I



I. OUTLINES OF THREE LEGAL HISTORIES

English Legal History

|Period |Description |Politics |Sources of Law |Roman Influence |Continental Contrast |

|600–1150 |Age of Tort |Tribal–>Feudal Monarchy|Barbarian Codes, Custom|Almost non-existent |Weak |

|(1000?, 1066?) |Age of Property |Feudal monarchy |Custom, Case Law, |Strong on Method |Same |

|1150–1300 | | |Statute | | |

|(1250) 1300–1500 |Age of Trespass |National monarchy |Case Law |Weak |Quite Strong |

|(1602) | | | | | |

|(1375) 1500–1700 |Age of Equity |Absolute Monarchy–> |Case Law, Statute |Strong in spots |Strong |

| | |Const. Monarchy | | | |

|1700–1900 |Age of Reform |Const. monarchy |Case law, Some |Submerged but there |Very strong |

| | | |Codification | | |

Roman Legal History

|Period |Description |Politics |Sources of Law |

|500–250 BC |Archaic |City-State |XII Tables |

|250–1 BC |Pre-Classical |Urban Empire |Statutes/Cases |

|1–250 AD |Classical |Principate |Cases |

|250–500 AD |Post-Classical |Dominate |Imperial Constitutions |

|533 AD |Justinian |Byzantine |Code |

Continental Legal History

|Period |Description |Politics |Roman |Canon |Customary/National |

|450–1100 |Early Middle Ages |Barbarian Invasions, |Romano-barbarian Codes |Collections |Barbarian Codes |

|1100–1250 |High Middle Ages |Feudalism, Feudal |CJC–glossators |Gratian–>decretists Papal |Coutumiers |

| | |monarchy | |decretals | |

|1250–1500 |Later Middle Ages |National monarchy |CJC–commentators, |Decretalists–>encylopedic |Coutumiers and statutes |

| | | |Consilia |jurists | |

|1450–1550 |Rennaissance |Absolutism |Humanists |Councils, Consilia |Codification of custom, |

| | | | | |Reception |

|1550–1750 |Early Modern |Absolute monarchy |Natural law |Papal bureaucracy, |“Institutes” and statutes |

| | | | |Handbooks | |

|1700–1900 |Modern |Revolution |Pandectists, Historical|Codification |Codification |

| | | |School | | |

II. THE LEGACY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD — ROMAN LAW

1. Not the direct background of Anglo-Saxon law

2. As a paradigm of legal development—archaic, pre-classical, classical, post-classical as paralleling our ages of tort, property, trespass and equity, and the continental ages of Germanic codes, glossators, commentators, and humanists/natural lawyers with codification coming at the end of all three developments

3. As an influence—weak in the age of tort, strong in the age of property, weak in the age of trespass (but strong on the Continent), strong in the age of equity

III. JUSTINIAN’S INSTITUTES

J.I.1.1.3–4. The study of the law consists of two branches, law public, and law private. The former relates to the welfare of the Roman State; the latter to the advantage of the individual citizen. Of private law then we may say that it is of threefold origin, being collected from the precepts of nature, from those of the law of nations, or from those of the civil law of Rome.

J.I.1.2.12. The whole of the law which we observe relates either to persons, or to things, or to actions. And first let us speak of persons: for it is useless to know the law without knowing the persons for whose sake it was established.

J.I.2.1pr. In the preceding book we have expounded the law of Persons: now let us proceed to the law of Things. Of these some admit of private ownership, while others, it is held, cannot belong to individuals: for some things are by natural law common to all, some are public, some belong to a society or corporation, and some belong to no one. But most things belong to individuals, being acquired by various titles, as will appear from what follows.

J.I.2.6pr. It was a rule of the civil law that if a man in good faith bought a thing, or received it by way of gift, or on any other lawful ground, from a person who was not its owner, but whom he believed to be such, he should acquire it by usucapion—if a movable, by one year’s possession, and by two years’ possession if an immovable, though in this case only if it were in Italian soil;—the reason of the rule being the inexpediency of allowing ownership to be long unascertained. The ancients thus considered that the periods mentioned were sufficient to enable owners to look after their property; but we have arrived at a better opinion, in order to save people from being over-quickly defrauded of their own, and to prevent the benefit of this institution from being confined to only a certain part of the empire. We have consequently published a constitution on the subject, enacting that the period of usucapion for movables shall be three years, and that ownership of immovables shall be acquired by long possession—possession, that is to say, for ten years, if both parties dwell in the same province, and for twenty years if in different provinces; and things may in these modes be acquired in full ownership, provided the possession commences on a lawful ground, not only in Italy but in every land subject to our sway.

J.I.2.9.6. So much at present concerning the modes of acquiring rights over single things: for direct and fiduciary bequests, which are also among such modes, will find a more suitable place in a later portion of our treatise. We proceed therefore to the titles whereby an aggregate of rights is acquired. If you become the successors, civil or praetorian, of a person deceased, or adopt an independent person by adrogation, or become assignees of a deceased’s estate in order to secure their liberty to slaves manumitted by his will, the whole estate of those persons is transferred to you in an aggregate mass.

J.I.3.1.13. Let us now pass on to obligations. … [T]hey are arranged in four classes, contractual, quasi-contractual, delictal, and quasi-delictal.

J.I. 4.6pr. The subject of actions still remains for discussion. An action is nothing else than the right of suing before a judge for what is due to one.

IV. PAUL’S LETTER TO THE ROMANS

1. The anger of God against both pagan and Jew. Why God is angry aginst the Jews is easy. They have the Law but they do not keep it, 2:21–2 (bottom of p. 13): “You preach against stealing, yet you steal; you forbid adultery, yet you commit adultery; you despise idols, yet you rob their temples.” Why God is angry against the pagans is a bit more complicated, 2:14–15: “Pagans who never heard of the law but are led by reason to do what the law commands, may not actually ‘possess’ the law but they can be said to ‘be’ the law. They can point to the substance of the law engraved on their hearts—they can call a witness, that is, their own conscience—they have accusation and defense, that is, their own inner mental dialogue.”

4. Now comes the first big move: 3:21 (p. 15): “God’s justice that was made known through the Law and the Prophets has now been revealed outside the Law ... to everyone who believes in Jesus Christ. ... [3:31] do we mean that faith makes the Law pointless? Not at all: we are giving the Law its true value.”

5. 7:1: “Brothers, those of you who have studied law will know that laws affect a person only during his lifetime. A married woman, for instance, has legal obligations to her husband while he is alive, but all these obligations come to an end if the husband dies. ... That is why you, my brothers, who through the body of Christ are now dead to the Law, can now give yourself to another husband, to him who rose from the dead to make us productive for God. ... The reason [8:1] (p. 16) therefore why those who are in Christ Jesus are not condemned, it that the law of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus has set you free from the law of sin and death. God has done what the Law, because of our unspiritual nature was unable to do.” But what is now law? The Church had already decided that circumcision and most of the rules of kashruth were not to be followed, but what is left?

6. 13:8–9 (p. 18): “Avoid getting into debt except the debt of mutual love. If you love your fellow men you have carried out your obligations. All the commandments ... are summed up in this single command: You must love your neighbor as yourself.”

7. 13:1 (p. 17): “You must obey the governing authorities. [exousi’as, since a student asked, but what does that mean?] Since all government comes from God, the civil authorities were appointed by God, and so anyone who resists authority is rebelling against God’s decision ... . The state is there to serve God for your benefit. If you break the law, however, you may well have fear; the bearing of the sword has its own significance. The authorities ... carry out God’s revenge by punishing wrongdoers. ... This is also the reason why you must pay taxes since all government officials are God’s officers ... .”

V. THE LEGACY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD — CHRISTIANITY

1. The importance of Christianity in English legal development

2. The letter to the Romans

a. The theology of the letter (justification comes from faith in Christ Jesus, not from the Mosaic law)

b. The antinomianism that seems to lurk in the letter (freedom from the law in Christ Jesus)

8. Law and Christianity in the Roman Empire

a. The relative absence of what we think of as law from the NT

b. Possible explanations

i. Law was not the Greeks’ long suit

ii. Justification by faith not by the Mosaic law

c. The Council of Jerusalem (Ac 15:1-34; Gal 2:1-21)

d. The need for unity and the concept of communion (koinonia)

e. Christianity becomes the official religion of the Roman empire (4th century)

i. The Greek councils (Nicaea (325), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451)

ii. Canons of councils (nomos vs. kanon)

iii. Decretal letters of the popes (e.g., Leo I, 440-461)

f. Why does Christianity not develop a genuinely religious legal system?

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