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Theorist Essay JaNae BurgerEDUU 606Brandman University Theorist Essay A primary indicator of how successful a lesson will be in imparting desired concepts to students, is how effectively a teacher can design and implement instruction geared toward a diversity of learning styles, levels, and academic backgrounds (Pham, 2011). Teachers must know how students grow, progress and learn in different developmental stages to plan appropriate learning objectives and activities. Educational theories provide teachers with a fundamental knowledge base to refer to as they create quality, developmentally appropriate lesson plans. Most educational theories have either behavioral theory or cognitive theory attributes. Understanding the basic ideas of theorists from both schools will give educators tools to make effective instructional decisions. Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist whose interest in understanding how children learn began when he taught at the Grange-Aux-Belles street school for boys. While grading tests, he noticed many youth students answered questions incorrectly in the same way. This prompted Piaget to begin studying how children think, perceive the world, and interpret things. Piaget quickly realized learning occurs differently at various ages (Siribaddana, 2011). While studying he noted young children learn an amazing amount of information through play, this resulted in a shift in thinking where Piaget questioned the purpose and intent behind education. Piaget once stated: We can classify education into two main categories: passive education relying primarily on memory, and active education relying on intelligent understanding and discovery. Our real problem is-- what is the goal of education? Are we forming children who are only capable of learning what is already known? Or should we try to develop creative and innovative minds, capable of discovery from preschool age on, throughout life? (Tadika, 2013). As is suggested, Piaget was concerned with how students are being educated. Is the goal of education to simply teach students what is already discovered or should children be taught how to think and discover new things? Of course Piaget embraced the idea that young minds should be cultivated with critical thinking skills, innovation should be nurtured and creativity should be encouraged. This is no easy task. To better support this idea Piaget studied children for many years and through his observations came up a theory on how children's minds and thinking evolves. Piaget's theory is developmental in its approach as it suggests that our understanding of the world around us increases in proportions similar to that of our mental growth. Piaget identified 4 different stages of cognitive development which influences the way individuals see the world. Typically individuals progress through each of these stages at approximately similar rates and during certain ages. Each new stage results in a shift in perception and thinking which changes the way the individual understands the world around them. The stages Piaget identified are:AgeWorld Views influenced by:Identifying Characteristics:SensorimotorStageBirth to ~2 years- Knowledge based on movements and sensations and manipulating things- Assimilation and accommodation is primary sources for learning- Five senses - Learns things continue to exist even out of sight- Learns they are separate from objects or people around them- Learns they can cause things to happen in the world around them by their actionsPreoperational Stage~2-7(A when beginning to speak a factor)- Learn through play- Sees things from their point of view- Begin to use words and pictures- Struggle to see things from other perspectives different from their own- Their thinking is not flexibleConcrete Operational stage~7-11- Logical thinking begins- Thinking can still be rigid at times- Logical and organizational skills are developed- Reasoning based on prior knowledge also beginsFormal Operational Stage~12 and up- Abstract thinking, reasoning and application occurs- Logical thinking - Moral, philosophical, social, political, moral, and ethical reasoning begins- Deductive thinking and reasoning beginsPiaget's theory also outlined some other key ideas about the learning process. One of these ideas stressed that learning is not about the change in the amount of knowledge an individual has or how prior knowledge impacts learning, rather it is a change in how an individual thinks as a whole, how their view of the world changes. Piaget referred to the idea that individuals view the world in a certain way as Schemas. Essentially a schemas is the mental map, framework, or understanding that is used to help make sense of the world. Schemas are used to categorize information and make sense of new thoughts, actions or ideas. Schemas refer to both how information is organized or categorized in the brain as well as how individuals obtain new information and apply it to prior knowledge. When an individual is introduced to new information and are able to apply that information into an already constructed schema it is called Assimilation. However when new information is presented that does not fit nicely into any already created schemas students are not able to easily Assimilate the information. Individuals must than altered their schemas or create new schemas, this is called Accommodation. A sense of balance is needed for true growth to occur. Piaget called this balance between Assimilation and Accommodation Equilibration. Application of Piaget's theory of Cognitive Development in the ClassroomsBy being able to recognize and identify student's cognitive level and thinking style, teachers can create lessons plans and activities geared toward the appropriate developmental stages of the students. For example the use of pictures and toys is very appropriate during the preoperational stage whereas having a student think about how the character of the story feels would not be appropriate as it is beyond many of their comprehension. A key point Piaget repeatedly made, is that children progress through the stages at their own pace; each individual's understanding of the world will be different therefore student learning will also be different. As a result, teachers should plan on incorporating different methods of presenting the same information. A third grade teacher might have a student still in the preoperational stage (not common but possible), students in the concrete operational stage and perhaps some very advanced students beginning to use basic formal operational skills. In order to best teach all the students at their own level perhaps the teacher would use pictures to demonstrate a concept, followed up with a graphic organizer and then finally have a class discussion using basic deductive thinking. This would allow students to learn the concept through methods that enhance learning in the different stages. Classroom structure and use of time will also look different when Piaget's theory is at work. For example a preschool or kindergarten classroom embracing Piaget's concept will have most instruction based around play and helping students identify different concepts in the world around them. A teacher might teach the letters by singing songs or writing in sand. Counting might be taught while on a nature walk by having students use their numbers to identify the amount of flowers or bugs they see in a pot. This will be different from the high-school classroom which will promote abstract thinking, reasoning and logical thinking. The high-school classroom will still have some of these attributes but they will look different. For example the "play" might be in the form of a simulation and the real-world application may be in the form of project-based learning. The bottom line is that different strategies are needed for different stages. A high school teacher will need to come up with a whole new set of instructional methods should teaching kindergarten be their new career. Assignments and learning objectives will also vary. Young students with a short attention span and limited recall will likely only stay focused for a couple of minutes. Teachers will need to give simple, clear instructions that should not take much time to complete. Instructions need to be given one at a time with adequate time in between the steps for students to complete the task. In contrast, upper elementary students can give a bit more attention and the teacher can give 2-3 step instructions at one time and see students complete the task. In high school, teachers can often give students a description of the end product in mind and expect students to come up with their own steps on how they will get to the end result. Essentially, Piaget's theory stresses the importance of understanding how the student sees the world around them and how they learn. Teachers should focus on the process of how student's think, not just the objective behind the lesson. By recognizing the ways students are learning at different phases, teachers can plan lessons which will promote student interest and involvement. Understanding that student's thinking is different than adult thinking can help a teacher find ways to create lessons and activities that promote the assimilation of new information into their schemas in a natural way. When information naturally connects to schemas, it creates the opportunity for students to broaden their understanding of the world by incorporating the new concept being taught into their already established schemas. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory Bandura is a Canadian who learned early in his own education that students need to take charge of their own education. Bandura's theory was different from other theories because it suggests that individuals are active information processors that will take the time to think about how their behaviors will result in positive or negative consequences (McLeod, 2011). Bandura suggests learning is done both intentionally and unintentionally. Many behaviors and ideas are formed while children and adults are observing others and imitating what they have observed. The act of learning from others is a fundamental part of his theory. Bandura stated: Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (Cherry, 2014). Essentially Bandura's theory stresses the importance of interactions with others and the world around them. Most learning comes from observing others, imitating others and modeling behaviors. Not only are individuals influenced by those around them, they are also influenced by the environment. By observing the behaviors, consequences, cause-and-effects, and experiences of others, individuals are able to change their ideas and respond to what they observe without having to experience it first-hand. A majority of learning occurs through modeling. Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation are all essential for effective modeling to occur. Bandura also suggested the world, the environment and the social interactions an individual experiences play a direct role in that individual's behavior. That said, learning does not have to result in a change in behavior. Rather, learning can bring about a desire in an individual to change the world around them. Thus the world can cause a person's behavior or an individual's behavior to change the world, a concept Bandura refers to as Reciprocal Determinism. Reinforcement, both external and internal, are a key part to both learning and behavior. This theory plays an important role in education because it has elements of both behavioral theories and cognitive learning theories. This allows it to serve as a bridge between many of the ideas found in the theories most commonly used in the educational world. Application of Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory in ClassroomsBandura suggested most learning occurs through modeling. With this in mind, teachers should provide students with plenty of opportunities for them to model the concept, skill or thought they are learning. Pair-share, as well as teach and re-teach, are very simple methods which can be incorporated in any lesson to provide an opportunity for students to model their understanding of a concept. Learning is a social experience and relies on many forms of input. Creating a classroom environment promoting positive social learning opportunities will enhance concept retention. Social learning opportunities may include cooperative learning, Socratic seminars, literacy circles, project-based learning, group discussion, etc. Allowing students to work together, when appropriate, also helps foster learning. Peer tutoring can be a very effective tool. Grouping or pairing students in a way that enhances or encourages peer-tutoring can also create opportunities for social learning. Teachers should also remember they are a critical source of information for students. Whatever behaviors the teacher has, the students will likely adopt. A teacher who complains about the President will be fostering those same ideas in their students whereas a teacher who constantly expresses a love for reading, sharing how interesting and exciting it is, will likely positively impact student's thoughts about reading. Students learn best when they find value in the content being presented. Making learning interesting and helping students apply content to their own life and experiences will engage students by providing a sense of value and meaning to the content. The more engaging and meaningful the content is, the more motivated the student will be to remember and use the information. When lessons are interesting and engaging, students become self-motivated toward learning new concepts. This self-motivation is key because students will want to learn and will take charge of their understanding. Scaffolding is a tool that is often used to meet students at all levels and engage them in the lesson. Students are also driven by reinforcements. Teachers can provide positive and negative reinforcement through feedback, classroom structure, use of free time, materials, rewards, and punishments. Intrinsic motivation occurs when students find a concept, behavior, or activity rewarding on their own, without external motivation or rewards. This is the preferred form of motivation as it is much more effective and has the potential to continue once the incentive has been removed. External reinforcement is often used in education for classroom management. Although many teachers find it effective, this form of behavior manipulation is often a result of reward or consequence and may not last after the incentive is removed. What this means to teachers is finding a way to promote intrinsic motivation in students is the most effective form of reward. That said, many students are not motivated in one area or another and might become motivated with external reinforcements. A great way teachers can do this is to help students find and establish their own unique educational goal. This goal needs to be one that the student truly finds value in, wants to accomplish, feels will result in positive outcomes, and feels is reachable. When students create their own goal it can be a great intrinsic motivator. In conclusion, being a teacher is not simply opening up a student's head and pouring specific ideas, facts or skills in. Teaching is a complex dance of finding ways to engage and motivate students to open up their minds and absorb the content being presented. Understanding how students think, how they learn, how interaction impact them, and what activities or approaches best motivate them will not only help teachers create better lesson plans, it will make the learning process more enjoyable for both teachers and students. ReferencesCherry, K. (2014). Social learning theory. Retrieved from , S. (2011). Bandura- Social learning theory. Retrieved from , H. (2011). Theory-based instructional models applied in classroom contexts.?Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal,2(2), 406-415. Retrieved from Instructional Models Applied in Classroom Contexts.pdfSiribaddana, P. (2011). An overview on Jean Piaget's cognitive developmental theory. Retrieved from , A. C. (2013). Jean Piaget's developmental theory. Retrieved from ................
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