was a moment of thrill when the postman delivered me your letter today afternoon. After reading it, I could not wait to reply later. So, I have just forsaken every other activity to write back to my dear Papa. Indeed it is due to the grace of God that every one at home including mother is doing fine.
You have asked me to express my views about hostel life. Certainly, I am upset with it. I want to let you know straightaway that I feel loneliness and homesickness here. I miss my home very much. The hostel life is not so comfortable as it appears from distance or is generally assumed about it. These difficult moments make me remember you, mother, and my cute younger brother Ali. In fact, the food quality at hostel mess is not very good. Moreover, there is much noise, which disturbs our study.
To sum all this in a few words, I am keenly waiting for the summer vacation to get back to home and enjoy the blessing of being with my family. Please pay my compliments to all elders and love to all the young ones at home.
Yours affectionately,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 8
A letter to the friend describing him your impression of the first day at college
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
October 10, 2010
Subject: The First Day-Impression of the College
Dear Sadaf,
I hope you will be energetic and enthusiastic in life like ever. Beyond mere words, I was really excited to have received your letter yesterday. Further, I was surprised to find an interesting demand from you. It sounds strange that somebody has asked me to write briefly about my first day-impression of the college.
You are fully aware of the fact that there is a hell of difference between school and college. Certainly, every passing day of the college has its own impressions and experiences. However, the first day was indeed the most remarkable one for me. We entered college with hopes and fears. The senior students welcomed us with jokes as well as pleasant remarks. Not very many classes were conducted but a few on the first day. Only two teachers came to our class and sufficed to introduce themselves. Interestingly, it was the girls from the graduation section who disguised themselves as teachers and made real fun of the ‘new comers’. Further, as we did not know any locations, such as canteen, library, and washrooms, inside the college, hence, we wandered here and there as strangers.
It has been over a month since that day, and I obviously feel myself much changed today. I acclimatized myself very quickly in this new atmosphere, and, as I have plenty of new friends, I am really enjoying my college life. I hope college will play a key-role in the building of my personality.
Please pay my compliments to all at home, especially to your mother.
With best of the wishes,
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 9
A letter to the friend requesting him to lend you his camera for a few days
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
March 10, 2008
Subject: Requesting Friend to Lend His Camera for a Few Days
My Dear Aadil,
I am sure that you and your family will be hale and hearty. I am also hopeful that your interest in studies will have doubly grown and your performance will have mounted to the level of your satisfaction.
Here, I am going to request you to lend me something. I believe that you will not disappoint me. As you already know that I am greatly fond of traveling and photography. My family has made a program to visit Kaghan near the end of this month. It is in your knowledge that the Saif-al-Malook Lake is a wonderful scene for photography. I do not want to miss these memorable moments from being captured in camera. However, as you know, I have no camera of my own. Therefore, I humbly request you to lend me your camera for a week. I am optimistic that you will not turn down my request, so that I may be able to save those moments passed near natural scenery everlasting.
I am looking forward to listen from you in positive.
With best wishes,
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 10
A letter to the friend, inviting him to spend some time with you at your village during summer vacation
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
June 15, 2010
Subject: Inviting a Friend to the Village during Summer Vacation
Dear Muhammad Ali,
I hope you will be doing fine after having freed yourself from the busy schedule of studies. Through this letter, in fact, I want to remind you of the promise you made with me last year. I am sure that you have not forgotten your promise of spending a few days with me in my village during summer vacation. As it is in your knowledge that the commencement of summer vacation has taken effect on the 10th of this month, so, taking advantage of the eve, I again formally invite you to come to my village.
Let me tell you some prominent features of my village that might appeal you to abandon your activities in the city and immediately set out for my village. Due to the location of my village near river Jehlum, the climate is wonderfully pleasant here in summer. There are several beautiful gardens and green fields around the village. Medium-sized water channels irrigate these fields and gardens. All this makes the whole scenery extremely beautiful and appealing. If you join me, we will together visit these places everyday and enjoy ourselves as well as our studies. Further, both of us will study under the soothing shade of the garden trees every noon. In the afternoon, we will visit the river bank and have a walk there by the flowing cool water. Our evenings will be spent in playing hide and seek with other guys of our age. I promise that your time spent at my village will become the most memorable period of your life.
Please inform me of the date and time of your arrival beforehand. I am looking forward to have a reply from you in positive.
With best of the wishes,
Yours sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Letter No. 11
A letter to the friend expressing sympathy for his failure in the examination and encouraging him for another attempt
Examination Hall,
A.B.C. (City),
September 17, 2006
Subject: Expressing Concern for the Friend on His Failure in Examination
My dear Ayesha,
I am extremely sorry to learn about your failure to pass the Board examination. I can understand how bad you must be feeling at the moment.
It is certainly not out of my knowledge that you worked really hard for the Board examination. However, unfortunately, you could not get through. Sometimes, it so happens in our life that we do not get what we strive for. To this we can only call ‘bad luck’. Moreover, I believe that some of the paper was out of course, which, perhaps, the students were not informed about. Another thing that might be held responsible for your failure was your weak health. When I last saw you during the examination days, your health seemed on decline. Therefore, the guilt of failure cannot be ascribed to you, as you did try your level best to make headway.
Now take my words very seriously and reflect upon them. Please do not lose heart, for it is only a timely failure. You should now make another attempt and appear in the coming examination without delay. I am sure God will reward your hard work and your score will be very high this time.
Better luck next time!
Yours very sincerely,
X.Y.Z.
Précis
“Précis” is a French word and it implies “accurate expression”. It was adopted in English in 1760, in Lord Chesterfield’s Letters. At the time of its adoption, this loanword meant “summary” in French as a noun, whereas as an adjective it implied “condensed”. Précis is, in a technical sense, the art of compressing, condensing and summarizing. According to I.M. Verma, a famous Indian grammarian, “a précis is the gist or main theme of a passage expressed in as few words as possible.”[36] Précis should indeed be lucid, succinct, and complete. It should include all important points of the main passage with an equal emphasis on the focused points.
1. Technically, précis writing has two fundamental steps, i.e. reading and writing.
2. A good précis is a continuous piece of prose. It should in no way be a collection of disjoined sentences and half-spoken ideas.
3. Précis should be clear and sense-making. Use your own language to express it as distinctly as possible. There should be no pan of artificiality on your language.
4. A précis should necessarily contain the leading thoughts and the general impression of the original passage.
5. No irrelevant materials should be included; rather all that seems unnecessary should be omitted. This scrutiny will prove a major step in the making of a brief, eloquent and precise précis.
6. The précis must not be sketchy, i.e. an outer sketch of the passage. It should be, instead, complete and integrated as an organic whole.
7. Précis must not become paraphrasing. Paraphrasing is a completely different technique. Précis should only address the ideas/points of the original passage rather than focusing on the sentences.
8. A careful reading of the passage should be done before precising it. Lines containing main points should be underlined and reread. You must be able to distinguish what is important from what is unimportant.
9. The use of articles should be avoided as much as possible. Moreover, long phrases, lengthy expressions, unnecessary conjunctions, prepositions and adverbs, and obscure words only contribute in the making of a bad précis.
10. The use of contraction (contracted forms of auxiliary verbs) is a very impressive as well as effective technique in the making of a good précis.
11. The tense and the tone of the original passage should by no means be disturbed. The précis must contain the tense structure of the original passage alongside the theme.
12. A good understanding of the use of punctuation marks, especially that of commas, semi-colons, colons, and hyphens, can greatly benefit in the art of précis writing.
COMPREHENSION
Comprehension means the “act of understanding”. Sometimes, it is also referred as “faculty of understanding”. In both cases, the word of emphasis is ‘understanding’; it, therefore, implies that the exercise of comprehension has straightaway to do with our understanding of something. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary says that comprehension is “an exercise that trains students to understand a language.”
Comprehension was derived from Latin root word comprehendere, “to grasp, to seize, to comprise”. Latin noun-equivalent in the present case is comprehensionem, which means “a seizing”. Therefore, we are sure to assert that the word in its derivative sense means ‘the seizing of something by our brain’.
In academic writing, especially in Pakistani style, a comprehension practice consists of a passage, and a minimum number of 5 questions are asked at the end of the given passage. These questions are essentially based on the original text of the passage, and they may demand either exact words or information in answer, or an idea inferred from a certain area of the passage. Thus, we at first understand the themes running in the passage, and thereafter we attempt to comprehend the meaning and direction of each question asked.
Golden Hints for a Successful Comprehension
1. Have a quick reading through the given passage to infer a general idea of its nature.
2. Read all of the questions very carefully as well as thoroughly and attempt to understand their directions.
3. Read again the text of the passage, and this time underline all relevant sentences marking them in accordance with the number of corresponding questions.
4. Rethink and reconstruct each marked sentence.
5. Now try to make each answer compatible with the corresponding question.
6. Use your own English and syntax, and never yearn for making it a copy of the text given in the passage. Also avoid artificial or ambiguous style.
7. Use complete sentences when answering, and avoid tag or hung-up answers.
8. The answer must be brief and relevant.
9. The length of the answer should be about one to three sentences. The answer should not be made lengthy unless asked for a certain length.
10. In case you are asked to define a word or write the meaning of a phrase, the answer should be expressed as clearly as possible. Similarly, if possible, do provide information on the position of the questioned word in Parts of Speech. Phrases can be spoken of as idioms or maxims.
A Model Précis
Passages for Comprehension and Précis
1. “Mega projects of translation of Christian and ancient Greek literature from Greco-Roman languages into Arabic had extremely negative effects on the subsequent development of Islam’s theological thought. Muslims naturally craved for a better understanding of their own religion in the light of newly acquired cognitive standards from the “People of Book”, that was soon to develop a situation analogous to square peg in a round hole. The presence of John of Damascus, poet Akhtal, and other Christians at the court of the Umayyads in high offices rendered the situation extremely dangerous for the health of a purely Muslim thought. Christians being well-versed in the Semitic religious history posed a grim threat to Islam’s inherent knowledge, and Muslims in turn, being too naïve in the early history of their religious growth, were ready to take ‘Isa and Judo-Christian Bible as the touchstones for the reconsideration of Islam and its Prophet.”
(Sayyed Waqas Hayder, What Quran Says)
Questions:
1. What was translated into Arabic and from which languages?
2. Name two important Christians who were in high offices at the Umayyad court.
3. What became the touchstone for the Muslims during the early growth of their religion?
4. Where were the cognitive standards acquired from? Do you agree with the author’s view?
5. Did the translation work leave a positive thought on the subsequent development of Islamic theological thought? What was the natural craving of the Muslims?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest the précised passage a suitable title.
2. “The third great defect of our civilization is that it does not know what to do with its knowledge. Science has given powers fit for the gods, yet we use them like small children. For example, we do not know how to manage our machines. Machines were made to be man’s servants; yet he has grown so dependant on them that they are in a fair way to become his masters. Already most men spent most of their lives looking after and waiting upon machines. And the machines are very stern masters. They must be fed with coal, and given patrol to drink, and oil to wash with, and they must be kept at the right temperature. And if they do not get their meals when they expect them, they grow sulky and refuse to work, or burst with rage, and blow up, and spread ruin and destruction all round them. So we have to wait upon them very attentively and do all that we can, to keep them in a good temper. Already we find it difficult either to work or play without the machines, and a time may come when they will rule us altogether, just as we ruled the animals.”
(C. M. Joad)
Questions:
1. Instead of making machines our servants, the author says they have become our masters. In what sense has this come about?
2. The use of machines has brought us more leisure and more energy. But the author says that this has been a curse rather than a blessing. Why?
3. What exactly is the meaning of civilization? Do you agree with author’s views? Try to be as exact as possible.
4. What is the third great defect of our civilization? Give a short reply in your own words.
5. In what respect will the machines rule humankind, according to the author?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest a suitable title.
3. “The Prophet, when passing through the phase of teenage, happened to participate in one of the famous Arabian wars known as Harb-e-Fijar, “the Sacrilegious War”. The spasmodic war broke out during the sacred pagan months, wherein bloodshed or fighting was strictly forbidden; hence, it was given the name of ‘sacrilegious war’. This war became an important event in the Arabian history, as it was remembered on the account of violating the law of the sacred months. Since the war was an inter-tribal show of power—an aftermath of a murder—Prophet Muhammad joined the war-stage from the side of Qureshite coalition. However, the Prophet had no literal fighting during the lag of his stay on the frontier, for it would not befit the dignity of a merciful Prophet to harm his opponents without being aware of their sin. Thus, he contented to be an observer only, while he attended on his uncle and volunteered himself for the secondary activity of gathering the shot arrows. It is quite surprising that an arrow-gathering volunteer, without even the least bit of chivalric experience, became the wisest commander of all times, who, later on, led a whole side of chivalric heroes in a number of battles. Another interesting point here for consideration is that the battles fought under his leadership were far more effective and productive for social welfare and achieving desired objectives than being lethal to humanity.”
(Sayyed Waqas Hayder, A Critical Look into the Life of Muhammad)
Questions:
1. In what war did the Prophet of Arabia participate?
2. What major duties were performed by the Prophet during the war?
3. Why did the Arabs call this war Harb-e-Fijar, “the Sacrilegious War”?
4. How many times has the word Muhammad been mentioned in the passage? What do you know of this man?
5. “It would not befit the dignity of a merciful Prophet to harm his opponents without being aware of their sin.” Do you agree with the stance of the author expressed in this line?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
4. “Totalitarian governments of Left sought to avoid these problems by subordinating the whole of civil society to their control including what their citizens were allowed to think. But such a system in its pure form could be maintained only through a terror that threatened the system’s own rulers. Once that terror was relaxed, a long process of degeneration set in, during which the state lost control of certain key aspects of civil society. Most important was its loss of control over the belief system. And since the socialist formula for economic growth was defective, the state could not prevent its citizens from taking note of this fact and drawing own conclusions.”
(Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man)
Questions:
1. Who sought to avoid the problems and by what means?
2. Which formula has been called by the author as “defective”?
3. What is that formula all about?
4. How could the Totalitarian system of the Left be maintained in its pure form?
5. What does the author mean by saying “taking note of this fact and drawing own conclusions?
6. Make a précis of the passage suggesting a suitable title.
5. “One context of dialogue is the personal quarrel, characterized by aggressive personal attack, heightened appeal to emotions, and a desire to win the argument at all costs. The quarrel is characterized by bitter recrimination, a loss of balanced perspective, and, afterwards, most often a regret for excessive personal attacks that were not meant or deserved. The quarrel is no friend of logic and frequently represents argument at its worst. The goal of the quarrel is for each arguer to attack or “hit” his opponent at all costs, using any means, whether reasonable, fair, or not. Thus the quarrel is characterized by the fallacious ad hominem attack (attack against the person, rather than the argument) and by emotional arguments that would not be judged relevant by more reasonable standards of argument.”
(Douglas N. Walton, Informal Logic)
Questions:
1. What is this passage about?
2. Does a quarrel, in any way, represent argument?
3. What is the goal of the quarrel?
4. What special term is used in Logic for an attack against the person instead of the argument?
5. Can you interpret the first sentence in simple words?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest a suitable title.
6. “In every society children do not need to be taught “grammar” to learn how to speak. They begin to grasp the essential structure of their language at a very early age, without direct instruction. If you show English-speaking children a picture of “gork” (a strange creature) and then a picture of two of these creatures, they will say there are two “gorks”. Somehow they know that adding an s to a noun means more than one. But they do not know this consciously, and adults may not either. One of the most surprising features of human language is that meaningful sounds and sound sequences are combined according to rules that often are not consciously known by the speakers. These rules should not be equated with the “rules of grammar” you were taught in school so that you would speak “correctly”. Rather, when linguists talk about rules, they are referring to the patterns of speaking that are discoverable in actual speech. Needless to say, there is some overlap between the actual rules of speaking and the rules taught in school. But there are rules that children never hear about in school, because their teachers are not linguists and are not aware of them.”
(Carol R. Ember, Anthropology)
Questions:
1. What is the specialty of children? What do they not hear in the school?
2. How will English-speaking children pluralize something?
3. When do the children begin to understand the fundamental structure of their parents’ language?
4. What is the most interesting as well as surprising feature of human language?
5. Does the expression of “sound sequences are combined according to rules” mean “grammar”? If yes, why?
6. Why are the school teachers not aware of the “actual rules of speaking” and with what should these rules not be equated?
7. Make a précis of the passage and suggest a suitable title to the paragraph.
7. “Until the more recent developments of sociolinguistics, many scholars tended to have rather a monolithic view of individual languages. Languages were seen as clearly differentiated one from another, and the territories in which they were spoken possessed distinct boundaries. Languages changed in well-defined ways, the sound changes following patterns so regular in their behavior that they could be said to follow laws. Today the variations within a language at a set time are given more prominence—the spatial variations reflecting different dialects, and also the different customs of pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar, which accompany social distinctions within a community. The changes in pronunciation, which took place over time, so that related words in adjacent languages can have quite different appearances, were the first to be understood.”
(Colin Renfrew, Archaeology & Language)
Questions:
1. What are the features of a language that are given prominence today?
2. Can you name the discipline in which recent developments have changed the opinion of scholars about languages?
3. How were the languages seen before some recent developments?
4. What in the writer’s opinion was the first thing to be understood in this process of linguistic study?
5. What do you understand from “languages changed in well-defined ways”?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest a suitable title to the paragraph.
8. “Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind. These passions, like great winds, have blown me hither and thither, in a wayward course, over a deep ocean of anguish, reaching to very verge of despair. I have sought love, first, because it brings ecstasy—ecstasy so great that I would often have sacrificed all the rest of life for a few hours of this joy. I have sought it, next, because it relieves loneliness—that terrible loneliness in which one shivering consciousness looks over the rim of the world into the cold unfathomable lifeless abyss. I have sought it, finally, because the union of love I have seen, in a mystic miniature, the prefiguring vision of the heaven that saints and poets have imagined. This is what I sought, and thought it might too good for human life, this is what—at last—I have found. With equal passion I have sought knowledge. I have wished to understand the hearts of man. I have wished to know why the stars shine. A little of this, but not much, I have achieved.”
(Bertrand Russell, Principia Mathematica)
Questions:
1. What passions have governed Bertrand Russell throughout his life?
2. Which of these passions did you find most appealing and powerful?
3. What do you understand from the phrase “deep ocean of anguish” as used by Russell here?
4. What much of the knowledge does the author claim to have achieved?
5. What is “ecstasy” in your opinion and how does the author explain its impact on him?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest a suitable title to the paragraph.
9. “We observe today not a victory of party, but a celebration of freedom, symbolizing an end as well as a beginning, signifying renewal as well as change. For I have sworn before you and Almighty God the same solemn oath our forebears prescribed nearly a century and three quarters ago. The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life. And yet the same revolutionary belief for which our forebears fought is still at issue around the globe, the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of God. We dare not forget today that we are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the world go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans, born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage, and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world. Let every nation now, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.”
(John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address)
Questions:
1. What office does the speaker hold?
2. Explain: “a celebration of freedom, symbolizing an end as well as a beginning, signifying renewal as well as change.”
3. According to the speaker, the world is very different ‘now’. Why is it so?
4. Who are disciplined by ‘a hard and bitter peace’? What has been passed to them?
5. Where does the ‘rights of man’ come from?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
10. “Most people who bother with the matter at all would admit that the English language is in a bad way, but it is generally assumed that we cannot by conscious action do anything about it. Our civilization is decadent and our language—so the argument runs—must inevitably share in the general collapse. It follows that any struggle against the abuse of language is a sentimental archaism, like preferring candles to electric light or hansom cabs to aeroplanes. Underneath this lies the half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument, which we shape for our own purposes. Now, it is clear that the decline of a language must ultimately have political and economic causes: it is not due simple to the bad influence of this or that individual writer. But an effect can become a cause, reinforcing the original cause and producing the same effect in an intensified form, and so indefinitely. It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. He point is that the process is reversible. Modern English, especially written English, is full of bad habits which spread by imitation and which can be avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble.”
(George Orwell, Politics and the English Language)
Questions:
1. What does the expression “general collapse” signify?
2. Why do the bad habits exist and where do they come from?
3. What causes must the decline of a language have?
4. Reproduce the analogical examples of “sentimental archaism” quoted by the author in the passage.
5. The author has said that “English language is in a bad way”. Please interpret this statement of the author in at least five sentences using simple language.
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
11. “At the end of this past summer, I had plans to go away for a week, simply a week, without my husband. It was the first time in three years that I was making such a solo pilgrimage, and I was frightened. As I walked down the long corridor to the plane, I looked straight ahead, turning a bottle of tranquilizers over and over in my pocket. I felt like a child lost in a department store; my palms were sweaty and my face was flushed. I tried to remember other solitary departures when I had been similarly discomforted: the walk to the first day of school; the bus ride to Girl School camp when I was 9 and my sister, who was also on the bus, was 10 and suddenly wanted nothing to do with me; the midnight jet to college. Of what was I so afraid? I was afraid of being by myself, of being wholly quiet, of being with people who did not know my name and did not care. I was afraid of being liked by strangers and of not being liked by strangers. Mostly I was afraid of being alone again, even for so short a time. After four and a half years of marriage I had simply lost the habit.”
(Anne Taylor Fleming, The Fear of Being Alone)
Questions:
1. Why was Anne Taylor Fleming frightened?
2. What did she feel like when walking down the long corridor?
3. She says, “I had simply lost the habit?” What habit is she referring to?
4. What happened when she was only 9?
5. A pilgrimage is usually a religious trip. Why has she used the phrase “solo pilgrimage” to describe her journey?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
12. “The changing attitude of the Muslim League towards the constitutional issues between 1938 and 1940 provides an interesting study. The League’s policy underwent a radical change regarding the provinces as well as the Center in the light of Muslim experience of the provincial autonomy—particularly in the Hindu-majority province. In December, 1938, at its annual session at Patna, the All India Muslim League authorized Jinnah “to explore the possibility of a suitable alternative which would completely safeguard the interests of Musalmans and other minorities in India.” In pursuance of that resolution, in March, 1939, the League Working Committee appointed a committee under Jinnah’s presidentship, “to examine various schemes already propounded and those that may be submitted hereafter” and to report to the Working Committee their conclusions. Thus by the beginning of 1940 Muslim politics had decidedly taken a new and significant turn. The departure from the pre-1937 policy was remarkable. The Muslims no longer wanted an Indian federation. No longer was it a question of merely voting in favour of, or against a certain (or even any) federal scheme. Federation would not do at all.”
(Ishtiaq Husain Qureshi, The Struggle for Pakistan)
Questions:
1. When did the policy of Muslim League undergo a radical change and what was the change?
2. What do you understand from the expression “to explore the possibility of a suitable alternative which would completely safeguard the interests of Musalmans and other minorities in India?”
3. Who was authorized by the All India Muslim League to find a suitable alternative?—when and where?
4. Did the pre-1937 policy of All India Muslim League show that the Muslims of India wanted a federation with Hindus? Illustrate your answer with a solid example.
5. What was the decisive year when Indian politics took a significant turn? Can you explain the particular experience that served as the background of all that development?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
13. “Scientists are the most important occupational group in the world today. At this moment, what they do is of passionate concern to the whole of human society. At this moment, the scientists have little influence on the world effect of what they do. Yet, potentially, they can have great influence. The rest of the world is frightened both of what they do—that is, of intellectual discoveries of science—and of its effect. The rest of the world, transferring its fears, is frightened of the scientists themselves and tends to think of them as radically different from the other men. As an ex-scientist, if I may call myself so, I know that is nonsense. I have even tried to express in fiction some kinds of scientific temperament and scientific experience. I know well-enough that scientists are very much like other men. After all, we are all humans, even if some of us don’t give that appearance. I think I would be prepared to risk a generalization. The scientists I have known have been in certain respects just perceptibly more morally admirable than most other groups of intelligent men.”
(C.P. Snow, The Moral Un-Neutrality of Science)
Questions:
1. The writer has a belief about the scientists. Can you please illustrate that belief?
2. What is the writer complaining all about?
3. What for is the ‘rest of the world’ afraid?
4. What has the writer tried to express and what medium has he used to this end?
5. How does the writer compare scientists with other groups of intelligent people and what is the point of central importance?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
14. “The scattering of galaxies, the habits of macromolecules, and the astounding abundance of stars are forcing those who ponder such matters to a further adjustment of their concept of the place and functioning of man in the material universe. In the history of the evolving human mind, with its increasing knowledge of the surrounding world, their must have been a time when the philosophers of the early tribes began to realize that the world was not simply anthropocentric—centered on man himself. The geocentric concept became common doctrine. It accepted a universe centered on the earth. This first adjustment was only mildly deflationary to the human ego, for man appeared to surpass all other living forms. The second adjustment in the relation of man to the physical universe, that is, the abandonment of the earth-center theory, was not generally acceptable until the sixteenth-century Copernican revolution soundly established the heliocentric concept—the theory of a universe centered on the sun. Man is a stubborn adherent to official dogma. Eventually, however, he accepted the sun as the center not only of the local family of planets, but also of the total sidereal assemblage, and long held that view. He had slowly given up the earth-center. But why, in spite of increasing evidence, did he then hold so persistently to the heliocentric view? Was it only because of vanity?”
(Harlow Shapley, Man’s Fourth Adjustment)
Questions:
1. Define the word “anthropocentric” and explain its relation with the earth.
2. What was the ‘second adjustment of man’ according to the author?
3. Who has given up the earth-center and why?
4. What was the “heliocentric concept” and which revolution established it?
5. What does the author of Man’s Fourth Adjustment want to prove in conclusion?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
15. “The gods had condemned Sisyphus to ceaselessly rolling a rock to the top of a mountain, whence the stone would fall back of its own weight. They had thought with some reason that there is no more dreadful punishment than futile and hopeless labor. If one believes Homer, Sisyphus was the wisest and most prudent of mortals. According to another tradition, however, he was disposed to practice the profession of highwayman. I see no contradiction in this. Opinions differ as to the reasons why he became the futile laborer of the underworld. To begin with, he is accused of a certain levity in regard to the gods. He stole their secrets. Aegina, the daughter of Aesopus, was carried off by Jupiter. The father was shocked by that disappearance and complained to Sisyphus. He, who knew of the abduction, offered to tell about it on condition that Aesopus would give water to the citadel of Corinth. To the celestial thunderbolts he preferred the benediction of water. He was punished for this in the underworld. Homer tells us also that Sisyphus had put Death in chains. Pluto could not endure the sight of his deserted, silent empire. He dispatched the god of water, who liberated Death from the hands of her conqueror.”
(Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus)
Questions:
1. Who had been condemned by the gods and with what punishment?
2. Who was Aegina and what did her disappearance result in?
3. How is seen the “futile and hopeless labor” in this passage? What was the motive behind such a labor?
4. Who conquered Death and who eventually librated it?
5. Who is Homer and what is his role in this passage?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
16. “For three thousand years, poets have been enchanted and moved and perplexed by the power of their own imagination. In a short and summary essay, I can hope at most to live one small corner of that mystery; and yet it is a critical corner. I shall ask: What goes on in the mind when we imagine? You will hear from me that one answer to this question is fairly specific: which is to say, that we can describe the working of imagination. And when we describe it as I shall do, it becomes plain that imagination is a specifically human gift. To imagine is the characteristic act, not of the poet’s mind, or the painter’s, or the scientist’s, but of the mind of man. My stress here on the word human implies that there is a clear difference in this between the actions of men and those of other animals. Let me then start with a classical experiment with animals and children, which Walter Hunter thought out in Chicago about 1910. That was the time when scientists were agog with the success of Ivan Pavlov in forming and changing the reflex actions of dogs, which Pavlov had first announced in 1903. Pavlov had been given a Nobel Prize the next year in 1904.”
(Jacob Bronowski, The Reach of Imagination)
Questions:
1. What will the author ask and why?
2. For how long have poets moved and perplexed? By what have they been moved?
3. The Noble Prize was given to someone 1904. Who was he and why was he awarded the Nobel Prize?
4. What is the characteristic of man? Where does lie a clear difference?
5. “I can hope at most to live one small corner of that mystery, and yet it is a critical corner.” What does this sentence mean according to your understanding?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
17. “For the first time ever, there are more women than men enrolled in Americans colleges. The immediate implications of this are bound to upset people who need stereotypes to preserve the illusion of stability in a chaotic universe. Joe College, for example, now becomes a false metaphor for the college student. Discussing college people collectively, we must learn to call them “the college woman.” “Women’s place is in the home” went the old saw women hated. Now they can say, “Women’s place is in the college.” What does it mean for football, which has traditionally been to college what the nightstick is to the police? Does it make sense for a college population dominated by women to have the bulk of its athletic budget spent on a sport that can be played only by 200-pound women with shoulders like stevedores’ and legs like oak trees.”
(Russell Baker, Collegiettes)
Questions:
1. What is the real point of comparison here?
2. What according to the author happened with the old saw?
3. What new saw was coined to replace the old one?
4. Which college has been cited by the author as an example?—example of what?
5. Is this a serious essay? Does it create a sense of respect for the women? Elaborate your answer with evidence.
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest a suitable title.
18. “A name is a prison, God is free,” once observed the Greek poet Nikos Kazantzakis. He meant, I think, that valuable though language is to man, it is by very necessity limiting, and creates for man an invisible prison. Language implies boundaries. A word spoken creates a dog, a rabbit, a man. It fixes their nature before our eyes; henceforth their shapes are, in a sense, our own creation. They are no longer part of the unnamed shifting architecture of the universe. They have been transfixed as if by sorcery frozen into a concept, a word. Powerful though the spell of human language has proved itself to be, it has laid boundaries upon the cosmos. No matter how far-ranging some of the mental probes that man has philosophically devised, by his own created nature he is forced to hold the specious and emerging present and transform it into words. The words are startling in their immediate effectiveness, but at the same time, they are always finally imprisoning because man has constituted himself a prison keeper. He does so out of no conscious intention, but because for immediate purposes he has created an unnatural world of his own.”
(Loren Eiseley, The Cosmic Prison)
Questions:
1. What idea of language’s function has been presented by the author in the passage?
2. What has been declared a “prison” and who was the one, according to the author, to say so?
3. What does a word that is spoken create and what is that it fixes?
4. Despite the effectiveness of language, what has man ended up to be?
5. Is language something natural to humans? If not, what does then the author want to say about it?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
19. “The joys of parents are secret, and so are their griefs and fears; they cannot utter the one, nor they will not utter the other. Children sweeten labours, but they make misfortunes more bitter; they increase the cares of life, but they mitigate the remembrance of death. The perpetuity by generation is common to beasts; but memory, merit, and noble works, are proper to men: and surely a man shall see the noblest works and foundations have proceeded from childless men, which have sought to express the images of their minds where those of their bodies have failed; so the care of posterity is most in them that have no posterity. They that are the first raisers of their houses are most indulgent towards their children, beholding them as the continuance, not only of their kind, but of their work; and so both children and creatures. The difference in affection of parents towards their several children is many times unequal, and sometimes unworthy, especially in the mother; as Solomon saith, “A wise son rejoiceth the father, but an ungracious son shames the mother.” A man shall see, where there is a house full of children, one or two of the eldest respected, and the youngest made wantons; but in the midst some that are as it were forgotten, who, many times, nevertheless prove the best. The illiberality of parents, in allowance towards their children, is an harmful error.”
(Francis Bacon, Of Parents and Children)
Questions:
What is the role of children in parents’ lives according to Francis Bacon?
Explain the expression “children sweeten labours” adducing acceptable example of your interpretation.
Bacon has quoted Solomon in this passage. What do you understand from Solomon’s statement about father and mother quoted here?
What is common between mankind and beasts and what are the things that the writer terms as “proper to man”?
How do the first raisers of their houses behold their children? Your answer should be at least three sentences.
Make a précis of the subject and suggest it a suitable title.
20. “Unless man exploits others, he has to work in order to live. However primitive and simple is method of work may be, by the very fact of production, he has risen above the animal kingdom; rightly has he been defined as “the animal that produces.” But work is not only an inescapable necessity for man. Work is also his liberator from nature, his creator as a social and independent being. In the process of work, that is, the molding and changing of nature outside of himself, man molds and changes himself. He emerges from nature by mastering her; he develops his powers of cooperation, of reason, his sense of beauty. He separates himself from nature, from the original unity with her, but at the same time unites himself with her again as her master and builder. The more his work develops, the more his individuality develops. In molding nature and re-creating her, he learns to make use of his powers, increasing his skill and creativeness. Whether we think of the beautiful paintings of caves of Southern France, the ornaments on weapons among primitive people, the statues and temples of Greece, the cathedrals of the Middle Ages, the chairs and tables made by skilled craftsmen, or the cultivation of flowers, trees or corn by peasants—all are expressions of the creative transformation of nature by men’s reason and skill.”
(Erich Fromm, Work in an Aliented Society)
Questions:
1. How has man risen above the animal kingdom? Name the quality that makes him unique in the light of this passage.
2. What is the process that molds man himself and by what means does he carry out this process?
3. Name the archaeology discussed in this passage?
4. How does man learn to use his power and what is the product of his use of power?
5. Unless man exploits others, he has to work. However, if he exploits other, why does he not have to work?
6. Make a précis of the passage and suggest it a suitable title.
Dialogue Writing
Dialogue writing is a very attractive form of English composition. Dialogue means a “formal or informal discussion between two persons or groups.” Dialogue writing is a useful practice to create naturalness and fluency in one’s own language. It is the only form of composition in which we do not require a lot of literary talent and linguistic artistry. A dialogue remains a great help at using simple and natural constructions. It is, in one way or another, a localization of English. Unfortunately, our students generally maintain only a bookish understanding of English constructions. They lack naturalness in their speech and remain potentially unaware of the informal use of English. Another problem with Pakistani students, as regards dialogue writing, is the ambiguous idea of the beginning and ending of a dialogue. This problem will be addressed in the present discussion and the solution of this part of the problem will be sought here.
Golden Hints for Dialogue Writing
1. While attempting to write a dialogue, students must not fall prey to the temptation of using difficult, bookish, or artificial language. They must avoid unnatural expressions.
2. A good much of time i.e. almost equal time should be given to each participant. This is to create symmetry in the dialogue.
3. Language of the dialogue must be naturalized and made simple as well as appropriate to the setting where the dialogue happens to take place.
4. All auxiliaries should be used in contraction; a frequent use of interjection (e.g. oh, wow) and catchwords (e.g. well, ok) or catchphrases (e.g. you know) will animate any dialogue written by a non-native speaker.
5. The sentences of the dialogue must not be too long or verbose that the dialogue, as a whole, reflects literary art and becomes a piece of literature instead of an everyday discussion on a randomly chosen topic.
6. Natural and local greetings should in no way be neglected, nor a customary activity be ignored. Pakistani speakers are supposed to begin their dialogue with Assalam-o-Alaikum rather than any English greeting, whereas saying Allah Hafiz on departure will give a healthy native touch to the dialogue.
7. In case the situation of dialogue emerges later on in the general gossip of friends, classmates, or discussants, it should depict a sudden development towards the subject that is the result of a certain preceding talk. Here, we do not require any greetings in the beginning, for the participants are already present and that they have already greeted one another before the start of the given dialogue.
8. The ending greetings can also be omitted in case we do not want to end our dialogue at the departure of the participants. However, the subject must be brought to a satisfactory conclusion—with or without participants’ saying good-bye.
A Model Dialogue on Smoking
Ahmad: Assalam-o-Alaikum Hassan!
Hassan: Wa Alaikum as-Salaam! (Forwarding hand) How’re you doing Ahmad?
Ahmad: I’m doing fine? How about your health?
Hassan: Just doing so so buddy! I haven’t been quite fit for some time; don’t know why.
Ahmad: (Smilingly) Probably your smoking habit is really teasing you.
Hassan: I guess it’s not that way.
Ahmad: But Hassan, don’t you think it’s too dangerous for the health of young people?
Hassan: Huh! All that’s a false tale created by doctors to run their business.
Ahmad: No sir, for your kind information, latest researches clearly exhibit that the chief cause of cancer is smoking. You can see the precautions printed on cigarette packets with your own eyes.
Hassan: All right all right, I’m not in a mood to debate over this issue. I know it’s dangerous.
Ahmad: My friend, I want you to consider this issue seriously. I can see your constant coughing and bad health; these aren’t good symptoms. I wish you see a doctor and have a medical checkup. And before that, another important thing: immediately quit smoking!
Hassan: Ok, I surrender. Let me see when I can manage that. Would you accompany me, by the way?
Ahmad: Why not! I’d be glad to!
Hassan: Many thanks for these kind words of advice. You’re a true friend. But my friend, smoking isn’t easy to get rid of. I doubt I’ll ever succeed in it.
Ahmad: Oh, never mind. Everything will be alright. You just need to be confident.
Hassan: I will try to be!
Ahmad: (Hearing the bell) Ok buddy let me leave now; the bell’s rung and I’m getting late from the class. See ya later.
Hassan: (Shaking hand) Sure. I must leave too. Take care! Allah Hafiz.
Ahmad: Allah Hafiz and don’t forget to spare some time for the checkup!
Activity for Students
Students should exercise dialogue writing on Pollution, Terrorism, Global Warming, Price-Hike, Street Crimes, Co-education, Problems of Our Education System, Importance of Sports, Traffic Problems, Unemployment, Hobbies, Teachers, Advantages of Internet and Technical Education on the same lines. Follow the “Golden Hints” stated above when doing this exercise.
(Note: In Graduation papers, students should prefer “translation” to “dialogue”. However, in case of being bad at translation, or in case of finding the paragraph full of difficult and/or technical terminology, students should choose “dialogue” as a more favorable alternative.)
STORY WRITING
Story-telling is one of the most ancient literary practices of mankind. Men and women have been narrating things in the forms of fables, parables, anecdotes, etc. ever since the dawn of civilization. Perhaps, story-telling as a technique of keeping one’s listeners amused in the leisurely time or maintaining interest in life predates the civilized age of mankind. All myths and legends are such stories that mankind somehow came up with and thereby the preceding generations passed on this heritage to the succeeding generations, chest to chest, lips to lips.
Story writing is, as such, an important branch of written composition. A story originally means a narrative description of an event, fictitious or real, whose particulars occur in a sequence. It is generally agreed that a story is “an orderly, continuous account of the successive particulars of an event or transaction, or of a series of events.”[37] A story can be based on a single event, or it can be a combination of different chronologically occurring symbiotic events or anecdotes. Every story is, generally, fictitious, for no real event can be described with exact details and without one’s own attachment. There may be some reality in the nucleus of every story, but fiction getting birth in speculation of a handy narrator mind always constructs a more idealistic as well as appealing story.
As far as the aim of story writing is concerned, it should be the arousing of the interest of a reader in the story. It is inevitable for a good story that readers get so much immersed in the story as to become restless to know what is coming next.
When writing a story in Pakistani academic system, it is seen almost always compulsory that a ‘moral lesson’ should be tagged with the story towards the end as a conclusive commentary.
A story follows certain principles. These principles are the most crucial qualification for a story to be rendered as a well-built story, and without which an account may not be deemed as a good one.
1. Plot
2. Order
3. Setting/Environment
4. Time-Zone
5. Balance
Direct & Indirect Narration
We humans as the beings of language have two ways of reporting a statement or any words of a speaker. We may either quote him in original words or altered words: these two techniques of quotation are called Direct Narration and Indirect Narration. Direct narration or speech stands for the original words of a speaker with no alteration whatsoever; e.g. Salma said, “I’ll buy some stationery today.” Indirect narration or speech comprises of altered words now chosen by the narrator; e.g. Salma told that she would buy some stationery that day. However, this pick and choose of the altered words does not take place in a random manner; rather, it has certain rules and regulations. English has a complete code for the transformation of a direct speech into indirect speech and this code guides us on all major or minor steps.
The principal speech is the direct speech, for it is someone we quote in a different space and time. Thus, as we owe our reference to the original speaker, our words become subsequent or secondary to the original speaker’s words.
In direct speech, we generally have two clauses, namely, reporting verb/speech and reported speech. Reporting verb is the determining clause, from where we obtain our information of the addressee, addressed, and the time (past, present, future). Reported speech, the secondary clause, is always double-quoted, for it contains the original words of the speaker. In the making of indirect speech, the change takes place in reported speech (the quoted clause).
Reporting Verb/Speech , “ Reported Speech_____________”
(The determining clause) (The clause supposed to embrace changes)
While changing direct sentences into indirect, the following words are replaced with the ones given next to them.
|Direct |Indirect (Replacement) |Direct |Indirect (Replacement) |
|(Original word) | |(Original word) | |
|1. Here |There |11. Day after tomorrow |Two days later |
|2. Ago |Before |12. Thus |So |
|3. Now |Then/Right away |13. Too |Also |
|4. Today |That day |14. This/It |That |
|5. Tomorrow |Next/Following day |15. These |Those |
|6. Tonight |That night |16. Hither |Thither |
|7. Yesterday |Previous day/the day before |17. Hence |Thence |
|8. Last night |Previous Night |18. Thus |In that way/so |
|9. Next week |Following week |19. Come |Go/Come |
|10. Last week |Previous week |20. That |That |
Change in the tense of reported speech (the clause supplied inverted commas) also occurs when the principal verb i.e. the reporting verb has a past tense. The change will take place in the following manner:
|Tense in Direct Narration |Tense in Indirect Narration |Auxiliary in Direct |Auxiliary in Indirect |
| | |Narration |Narration |
|Present |Past |Do/Does |Did |
|Present Indefinite |Past Indefinite |Did |Had |
|Present progressive |Past progressive |Was/Were |Had been |
|Present Perfect |Past Perfect |Had |Had |
| | | |(No change occurs) |
|Present Perfect Progressive |Past Perfect Progressive |Shall/Will |Would |
|Past Indefinite |Past Perfect |Will have |Would have |
| | |Shall have | |
|Past Progressive |Past Perfect Progressive |May |Might |
|Past Perfect |No Change Occurs |Can |Could |
|Past Perfect Progressive |No Change Occurs |Should |Should/should have |
| | |Must |Must have/had to/would have to|
We have some exceptional cases in Direct & Indirect narrations. These exceptions may well be termed as the anomalies of reported speech. For instance, “I’m only 21 years of age” (she said.) can be changed into reported speech in two i.e. emphatic and non-emphatic ways:
▪ She said that she is only 21 years of age. (Emphatic)
▪ She said that she was only 21 years of age. (Non-emphatic)
Similarly, some other situations also apply the above exceptional rule on the account of the fact that “the original speaker was talking about a present or future situation that is still present or future when the words are reported. Hence, the tenses may not change after a past reporting verb. (Michael Swan) However, this is not a must rule; but only a choice at the disposal of the students that they either change the reported speech in the past to accord with the reporting verb, or leave it in the original present tense to put emphasis. For instance:
▪ “The earth is round”, Said he. (He said that the earth is/was round)
▪ “Where does he work?” (I have often wondered where he works/worked.)
▪ “It will be rainy tomorrow.” They said. (They said it will/would be rainy tomorrow.)
We normally distribute the reported speech into six broad categories. We call them:
1. Indicative, Assertive or Declarative
(i. Affirmative ii. Negative)
2. Interrogative
(i. Simple/Single Interrogative ii. Double/Wh Interrogative)
3. Imperative
(Expressing i. Command ii. Request iii. Prohibition iv. Advice)
4. Exclamatory
5. Optative
6. Universal Truth
In addition to the change in auxiliaries and verb forms, change in persons (i.e. pronouns) also takes place in Indirect Narration. Before we understand how the change in pronoun cases takes effect, it is important that we take a cursory look into the “Persons Table” to understand in what many cases a personal pronoun (or even a noun used as subject) changes.
|Position of Person |Subjective Case |Possessive Case |Objective Case |Reflexive Situation |
|1st Person Singular |I |my/mine |me |myself |
|1st Person Plural |We |our/ours |us |ourselves |
|2nd Person Singular |You |your/yours |you |yourself |
|2nd Person Plural |You |your/yours |you |yourselves |
|3rd Person Singular |He |his |him |himself |
|(Male) | | | | |
|3rd Person Singular |She |her/hers |her |herself |
|(Female) | | | | |
|3rd Person Singular |It |its |it |itself |
|(Neuter Gender) | | | | |
|Noun as 3rd Person |Ahmad/Samina/Chair |his/her/its |him/her/it |himself/herself/itself |
|(Singular) | | | | |
|3rd Person Plurals |They |their/theirs |them |themselves |
The change in persons always occurs in reported speech. This change is not independent, for it always follows the pronouns or nouns (i.e. the persons) appearing in the reporting section. When occurring in the reported speech, the situations of 1st person (I and we), in all of their cases (subjective, possessive, objective, reflexive), undergo changes in accordance with the subject of the reporting clause. 2nd person (You) and its cases embrace changes to suit to the object of reporting clause. The situations of 3rd person (he, she, it and they) are never changed, for they are already in a state of absence from the direct communication as to be used in indirect narration.
(Reported Speech) I & We ___________into__________Subject (of Reporting Clause)
(Reported Speech) You______________into__________Object (of Reporting Clause)
(Reported Speech) He, She, It & They_____________________ (Never changed)
Important Tip: If the object of the reporting verb is missing, we should perceive of the situation as if 1st person singular (“I”) is present there (i.e. the object of the reporting verb/speech). For instance, She said, “You’re a very lucky boy” will become She said that I was a very lucky boy.
KINDS
1. Indicative or Assertive
For an indicative indirect speech, conjunction that replaces inverted commas/quotation marks (“”) and the comma (,). In Subcontinent, we generally change “said to” of the reporting verb into “told”. Although it being a good way to distinguish both narrations, English grammar does not make this change an obligatory condition for the conversion of direct speech into indirect. For example:
Direct: Ahmad said to his father, “I want to buy some books.”
Indirect: Ahmad told his father that he wanted to buy some books.
Also, Ahmad said to his father that he wanted to buy some books.
Direct: My brother said to his friend, “I cannot stay inside the room when it is sunny out.”
Indirect: My brother said to his friend that he could not stay inside the room when it was sunny out.
Also, My brother informed his friend that he could not stay inside the room when it was sunny out.
Direct: She said, “You are a foolish guy.” (Direct)
Indirect: She said that I was a foolish guy.
Also, She told that I was a foolish guy.
Sometimes we drop that conjunction in the above kind of situation (e.g. She said I was a foolish guy). However, this situation normally pops up in speaking rather than writing. Moreover, a present reporting verb will not affect the tense of the reported speech in indirect narration.
Direct: Samina says to you, “We will go to market today.”
Indirect: Samina says to you that they will go to market today.
Also, Samina tells you that they will go to market today.
This sentence will, however, witness a complete change in case the tense of the reporting verb is past.
Direct: Samina said to you, “We will go to the market today.”
Indirect: Samina informed you that they would go to the market that day.
2. Interrogative
In interrogative situation, as shown above, we have two cases. The first is the case of such questions that need to be answered in simple “yes” or “no”. Provided that, no logical reasoning is required at this stage, hence we term this case Single Interrogative in our general language. Such single interrogative direct sentences, when changing into indirect, use “if” or “whether” conjunction to replace punctuations; the sense of question is also transferred to the conjunction. However, there takes place a fundamental change in the sentence and the situation after if or whether becomes declarative from interrogative. Reporting verb “said to” is changed into “asked” or “questioned”, and if the former occurs in present form, the latter two will also use their present forms to replace the reporting verb.
(Subject + ask/asked + object + if/whether + declarative clause.)
Direct: He said, “Are you a Pakistani?”
Indirect: He asked if/whether I was a Pakistani. (Or He asked if/whether I am a Pakistani.)
Direct: Ahmad said to you, “Can I join your company now for some time?”
Indirect: Ahmad questioned you if/whether he could join your company then for some time.
Direct: You said to her, “Will you not cook for us tonight?”
Indirect: You asked her if/whether she would not cook for you that night.
Remember that neither ask/asked nor question/questioned take a preposition after it. Moreover, the question mark (?) of Direct Narration is omitted in Indirect Narration.
In the second category, the interrogative situation develops from a simple “yes-no” answer to a logical reasoning—a cogent answer. This situation may well have a minimum number of seven ways of posing questions. For instance, interrogative pronouns where, when, why, which, who, what, and how are such words that, when used in a question, need to be satisfied in a logical manner given the nature of the question. If the question is: why do you go to college?—the answerer is expected to produce at least one acceptable reason to justify his act of going to college, and this will, in turn, satisfy the nature of the question.
When dealing with this type of questions in Direct & Indirect section, the transformation of direct narration into indirect does not experience any structural change. The only difference lies in the point that the question word (i.e. wh-word/how) will take the position of whether/if that it takes in the single interrogatives and the following clause would assume same indicative structure.
Direct: Ahmad said to Aslam, “When have you come from Lahore?”
Indirect: Ahmad asked Aslam when he had come from Lahore.
3. Imperative
Our next kind expresses command, prohibition, request or advice. To this kind we call Imperative—naming it after command. Among all of the kinds of Direct and Indirect Narrations, this one has a different structure. In Direct Narration, an imperative reported speech begins with a verb (command), negative present indefinite auxiliary “do not/don’t” (prohibition),[38] exclamation “please” (request) or with regular subject succeeded by modal verb should or ought to (advice). Nevertheless, structural variation does not affect the general rules of Direct & Indirect Narration, and we get equally compelled to interchange the pronouns and their cases as well as tenses even in this kind.
For expressing a command, says/said to will be replaced with orders/ordered in Indirect Narration.
For expressing a request, says/said to will be replaced with requests/requested in Indirect Narration.
For expressing a prohibition, says/said to will be replaced with forbids/forbade in Indirect Narration.
For expressing an advice, says/said to will be replaced with advises/advised in Indirect Narration.
In this case, the commas of direct speech are replaced with infinitive (e.g. to work). Instead of conjoining two clauses, as do the assertive and interrogative kinds with the help of a conjunction, we simply put “to” before the main verb of reported speech used as an imperative/request, thus, rendering the combination of to and main verb as infinitive. In ‘request’ situation, exclamation (as please) is omitted to form the infinitive; in ‘advice’ situation, modal verb is omitted alongside the subject of the reported speech. For instance,
Direct: Hassan said to his father, “Please allow me to go on scouting.” (Request)
Indirect: Hassan requested his father to allow him to go on scouting.
Direct: My mother said to me, “You should sleep early because it is cold.” (Advice)
Indirect: My mother advised me to sleep early because it was cold.
Direct: The Chief Minister says to the Inspector General, “Free all innocent prisoners.” (Command)
Indirect: The Chief Minister orders the Inspector General to free all innocent prisoners.
Direct: The gardener said to Ahmad, “Don’t steal any mangoes.” (Prohibition)
Indirect: a. The gardener forbade Ahmad to steal any mangoes. Or
b. The gardener warned Ahmad not to steal any mangoes.
The last situation speaks of a warning in which Ahmad is being told of the unfriendly consequences of stealing mangoes. This situation has two indirect expressions. Prohibitive verb to forbid eliminates the role of “not” in reported speech when used as reporting verb, and it thereby allows us the use of infinitive to express a negative command (prohibition). However, the omission of “not” does not take place when ‘to warn’ or similar cautionary verbs are employed in the position of reporting verb; in this particular type of situation, we use “not” before the infinitive.
4. Exclamatory
Exclamatory kind, as it becomes evident from the name, expresses exclamations and desires. The conversion of an exclamatory direct speech into indirect accommodates either an adverb right after the reporting verb or a preposition (i.e. with) followed by a noun. For the most part, nouns like sorrow, joy, kindness, love, hatred, sympathy, surprise, wonder etc. occur after the preposition, with. When preferring the use of an adverb instead of with + noun, these very nouns are changed into adverbs—generally supplied –ly suffix to form Adverbs of Manner. In Direct narration, reported speech begins with an exclamation expressing ‘happiness, grief, affection, contempt, bewilderment’ and similar.
The reporting verb again witnesses a replacement, and this time the replacing verb may be any of exclaim/exclaimed, desire/desired and wish/wished. Moreover, conjunction “that” reappears in this category of narration to eliminate commas—as it does in Indicative sentences.
See below, for instance;
Direct: She said to her friend, “Great! Our college got the first position.”
Indirect: She exclaimed joyfully to her friend that their college had gotten the first position.
Direct: Ahmad said, “Alas! Pakistan cricket team has lost the match.”
Indirect: Ahmad exclaimed regretfully (or with sorrow) that Pakistan cricket team had lost the match.
5. Optative
The fifth kind in narration, optative speech, expresses ‘prayers, wishes, cordial greetings’ and so forth. This may, in one way, have an underlying linkage with the forerunner kind, exclamatory. However, when speaking of the structure, it bears slightly different structural frame. In direct narration, reported speech begins with modal verb “may”. This kind may be transformed into indirect speech in two ways. In the first way, the reporting verb, ‘says/said to’, will find a replacement in prays/prayed, wishes/wished, and bids/bade, and the remaining sentence will be structured on the pattern of assertive, that is to say, conjunction ‘that’ will interlink the reporting clause and reported speech. Model verb ‘may’ thus jumps next to the subject; if the reporting verb shows past tense, it changes into ‘might’. In the second way, the less formal, the reported speech becomes a noun sentence. In this structure, the replacement of reporting verb functions as the sole main verb of the sentence and the corresponding noun of the verb used in reported speech is employed instead of the verb.
Direct: She said, “May my brother pass the written test.”
Indirect: She prayed that her brother might pass the written test.
(also) She wished her brother success in the written test.
Direct: My mother said to me, “May you prosper in life and achieve great goals.”
Indirect: My mother prayed that I might prosper in life and achieve great goals.
(also) My mother wished/bade me prosperity and the achievement of great goals in life.
6. Universal Truth
A reality that seems to have a scientific, religious or cultural acceptance all over the globe is called a universal truth. A statement will become universally acclaimed truth if majority of the world population recognizes it to be true. For instance, “God is one” is such a statement that finds acknowledgement throughout the world; even if some groups of people do not attest it, people of three major world religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism, accept this statement as truth, hence a universal truth. This kind of statements, when occurring in reported speech, are not changed or modified; even the general laws of narration, such as past reporting verb makes present reported speech into past, do not apply to this situation. Here again conjunction ‘that’ connects the two clauses. Let us see a few sentences, for instance;
Direct: Our teacher said yesterday, “The earth is round.”
Indirect: Our teacher told yesterday that the earth is round.
Direct: He said to Ahmad, “Prophet Muhammad is the final Messenger of God.”
Indirect: He informed Ahmad that Prophet Muhammad is the final Messenger of God.
Direct: You said to him, “2 + 2 is equal to 4.”
Indirect: You told him that 2 + 2 is equal to 4.
Sometimes a statement involving universal truth has a negative narration.
Direct: “The sun is not a planet,” said her mother.
Indirect: Her mother said that the sun is not a planet.
Direct & Indirect Narration Exercises
Attempt these exercises with the help of Direct & Indirect Narration section.
Kinds
Kind 1. Assertive Sentences
Present
1. He says, “I don’t know him.”
2. She says, “My father smokes.”
3. I say to him, “You’re a good student.”
4. She will say, “She cannot deliver the speech.”
5. Ahmad says, “I’m in trouble now.”
6. I say, “They’re all bad boys.”
7. Asma says, “She was going to Islamabad.”
8. Hassan says, “I cannot speak English.”
9. He says to my father, “My father will come tomorrow.”
10. They say to us, “They obey their elders.”
Past
1. My father said, “I’ll come and see you as soon as I can.”
2. Ahsan said to me, “Though he’s my brother, I can’t trust him.”
3. Hassan said, “As far as I know the students, this student is quite correct.”
4. I said to him, “There’s nothing to be afraid of; you’ll be quite able to do it.”
5. She said to her daughter, “You can go to market in my absence from home.”
6. He said to his mother, “He was taking his paper last month.”
7. We said to our teacher, “We’re unable to do this exercise properly.”
8. Samina said, “I’m sure I’ll find a job by the end of this month.”
9. Teacher Salma said to Ahmad and Hassan, “You both are good but a little naughty students.”
10. Faisal said to his father, “I can’t photocopy these documents as accurately as they want.”
Kind 2. Interrogative
1. I said to her, “Have you consulted any psychiatrist?”
2. She said to her friend, “Can you give me you physics book for today?”
3. They said to us, “Were you sleeping in this room yesterday?”
4. He said to my father, “Will you allow Ahmad to go on a trip with us?”
5. His father said to him, “Why did you beat your younger brother at night?”
6. She said to them, “Was he really trying to cheat you?”
7. I said to him, “Where do you live?”
8. He said to me, “Where’re you going now?”
9. Hassan said to me, “Are you not planning to go to office today?”
10. She said to me, “Why doesn’t Samina go to Bilcans Institute?”
Kind 3. Imperative
1. Ali said to me, “Don’t/Do not talk to him.”
2. Mother said to the guests, “Don’t/Do not sit on those chairs.”
3. She said to her younger sister, “Don’t/Do not burn wood in so large an amount.”
4. He said to us, “Don’t/Do not play with your future.”
5. President said to the engineers, “Let us build the largest dam of our country.”
6. She said to her boss, “Kindly forgive me this time.”
7. Principal said to us, “Keep quiet in the class.”
8. He said to me, “Please teach me archaeology.”
9. They said to their teacher, “Give us the latest information on anthropological researches.”
10. My father said to me, “Sleep early to get up early.”
11. He said to his servant, “Bring me a glass of milk.”
12. They said to us, “Please help us in these crises.”
13. Faisal’s father said to Faisal, “Quickly photocopy these documents.”
14. The master said to slave, “Open the pot and pour the milk into cups.”
15. She said to the maidservant, “Wash the stairs within 15 minutes.”
16. He said to me, “You should work hard to achieve your goals.”
17. The teacher said to the students, “Every student ought to look after his parents.”
18. He said to his son, “Never long for low targets.”
19. Ahmad’s teacher said to Ahmad, “Don’t/Do not get into unnecessary arguments with others.”
20. “Stop”, said Asim to you.
Kind 4. Exclamatory
1. She said, “What a lovely flower it is.”
2. Ahmad said to me, “Alas! How foolish I am.”
3. Aslam said, “Alas! My grandmother is dead.”
4. The colonel said to the juniors, “Hurrah! We have won the war against India.”
5. Mother said, “Bravo! Faisal you’ve done well.”
6. “Alas! We have acted extremely slowly,” said they.
7. Hassan said, “Masha-Allah! How well we all have done.”
8. He said, “Wow! This hat makes you look like a prince.”
9. She cried, “Phooey! I feel extremely tired now.”
10. The players shouted together, “How nicely we’ve won the match against Indian team.”
Kind 5. Optative
1. “May you get 1st division,” said my friend.
2. Grandmother said, “May you live long.”
3. Ahmad said to me, “May you succeed in your mission.”
4. Faisal said to Ali, “Would that you were a brave chap.”
5. The priest said, “May Allah pardon you.”
6. The old man said to the urchin, “May you go to Hell.”
7. The people in the ground said, “May the Chief Justice live long and enjoy health.”
8. “May you live happily and prosper in life,” said Hassan.
9. Father said to his son, “God bless you.”
10. The students said, “May our teacher recover soon from the fever.”
Kind 6. Universal Truth
1. The Prophets of Muslims and Jews said, “God is one and there is nothing like Him.”
2. The scientist said on the seminar, “The earth goes around the sun.”
3. The doctors said, “Human heart is on the left side of chest.”
4. The teacher said, “The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.”
5. Mother said to the son, “Honesty is the best policy.”
6. The holy man said, “Charity begins at home.”
7. She said, “Love begets love.”
8. Wise people say, “God helps those who help themselves.”
9. The Imam Masjid said, “Quran is the final Word of God.”
10. Teacher said to us, “Mount Everest is the highest peak on earth.”
The End
(All is well that ends well.)
We Wish You Best Of Luck!
Select Bibliography
1. Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 2003
2. Harry Brent & William Lutz, Rhetorical Considerations, Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1984
3. Wren & Martin (Revised by: Prasada Rao), High School English Grammar &Composition, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company, 2000
4. Prof. Mukhtar Pervez, Advanced English Grammar, Multan, 2004
5. Douglas N. Walton, Informal Logic, Cambridge University Press, 1989
6. Sayyed Waqas Hayder, The Grammar Valley, Bab-ul-Ilm Research Foundation, 2008
7. Kashmir Journal of Language Research (Vol. 1, Number 2), Muzaffarabad: University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, 1996
8. John Clanchy & Brigid Ballard, How to Write Essays, Longman Melbourne: Cheshire Pty Limited, 1983
9. M.J. Dave, I.M. Verma, N.K. Aggarwala, New College Composition, (7th Edition), Delhi, 1984
10. Mian M. Saif-ul-Haq, An Approach to Study of Linguistics, Lahore: New Kitab Mahal, 1994
11. Sayyid Saadat Ali Shah, Exploring the World of English, Lahore: Ilmi Kitab Khana, 2004
12. John Eastwood, Oxford Practice Grammar, Oxford University Press, 2005
13. Catherine Walter & Michael Swan, How English Works, Oxford University Press, 2004
14. Kishore, Common Errors in English, New Delhi: New Light Publishers, 2006
15. Irving M. Copi & Carl Cohen, Introduction to Logic, New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 1996
16. H.W. Fowler, A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1954
17. Mike Hannay & Gerard J. Steen, Structural-Functional Studies in English Grammar, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2007
18. Academic Studies English, National Literacy Secretariat, 1998
19.
The World Almanac and Book of Facts, New Jersey: World Almanac Books, 1996
20. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7th Edition), Oxford University Press, 2005
21. Joseph Devlin, A Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms, New York: Warner Books, 1987
22. Sir Francis Bacon, Bacon Essays, Lahore: New Kitab Mahal, 2005
23. John P. Broderick, Modern English Linguistics: A Structural and Transformational Grammar, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1975
24. Bertrand Russell, Principles of Social Reconstruction, London: Unwin Books, 1971
25. Dr. B. James, Dictionary of Quotations, New Delhi: Goodwill Publishing House
26. The Chambers Dictionary, (11th Edition), Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd., 2008
27. Robert K. Barnhart, Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, New York: Larousse Kingfisher Chambers Inc., 2005
-----------------------
[1] Gramma is a Greek word itself used for ‘alphabetic characters’. It literally means ‘letter’.
[2] Except invented languages like Esperanto. And if Esperanto were widely spoken, its rules would soon be very different.
[3] Douglas N. Walton, Informal Logic, Cambridge University Press, 1989, preface
[4] Mian M. Saif-ul-Haq, An Approach to Study of Linguistics, Lahore: New Kitab Mahal, 1994, p. 116
[5] For linking or stative verbs, see Verbs of State in Stage 2.
[6] Wren & Martin, High School English Grammar & Composition, p. 281
[7] Sayyed Waqas Hayder, What Quran Says: A Modern Reconstruction, Lahore: Bab-ul-Ilm Publications, 2009, p. 5
[8] Bertrand Russell, Principles of Social Reconstruction, London: Unwin Books, 1975, p. 55
[9] Prof. Mukhtar Pervez, Advanced English Grammar, Multan, 2004
[10] Hayder, Sayyed Waqas, The Grammar Valley, Bab-ul-Ilm Research Foundation, 2008, p. 3
[11] Prof. Mukhtar Pervez, Advanced English Grammar, p.47
[12] For adjective and noun sentences, see Sentence in Stage 1.
[13] Prof. Mukhtar Parvez, Advanced English Grammar, p. 75
[14] To add time, we place “since” and/or “for” before the time. “Since” will be used for a definite time, whereas “for” will be employed for an indefinite time.
[15] Michael Swan, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 408
[16] Hayder, Sayyed Waqas, The Grammar Valley, Bab-ul-Ilm Research Foundation, 2007, p. 54
[17] Great, Greater, Greatest; Hard, Harder, Hardest, Fast, Faster, Fastest etc. However, sometimes we have to add suffixes –ier and –iest to form these degrees; for example, Happy, Happier, Happiest.
[18] Hayder, Sayyed Waqas, The Grammar Valley, Bab-ul-Ilm Research Foundation, 2007, p.71
[19] Swan, Michael, How English Works, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 56
[20] Wren & Martin, High School English Grammar and Composition, New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd., 2007, p. 5
[21] “Pro” is a Latin word and it means “for”; hence, ‘pronoun’ implies ‘for noun’.
[22] For details on determiners, see the stage named as “Determiners, Quantifiers & Articles”.
[23] Hayder, Sayyed Waqas, The Grammar Valley, Bab-ul-Ilm Research Foundation, 2007, p. 159
[24] It may help you remember these conjunctions by recalling that they al ABdfg|€?”õíÛÏÀžŒziZI=1hé*‰h{:ã5?CJ,aJ,hé*‰hê÷5?CJ,aJ, hê÷h{:ã5?6?9?OJ[25]QJ[26]]?hê÷h{:ã5?9?OJ[27]QJ[28]\? hê÷h{:ã5?9?:?OJ[29]QJ[30]\?"h{:ã5?9?:?CJOJ[31]QJ[32]\?aJ"h
‰h{:ã9?:?CJ OJQJaJ h{:ã9?:?CJ OJQJaJ %hxvAh{:ã5?9?:?CJ OJQJl have fewer than four letters. Also, remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So.
[33] However, due to their higher grammatical significance, “articles” will be discussed as a separate subject in the following pages.
[34] The structure and function of the “apostrophe” will be elaborated under Punctuation.
[35] For attributive function, see “Adjective” in Parts of Speech section.
[36] The example has been taken from New College Composition by Dave, Verma & Aggarwala. The simple reason to import an example from another book is that the currently quoted example is so comprehensive and all-embracing that a better sentence with so many semi colons simply becomes impossible in the current context.
[37] Probably the best reference text for these decisions (next to looking up everything in a dictionary, i.e.) is The Chicago Manual of Style.
[38] For further information about compound nouns and compound modifiers, see “Compound Words”.
[39] Wren & Martin, High School English Grammar, p. 366
[40] Paraphrase and paraphrases, both, will be employed here in an identical context to mean the same thing.
[41] Sayyid Saadat Ali Shah, Exploring the World of English, Lahore: Ilmi Kitab Khana, 2004, p. 699
[42] Sayyid Saadat Ali Shah, Exploring the World of English, Lahore: Ilmi Kitab Khana, 2004, p. 699
[43] John Clanchy & Brigid Ballard, How to Write Essays, Longman Melbourne: Cheshire Pty Limited, 1983, P. 21
[44] Verma, Dave & Aggarwala, New College Composition, p. 224
[45] Verma, Dave & Aggarwala, New College Composition, p. 353
[46] Sometimes “never” takes the place of “don’t”. This situation, wherein never is inserted before the verb in Reported Speech, expresses ‘emphasis’ in negation, and hence it will follow the same rule as “don’t” situation does.
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