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An Example: ( (
|[Front Side of Card A] |[Back side of Card A] |
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|Who was the last Julio-Claudian emperor? |Nero |
|Ch. # | |
Chapter 34 ( (
|What is in Ch. 34? |Mood |
| |Present Subjunctive (how to form) |
| |Mnemonic device: We beat a giant liar. |
| |Hortatory/Jussive Subjunctive |
| |Imperfect Subjunctive (how to form) |
| |Purpose Clauses (subjunctive clause #2) |
| |P.S. -What do these pairs of words mean? |
|Mood |different “ways” to use verbs in a language (from Latin “modus” =|
| |way) |
| |in Latin there are 3 moods: indicative, imperative and |
|Ch. 34 |subjunctive |
|Indicative Mood |used for normal statements and questions |
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|Ch. 34 | |
|Imperative Mood |used for direct commands |
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|Ch. 34 | |
|Subjunctive Mood |used for wishes, indirect commands, possibilities/potentialities,|
| |exhortations, purpose clauses, result clauses, certain |
| |conditions, et al. |
|Ch. 34 | |
|Note on how to translate Latin subjunctives into English |the English translation of the subjunctive varies dramatically |
| |from clause to clause, so learn peculiar or special translations |
| |per each type of subjunctive clause |
| |Example: the present subjunctive will have one translation in a |
| |hortatory / jussive clause, a different translation in a purpose |
| |clause, another translation in indirect command, etc. |
|How to form the present subjunctive |simply change the indicative vowel per conjugation as follows: |
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|Ch. 34 | |
| |Infinitive --> Subj. vowel |ere verbs --> a |
| |āre verbs --> e |3rd-iō, ere verbs --> ia |
| |ēre verbs --> ea |īre verbs --> ia |
| |Mnemonic device: We beat a giant liar. |
|1st Conjugation |-āre Verbs: |
|(Present Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-em / -er |-ēmus / -ēmur |
| |-ēs / -ēris |-ētis / -ēminī |
| | -et / -ētur |-ent / -entur |
|2nd Conjugation |-ēre Verbs: |
|(Present Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-eam / -ear |-eāmus / -eāmur |
| |-eās / -eāris |-eātis / -eāminī |
| |-eat / -eātur |-eant / -eantur |
|3rd Conjugation |-ere Verbs: |
|(Present Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-am / -ar |-āmus / -āmur |
| | -ās / -āris |-ātis / -āminī |
| |-at / -ātur |-ant / -antur |
|3rd–iō Conjugation |Infinitive: -ere (1st part of verb is –iō: example, capiō, |
|(Present Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) |capere) |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-iam / -iar |-iāmus / -iāmur |
| |-iās / -iāris |-iātis / -iāminī |
| |-iat / -iātur |-iant / -iantur |
|4th Conjugation |Infinitive: -īre |
|(Present Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-iam / -iar |-iāmus / -iāmur |
| |-iās / -iāris |-iātis / -iāminī |
| |-iat / -iātur |-iant / -iantur |
|Conjugation of the irregular verb, sum, esse = “to be” (Present |sum, esse = to be |
|Subjunctive Tense Pattern) | |
| | |
|“Sports Illustrated” | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |sim |sīmus |
| |sīs |sītis |
| |sit |sint |
|Conjugation of the irregular verb, eō, īre, iī (īvī), itus/a/um =|eō, īre = to go |
|“to go” (Present Subjunctive Tense Pattern) | |
| | |
|“EA Sports” or “Episcopal Academy”: Ch. 34 | |
| |eam |eāmus |
| |eās |eātis |
| |eat |eant |
|Present Subjunctive used independently (as main verb) |A few various translations for dīcāmus: |
| |(1) let us speak (!) – hortatory subjunctive |
| |(2) may we speak ! – wish (ch. 45) |
|Ch. 34 (p. 128) |(3) we may speak – possibility (ch. 45) |
| |(4) [sī = if] we should speak – condition (ch. 44) |
|Hortatory Subjunctive |Exhortations or commands of the first person use present |
|(1st person commands) |subjunctive: |
| |ambulem = let me walk (!) |
| |ambulēmus = let’s walk (!), let us walk (!) |
|Virtually the same idea as jussive |Negative is introduced by nē: |
| |nē clāvēs āmittam = let me not lose my keys (!) |
| |nē clāvēs āmittāmus = let’s not lose our keys (!) |
|Ch. 34 |This is an independent subjunctive |
|Jussive Subjunctive |Exhortations or commands of the 3rd person use present |
|(3rd person commands) |subjunctive: |
| |ambulet = let him/her/it walk (!) |
| |ambulent = let them walk (!) |
|Virtually the same idea as hortatory |Negative is introduced by nē: |
| |nē pizzam edat = let him/her/it not eat pizza (!) |
| |nē pizzam edant = let them not eat pizza (!) |
|Ch. 34 |This is an independent subjunctive |
|How to form the imperfect subjunctive |very easy: for all verbs, even irregular verbs, add personal |
|(for all verbs) |endings (active/passive) to the present active infinitive [always|
| |the present active infinitive is your stem] |
| |for deponent verbs, the stem is an “artificial” present active |
|Ch. 34 |infinitive (ch. 36) |
|1st Conjugation |-āre Verbs: |
|(Imperfect Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-ārem / -ārer |-ārēmus / -ārēmur |
| |-ārēs / -ārēris |-ārētis / -ārēminī |
| | -āret / -ārētur |-ārent / -ārentur |
|2nd Conjugation |-ēre Verbs: |
|(Imperfect Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-ērem / -ērer |-ērēmus / -ērēmur |
| |-ērēs / -ērēris |-ērētis / -ērēminī |
| |-ēret / -ērētur |-ērent / -ērēntur |
|3rd Conjugation |-ere Verbs: |
|(Imperfect Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-erem / -erer |-erēmus / -erēmur |
| |-erēs / -erēris |-erētis / -erēminī |
| |-eret / -erētur |-erent / -erēntur |
|3rd–iō Conjugation |Infinitive: -ere (1st part of verb is –iō: example, capiō, |
|(Imperfect Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) |capere) |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-erem / -erer |-erēmus / -erēmur |
| |-erēs / -erēris |-erētis / -erēminī |
| |-eret / -erētur |-erent / -erēntur |
|4th Conjugation |Infinitive: -īre |
|(Imperfect Subjunctive Active/Passive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |-īrem / -īrer |-īrēmus / -īrēmur |
| |-īrēs / -īrēris |-īrētis / -īrēminī |
| |-īret / -īrētur |-īrent / -īrēntur |
|Conjugation of the irregular verb, sum, esse = “to be” (Imperfect|Infinitive: esse = to be |
|Subjunctive Tense Pattern) | |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |essem |essēmus |
| |essēs |essētis |
| |esset |essent |
|Conjugation of the irregular verb, ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um |Infinitive: ferre |
|= “to bring, bear, suffer, allow” [follows regular formation] | |
|(Imperfect Subjunctive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |ferrem / ferrer |ferrēmus / ferrēmur |
| |ferrēs / ferrēris |ferrētis / ferrēminī |
| |ferret / ferrētur |ferrent / ferrentur |
|Conjugation of the irregular verb, eō, īre = “to go” (Imperfect |Infinitive: īre = to go |
|Subjunctive Tense Pattern) | |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |īrem |īrēmus |
| |īrēs |īrētis |
| |īret |īrent |
|Review of how to form the passive voice of the Present |For the passive for the present subjunctive, make sure you apply |
|Subjunctive |the WE BEAT A GIANT LIAR for the vowel then attach the passive |
| |personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur) |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
|Review of how to form the passive voice of the Imperfect |For the passive for the imperfect subjunctive, simply attach the |
|Subjunctive |passive personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur) to |
| |the present active infinitive (= 2nd principal part) |
| |IMPORTANT: the present active infinitive is also the stem for the|
| |imperfect passive! |
| | |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
|Sequence of Tenses |The tense of the verb in the main clause influences the tense of |
| |the subjunctive verb in dependent clauses: e.g., purpose clauses,|
| |indirect commands, result clauses, etc. |
|Ch. 34 | |
|Primary Sequence |When the tense of the main verb is present, future, the true |
| |perfect (has/have verbed), future perfect, or an imperative--> |
| |the subjunctive verb must be present subj |
|Ch. 34 | |
|Secondary or “Historical” Sequence |When the tense of the main verb is imperfect, simple perfect |
| |(verbed/ did verb) pluperfect --> the subjunctive verb must be |
| |imperfect subj |
|Ch. 34 | |
|Clauses of Purpose or Purpose Clauses |These subjunctive clauses show the purpose (Why? or For what |
|(Card 1) |reason / purpose?) of performing the main clause. |
| |Follow rules of sequence of tenses |
| |Introduced by ut or nē + subjunctive |
| |Translation: (1) in order that may verb (primary) / might verb |
| |(secondary); (2) in order to verb; (3) so that, so as; (4) lest |
| |[negative only] |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
|Clauses of Purpose or Purpose Clauses |(Primary sequence): Marcus is leaving so that we may speak in |
|(Card 2) |secret. = Marcus discēdit ut clam dīcāmus. |
| |(Secondary sequence): Marcus left so that we might speak in |
| |secret. = Marcus discessit ut clam dīcerēmus. |
| |(Negative): Marcus stayed lest we speak (so that we might not |
| |speak) in secret. = Marcus mānsit nē clam dīcerēmus. |
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|Ch. 34 | |
|What do these pairs of words mean? |ubi? = where // ubique = everywhere |
| |unde? = from where? whence? // undique = from all sides |
| |quis? = who? // quisque = each (adj.) |
| |uter? = which of two? // uterque = each of two, both (adj) |
| | |
|Ch. 34 (P.S.) | |
Ch. 35 ( (
|What is in Ch. 35? |Indirect Commands (subjunctive phrase #3) |
| |The Sequence of Tenses |
| |Pluperfect Active Subjunctive (forms) |
| |Cum Clauses in Secondary Sequence |
| |(subj. clause #4) |
| |Review of the Passive Subjunctive |
| |Review of imperfect subjunctive of (1) sum, esse and (2) ferō, |
| |ferre |
| |Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive (forms) |
| |P.S. - Compounds of currō, currere |
|Direct Commands - positive (review) |Use the imperative [drop –re (singular); -te (plural)] |
| |Example: ambulā = walk! (singular); ambulāte = walk! (plural) |
|Direct Commands - negative (review) |Formula( use nōlī / nōlīte + infinitive |
| |Example: nōlī ambulāre = Don’t walk! (singular); nōlīte |
| |ambulāre = Don’t walk! (plural) |
|Indirect Commands |Whenever someone orders / commands / wants / asks / persuades / |
| |advises / warns (main clause) someone (else) to perform an action|
| |(subjunctive) |
| |Follow rules of sequence of tenses |
| |Introduced by ut + present/imperfect subjunctive |
| |Negative is nē + present/imperfect subjunctive |
| |Translation for the subjunctive verb: |
| |“to verb” (primary/secondary) |
| | |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
|Indirect Commands |Marcus is persuading Julius and Anna to bring bread. = Marcus |
|(primary sequence examples) |Juliō et Annae persuādet ut panem ferant. |
|(Card 2) |(Negative): Marcus persuades Julius and Anna not to bring bread. |
| |= Marcus Juliō et Annae persuādet nē panem ferant. |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
|Indirect Commands |Marcus persuaded Julius and Anna to bring bread. = Marcus Juliō |
|(secondary sequence examples) |et Annae persuāsit ut panem ferrent. |
|(Card 3) |(Negative): Marcus persuaded Julius and Anna not to bring bread. |
| |= Marcus Juliō et Annae persuāsit nē panem ferrent. |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
|two verbs that don’t use the ut/nē construction |the verbs iubeō, iubēre (to order) and vetō, vetāre (to forbid) |
|(Card 4) |do NOT use ut/nē + subjunctive, but instead use ACCUSATIVE + |
| |INFINITIVE |
| |Example: pater iussit fīlium domum statim redīre = the father |
| |ordered his son to return home immediately. |
| | |
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|Ch. 35 | |
|Reflexives in indirect commands |As in purpose clauses, the reflexives sē and suus/a/um refer back|
|(Card 5) |to the subject of the main verb. |
| |pater fīlium rogat ut sē adiuvet. = The father is asking his son |
| |to help him ((father) |
| | |
|Ch. 34/35 | |
|Sequence of Tenses |The tense of the verb in the main clause influences or dictates |
| |the tense of the subjunctive verb in dependent clauses: e.g., |
| |purpose clauses, indirect commands, result clauses, etc. |
| | |
|Ch. 34/35 | |
|Primary Sequence |When the tense of the main verb is present, future, the true |
| |perfect (has/have verbed), future perfect, or an imperative--> |
| |the subjunctive verb must be present subj |
|Ch. 34/35 | |
|Secondary or “Historical” Sequence |When the tense of the main verb is imperfect, simple perfect |
| |(verbed/ did verb) pluperfect --> the subjunctive verb must be |
| |imperfect subj |
|Ch. 34/35 | |
|Examples of the “true perfect” |iuvenēs discessērunt ut cum Brutō militent. The young men have |
|(primary sequence) |left so that they may serve with Brutus. (purpose clause) |
| |puer patrī persuāsit nē sē domum remittat. The boy has persuaded |
| |his father not to send him bach home. (indirect command) |
|Ch. 34/35 | |
|Pluperfect Active Subjunctive |Simply take the 3rd principal part stem + isse + -m, -s, -t, |
| |-mus, -tis, -nt |
|(How to Form…for all verbs) |Examples: amāvissem, dormīvissēs, terruisset, portāvissēmus, |
| |vīdissētis, vēnissent |
| |Translation: depends on the clause that it is in. Usually, “had |
| |verbed”, but can also be “might have verbed”, “would have verbed”|
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
|Paradigm for Pluperfect Active Subjunctive | trahō, trahere, trāxī, tractus/a/um = to drag |
|-used for all verbs | |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
| |trāxissem |trāxissēmus |
| |trāxissēs |trāxissētis |
| | trāxisset |trāxissent |
|Pluperfect Active Subjunctive of the verb “to be” [follows |sum, esse, fuī, futūrus/a/um = to be |
|regular formation] | |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
| |fuissem |fuissēmus |
| |fuissēs |fuissētis |
| | fuisset |fuissent |
|Pluperfect Active Subjunctive of the verb “to go” [follows |eō, īre, iī (īvī), itūrus/a/um = to go |
|regular formation] | |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
| |īssem / īvissem |īssēmus / īvissēmus |
| |īssēs / īvissēs |īssētis / īvissētis |
| | īsset / īvisset |īssent / īvissent |
|Pluperfect Active Subjunctive of the ferō, ferre, tulī, |ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um = “to bring, bear, suffer, allow” |
|lātus/a/um = “to bring, bear, suffer, allow” [follows regular | |
|formation] | |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
| |tulissem |tulissēmus |
| |tulissēs |tulissētis |
| | tulisset |tulissent |
|Cum clauses in Secondary (Historical) Sequence ( |Cum clauses in Secondary (Historical) Sequence ( (subjunctive |
| |phrase #4) |
| |…The conjunction cum (“when”) in past time usually takes the |
| |subjunctive (imperfect or pluperfect)…for exceptions to this |
| |rule, see ch. 47. |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
|Review of how to form the passive voice of the Present |For the passive for the present subjunctive, make sure you apply |
|Subjunctive |the WE BEAT A GIANT LIAR for the vowel then attach the passive |
| |personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur) |
| | |
|Ch. 34/35 | |
|Review of how to form the passive voice of the Imperfect |For the passive for the imperfect subjunctive, simply attach the |
|Subjunctive |passive personal endings (-r, -ris, -tur, -mur, -minī, -ntur) to |
| |the present active infinitive (= 2nd principal part) |
| |IMPORTANT: the present active infinitive is also the stem for the|
| |imperfect passive! |
| | |
|Ch. 34/35 | |
|Conjugation of the irregular verb, ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um |Infinitive: ferre |
|= “to bring, bear, suffer, allow” [follows regular formation] | |
|(Imperfect Subjunctive Tense Pattern) | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |ferrem / ferrer |ferrēmus / ferrēmur |
| |ferrēs / ferrēris |ferrētis / ferrēminī |
| |ferret / ferrētur |ferrent / ferrentur |
|Review of the Conjugation of the verb, sum, esse = “to be” in |Infinitive: esse = to be |
|the Imperfect Subjunctive Tense Pattern | |
| | |
|Ch. 34 | |
| |essem |essēmus |
| |essēs |essētis |
| |essēt |essēt |
|Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive |Take the 4th principal part (1st word) + the helping verb (2nd |
| |word()… essem, essēs, esset, essēmus, essētis, essent |
|(How to Form for all verbs) |Examples: amātus/a/um essem, ductus/a/um essēs, terrītus/a/um |
| |esset, portātī/ae/a essēmus, vīsī/ae/a essētis, inventī/ae/a |
| |essent |
| |Translation: depends on the clause that it is in. Usually, “had |
| |been verbed”, but can also be “might have been verbed”, “would |
| |have been verbed” |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
|Paradigm for Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive | trahō, trahere, trāxī, tractus/a/um = to drag |
|-used for all verbs | |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
| |tractus/a/um essem |tractī/ae/a essēmus |
| |tractus/a/um essēs |tractī/ae/a essētis |
| |tractus/a/um esset |tractī/ae/a essent |
|Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive of the ferō, ferre, tulī, |ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um = “to bing, bear, suffer, allow” |
|lātus/a/um = “to bing, bear, suffer, allow” [follows regular | |
|formation] | |
| | |
|Ch. 35 | |
| |lātus/a/um essem |lātī/ae/a essēmus |
| |lātus/a/um essēs |lātī/ae/a essētis |
| |lātus/a/um esset |lātī/ae/a essent |
| |
|What do the following compounds of currō mean? |accurrō = run to |
| |ocurrō = meet, run into + dative |
| | |
| |circumcurrō = run around |
| |percurrō = run through |
| | |
| |concurrō = run into, clash (battle); agree |
| |praecurrō = run ahead |
| | |
| |dēcurrō = run down |
|Ch. 35/P.S. |prōcurrō = run forward |
| | |
| |discurrō = run away |
| |recurrō = run back |
| | |
| |incurrō = run into |
| |succurrō = run to the help of |
| | |
| |intercurrō = run between |
| |trānscurrō = run across |
| | |
Ch. 36 ( (
|Deponent Verbs |These verbs are defective in that they have no active endings or |
| |forms |
| |So, passive forms/endings only |
|Ch. 36 |BUT, deponents use active translations |
|Present Passive Infinitive |For the 1st, 2nd, and 4th conjugations, change the –re to –rī : |
|(Present Deponent Infinitive) |[amārī, terrērī, audīrī] |
| |For verbs that are 3rd and 3rd-io, add an –ī to the consonant |
| |stem : [pōnī, trahī, capī, mittī] |
| |Translation: “to be verbed” (except for deponents, which would be|
| |“to verb”) |
| | |
|Ch. 36 | |
|Special note on Present Passive Infinitive for 3rd and 3rd-io |For verbs that are 3rd and 3rd-io, add an –ī to the consonant |
|Conjugations |stem : EXAMPLES: Active inf. Passive inf: pōnere pōnī; |
| |trahere trahī; capere capī; mittere mittī; dīcere |
| |dīcī] |
|Ch. 36 | |
|Present Passive/Deponent Imperatives (Commands) |Most commonly used for deponent verbs |
|[Card 1] |Singular ending: -re (looks like pres. Active infinitive) |
| |Plural ending: -minī (same as 2nd person plural passive/deponent)|
| |Translation: “ verb (!)” (deponent) or |
| |“ be verbed (!)” |
|Ch. 36 | |
|Forms of the Present Passive/Deponent Imperatives (Commands) by | |
|conjugation |Singular |
|[Card 2] |Plural |
| | |
|Ch. 36 |1st Conjugation |
| |-āre |
| |-āminī |
| | |
| |2nd Conjugation |
| |-ēre |
| |-ēminī |
| | |
| |3rd Conjugation |
| |-ere |
| |*-iminī |
| | |
| |4th Conjugation |
| |-īre |
| |-īminī |
| | |
|Forms of the Present Passive/Deponent Imperatives (Commands) by | |
|conjugation with examples |Singular |
|[Card 2] |Plural |
| | |
|Ch. 36 |1st Conjugation |
| |conāre |
| |conāminī |
| | |
| |2nd Conjugation |
| |verēre |
| |verēminī |
| | |
| |3rd Conjugation |
| |sequere |
| |sequiminī |
| | |
| |4th Conjugation |
| |orīre |
| |orīminī |
| | |
|Note on deponent participles |1. Present Active Participle: Yes! Labēns, labentis = “slipping” |
| |2. Perfect Passive Participle: Not “passive”, but must be |
| |translated actively. It is the last principal part – sum: |
| |lapsus/a/um = “having slipped” [sometimes “slipping” but with |
| |time prior to main verb] |
| |3. Future Active Participle: Yes! It is the last principal part –|
| |sum + the –ūr- sound: lapsūrus/a/um = “about to/going to slip” |
| | |
| | |
|Ch. 36 | |
|i.e. = id est |“therefore, that is to say” |
|Ch. 36/P.S. |Used to explain a previous statement |
|e. g. = exemplī grātiā |for example |
|Ch. 36/P.S. |literally, “for the sake of an example” |
|etc. = et cetera |“and the rest”, “and others” |
| |Used in lists where you could go on, but there is no need to |
| |because the information is understood or redundant |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|a.m. = ante merīdiem |a.m. = before noon |
|p.m = post merīdiem |p.m. = after noon, afternoon |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|A.D. vs. C.E. |A.D. = annō Dominī = “in the year of the Lord.” This is a |
| |Christian system of dating years. |
| |C.E. = “in the Common Era” and is a non-religious replacement of |
| |A.D. |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|A.M.D.G. = ad maiōrem Deī glōriam |“to/for the greater glory of God” |
| |The motto of Jesuit Order and Opus Dei |
|(Did you read The Da Vinci Code?) \ | |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|ad fin. vs. ab. init. |ad fin. = ad fīnem = “to the end” “at the end” |
| |ab init. = ab initiō = “from the beginning |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|P.S. = post scriptum |“a thing written after” |
|Ch. 36/P.S. |an extra note added at the end of a letter |
|cf. = confer |“compare” |
| |Used for making comparisons or points of reference |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|et seq. = et sequentia |“and the following things”, “and the following ones” |
| |Used for listing specific items (compare with etc.) |
| | |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|flor. = flōruit |“he/she blossomed”, “he/she was at their best” |
| |Used in dating the peak of a career for artists and writers, |
| |etc.; or the peak of a movement or school |
| | |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|p.a. = per annum |“in or for the year” |
| |[“by the year” “through the year”] |
| |used for salaries, etc.: What is your per annum pay? |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|lb. = lībrae |“pounds” |
|Ch. 36/P.S. |used for weighting things and people |
|R.I.P. = requiēscat in pāce |“may he/she rest in peace” |
|Ch. 36/P.S. |Used on tombstones |
|No. = numerō |“in number” |
| |Used in counting |
|Ch. 36/P.S. |This is an ablative of respect |
|MSS = manūscrīpta |“manuscripts” |
| |Used in palaeography or the study of manuscripts |
|Ch. 36/P.S. | |
|N.B. = notā bene |“Note well”, “Take a good look at” |
|Ch. 36/P.S. |Used in emphasizing important points |
Ch. 37 and Ch. 38 ( (
|The Ablative Absolute |A short phrase the Romans used instead of a longer subordinate |
| |clause |
| |consists of a noun/pronoun + a participle |
|Ch. 37 |or a noun + noun; noun + adjective |
|The most basic translation of the Ablative Absolute |“with” + noun + participle |
| |fenestrā fractā = with the window (having been) broken |
| |puerīs fenestrās frangentibus = with the boys breaking the |
| |windows |
| |puerīs fenestrās fractūrīs = with the boys about to break the |
|Ch. 37 |windows |
|Contextual translations for Participles |N.B.: You need to add these to fit the context: |
| |temporal: when, after (P.P.P. only); while, as (present active |
| |part. only) |
| |causal: because, since |
| |concessive: although, even though |
| |conditional: if |
| |relative clause: who, which, that (don’t use this one with the |
|Ch. 37 |ablative absolute) |
|Contextual translations for the Ablative Absolute |N.B.: You need to add these to fit the context: |
| |temporal: when, after (P.P.P. only); while, as (present active |
| |part. only) |
| |causal: because, since |
|Ch. 37 |concessive: although, even though |
| |conditional: if |
|Attributive vs. Predicate uses of participles (review) |You can use participles as adjectives (attributive) or in verbal |
| |phrases, called participial phrases (predicate use) |
| |Attributive: “the laughing hyena” |
| |Predicate: “The woman (who is/was) laughing at me is not my |
| |friend.” |
| |The Ablative Absolute is a predicate use |
|Present Active Participle (review of forms) |–ns in the nominative singular (voc sing) |
|[Card 1] |All other cases have –nt- + a 3rd declension i-stem ending |
| |Translation: “-ing”: “verbing” |
| |Agrees with noun in case, number, and gender |
| | |
|Ch. 37 | |
|Present Active Participle (review of forms) |Neuter = N |
|[Card 2- just the endings] |Singular |
| |Plural |
| | |
| |Nom/Voc |
| |-ns |
| |-ntēs (-ntiaN) |
| | |
| |Genitive |
| |-ntis |
| |-ntium |
| | |
| |Dative |
| |-ntī |
| |-ntibus |
| | |
| |Accusative |
| |-ntem (-nsN) |
| |-ntēs (-ntiaN) |
| | |
| |Ablative |
| |-nte /-ntī |
| |-ntibus |
| | |
|Present Active Participle (review of forms) | |
|[Card 3] |Nom Sing. |
| |Gen. Sing |
| | |
| |1st Conjugation |
| |-āns |
| |-antis |
| | |
| |2nd Conjugation |
| |-ēns |
| |-entis |
| | |
| |3rd Conjugation |
| |-ēns |
| |-entis |
| | |
| |3rd–io Conj. |
| |-iēns |
| |-ientis |
| | |
| |4th Conjugation |
| |-iēns |
| |-ientis |
| | |
|N.B.: The ablative singular of the Present Active Participle |–nte is the predicate or participial phrase ending |
|Ch. 37, page 139 |–ntī is the attributive or adjectival ending |
|Perfect Passive Participle (review of forms) |= the 4th principal part of regular verbs |
| |For deponent verbs, it is the 3rd or last principal part – sum |
| |Literal Translation: “(having been) verbed”; for deponent verbs: |
| |“having verbed” |
| | |
|Ch. 37 | |
|Future Active Participle |= the 4th principal part of regular verbs + the -ūr- sound |
| |For deponent verbs, it is the 3rd or last principal part – sum + |
| |the -ūr- sound |
| |Literal Translation: “about to verb”, “going to verb”, “intending|
| |to verb” |
|Ch. 38 | |
|Relative time of Participles/Infinitives to the main verb in the |Present Active: simultaneous or same time as main verb |
|sentence |Perfect Passive or Deponent Perfect: time prior or before the |
| |main verb |
| |Future Active: time subsequent of future to main verb |
| | |
|Ch. 37 & 38 | |
|Example of Abl. Absolute using a present active participle (N.B. |[Present tense M.V. + causal context] |
|different tenses of main verb) |puerīs fenestrās frangentibus, puellae ē villā discēdunt. = |
| |Because the boys are breaking the windows, the girls are leaving |
| |the farmhouse. |
|Ch. 37 |[PAST tense M.V. + causal context] |
| |puerīs fenestrās frangentibus, puellae ē villā discessērunt. = |
| |Because the boys were breaking the windows, the girls left the |
| |farmhouse. |
|Example of Abl. Absolute using a PERFECT PASSIVE participle (note|[Present tense M.V. + concessive context] |
|different tenses of main verb) |fenestrā fractā puellae ē villā tamen discēdunt. = Although the |
| |window was/is broken, the girls are nevertheless leaving the |
| |farmhouse. |
| |[PAST tense M.V. + causal context] |
|Ch. 37 |fenestrā fractā puellae ē villā discessērunt. = Because the |
| |window had been broken, the girls left the farmhouse. |
|Example of Abl. Absolute using a future active participle (note |[Present tense M.V. + causal context] |
|different tenses of main verb) |puerīs fenestrās fractūrīs, puellae ē villā discēdunt. = Because |
| |the boys are about to break the windows, the girls are leaving |
| |the farmhouse. |
| |[PAST tense M.V. + causal context] |
|Ch. 38 |puerīs fenestrās fractūrīs, puellae ē villā discessērunt. = |
| |Because the boys were about to break the windows, the girls left |
| |the farmhouse. |
|Esse has no present active participle |sum, esse has no present active participle, so it is implied in |
| |phrases like Cicerone consule = with Cicero being consul/Since |
| |Cicero is/was consul |
|Ch. 37, p. 141 | |
|Example of Abl. Absolute using a noun + noun (note different |(With Augustus being emperor) |
|tenses of main verb) |Augustō prīncipe pācem nunc habēmus. = “Because Augustus is the |
| |emperor, we now have peace.” |
| |Augustō prīncipe pācem tandem habuimus. = “Because/When Augustus |
| |was the emperor, we finally had peace.” |
| | |
|Ch. 37 | |
|Example of Abl. Absolute using a noun + adjective (note different|[with Julius being happy] |
|tenses of main verb) |Iuliō laetō, mīlitēs plūs pecuniae dantur. = Because Julius is |
| |happy, the soldiers are being given more money. |
| |Iuliō laetō, mīlitēs plūs pecuniae datī sunt. = Because Julius is|
|Ch. 37 |happy, the soldiers were given more money. |
|What is the meaning of the following nouns, all formed from |narrātor = story teller // fautor = supporter, fan // scrīptor = |
|supines of verbs you know? |writer // lēctor = reador // proditor = traitor // dēditiō = |
| |surrender // commendātiō = praise // salūtātiō = greeting // |
| |monitiō = warning, admonition // quaestiō = inquiry, question // |
| |cantus = song // reditus = return // monitus = warning // rīsus =|
| |laugh, laughter; smile // ascēnsus = climb, ascent |
| | |
|Ch. 37/P.S. | |
|Sounds of participles: |–ns (nomintive singular) |
|[Card 1 Present active] Ch. 38 |–nt- + a 3rd declension ending |
|Sounds of participles: |4th Principal Part of regular verbs |
|[Card 2 PERFECT PASSIVE] |3rd or last principal part of deponent verbs - sum |
|Ch. 38 | |
|Sounds of participles: |4th Principal Part stem of regular verbs + |
|[Card 3: Future Active] |-ūrus, - ūra, -ūrum |
| |3rd or last principal part of deponent verbs – sum + -ūrus, - |
|Ch. 38 |ūra, -ūrum |
|Future participle of sum |Woo-Hoo! The future active participle of sum, esse is futūrus, |
|Ch. 38 |futūra, futūrum |
|What is the meaning of the following words? |alius/a/ud = another, other |aliter = otherwise |
| |aliquot = some, several |aliquandō = sometimes, |
| |aliquamdiū = for some time |occasionally |
| |aliās = (1) at another time, |aliquotiēns = several times |
| |(2) otherwise |alibī = elsewhere aliquis = |
| | |someone aliquid = something |
| | | |
|Ch. 38/P.S. | | |
Ch. 39 ( (
|Indirect Questions |An indirect question is a subordinate interrogative clause dependent on a |
| |main verb. |
| |The verb in the indirect question must be subjunctive!!! (No special |
| |translation) |
| |Example: I wonder when the movie will start. : |
| |(1) I wonder = main verb; (2) when the movie will start = indirect |
| |question; (3) when = the interrogative word |
|Ch. 39 | |
|How to do future in indirect questions (since there is |Use the future active participle + the subjunctive of sum (helping verb) |
|no future subjunctive)... |Primary sequence: Future Active Participle + sim, sīs, sit, sīmus, sītis, |
| |sint |
| |Secondary sequence: Future Active Participle + essem, essēs, esset, |
| |essēmus, essētis, essent |
|Ch. 39 | |
|Sequence of Tenses with indirect questions | |
| |Simultaneous |
| |Action |
| |Prior Action |
| |Subsequent |
| |Action |
| | |
| |Primary |
| |Present Subjunctive |
| |Perfect |
|Ch. 39 |Subjunctive |
| |Future Active Participle + sim, sīs, sit, etc. |
| | |
| |Secondary |
| |Imperfect |
| |Subjunctive |
| |Perfect |
| |Subjunctive |
| |Future Active Participle + essem, essēs, esset, etc. |
| | |
|Examples of indirect questions |Primary sequence (present subjunctive): |
|(simultaneous action) |nesciō quid faciam. = I don’t know what I am doing. |
| |Secondary sequence (imperfect subjunctive): |
| |Nesciēbam quid facerem = I did not know what I was doing. |
|Ch. 39 | |
|Examples of indirect questions |Primary sequence (perfect subjunctive): |
|(prior action) |nesciō quid fēcerim. = I don’t know what I did/ I have done. |
| |Secondary sequence (pluperfect subjunctive): |
| |Nesciēbam quid fēcissem = I did not know what I had done. |
| | |
|Ch. 39 | |
|Examples of indirect questions |Primary sequence (FAP + sim, sis, sit, etc): |
|(subsequent action) |nesciō quid factūrus sim. = I don’t know what I will do / am going to do /|
| |am about to do. |
| |Secondary sequence (FAP + essem, essēs, esset, etc.): |
| |Nesciēbam quid factūrus essem = I did not know what I was going to do / |
| |would do. |
|Ch. 39 | |
|Review of interrogative words |quis = who? |
|(not including the interrogative adjective) |quō = to where?, whither? |
| | |
| |quid = what?, why? |
| |unde = from where? whence |
| | |
|review |cūr = why? |
| |quandō = when? |
| | |
| |quōmodō = how? |
| |quantī = how much?, how many? |
| | |
| |ubi = where? |
| |num = whether |
| | |
| |utrum...an = whether ...or |
| |utrum ...necne = whether or not |
| | |
|The Perfect Active Subjunctive for all verbs |3rd principal part stem + eri + personal endings (-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, |
| |-nt) |
| |Translation: usually the same as the indicative – |
| |vocāverimus = (1) we have called, (2) we called, (3) we did call // |
|Ch. 39 |sometimes, just for the subjunctive (4) we may have called |
|The Perfect Active Subjunctive for all verbs (Example) |from dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus/a/um = to say: |
| | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
|Ch. 39 |dīxerim |
| |I (have) said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |dīxeris |
| |you (have) said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |dīxerit |
| |he/she/it (has) said* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |dīxerimus |
| |we (have) said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |dīxeritis |
| |you (have) said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |dīxerint |
| |they (have) said* |
| | |
|The Perfect Active Subjunctive for sum, esse (follows |from sum, esse, fuī, futūrus/a/um = to be: |
|normal formation rules) | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
| |fuerim |
|Ch. 39 |I was/have been* |
| | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |fueris |
| |you were/have been* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |fuerit |
| |he/she/it was/has been* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |fuerimus |
| |we were/have been* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |fueritis |
| |you were/have been* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |fuerint |
| |they were/have been* |
| | |
|The Perfect Active Subjunctive for ferō, ferre, tulī, |from ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um = to bear, carry, endure; report: |
|lātus/a/um (follows normal formation rules) | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
| |tulerim |
|Ch. 39 |I (have) carried* |
| | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |tuleris |
| |you (have) carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |tulerit |
| |he/she/it (has) carried* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |tulerimus |
| |we (have) carried* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |tuleritis |
| |you (have) carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |tulerint |
| |they (have) carried* |
| | |
|Pluperfect Active Subjunctive |Simply take the 3rd principal part stem + isse + -m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, |
| |-nt |
| |Examples: amāvissem, dormīvissēs, terruisset, portāvissēmus, vīdissētis, |
| |vēnissent |
| |Translation: depends on the clause that it is in. Usually, “had verbed”, |
| |but can also be “might have verbed”, “would have verbed” |
|Ch. 35 | |
|The Pluperfect Active Subjunctive for all verbs |from dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus/a/um = to say: |
|(Example) | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
| |dīxissem |
|Ch. 39 |I had said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |dīxissēs |
| |you had said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |dīxisset |
| |he/she/it had said* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |dīxissēmus |
| |we had said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |dīxissētis |
| |you had said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |dīxissent |
| |they had said* |
| | |
|The Pluperfect Active Subjunctive for all verbs (Example|from ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um = to bear, carry, endure; report: |
|#2) | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
| |tulissem |
| |I had carried* |
|Ch. 39 | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |tulissēs |
| |you had carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |tulisset |
| |he/she/it had carried* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |tulissēmus |
| |we had carried* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |tulissētis |
| |you had carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |tulissent |
| |they had carried* |
| | |
|The Perfect Passive Subjunctive for all verbs |4th principal part + sim, sīs, sit, sīmus, sītis, sint |
| |Translation: usually the same as the indicative – |
| |vocātī sīmus = (1) we have been called, (2) we were called // sometimes,|
|Ch. 39 |just for the subjunctive (3) we may have been called |
|The Perfect Passive Subjunctive for all verbs (Example) |from dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus/a/um = to say: |
| | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
|Ch. 39 |dictus/a/um sim |
| |I have been said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |dictus/a/um sīs |
| |you have been said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |dictus/a/um sit |
| |he/she/it has been said* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |dictī/ae/a sīmus |
| |we have been said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |dictī/ae/a sītis |
| |you have been said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |dictī/ae/a sint |
| |they have been said* |
| | |
|The Perfect Passive Subjunctive for ferō, ferre, tulī, |from ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um = to bear, carry, endure; report: |
|lātus/a/um (follows normal formation rules) | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
| |lātus/a/um sim |
|Ch. 39 |I was carried* |
| | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |lātus/a/um sīs |
| |you were carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |lātus/a/um sit |
| |he/she/it was carried* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |lātī/ae/a sīmus |
| |we were carried* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |lātī/ae/a sītis |
| |you were carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |lātī/ae/a sint |
| |they were carried* |
| | |
|The Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive for all verbs |4th principal part + essem, essēs, esset, essēmus, essētis, essent |
| |Translation: depends on the clause that it is in. Usually, “had been |
| |verbed”, but can also be “might have been verbed”, “would have been |
|Ch. 39 |verbed” |
| |vocātī essēmus = (1) we had been called, (2) sometimes, just for the |
| |subjunctive: “we might have been called,” “we would have been called” |
|The Perfect Passive Subjunctive for all verbs (Example) |from dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus/a/um = to say: |
| | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
|Ch. 39 |dictus/a/um essem |
| |I had been said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |dictus/a/um essēs |
| |you had been said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |dictus/a/um esset |
| |he/she/it had been said* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |dictī/ae/a essēmus |
| |we had been said* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |dictī/ae/a essētis |
| |you had been said* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |dictī/ae/a essēnt |
| |they had been said* |
| | |
|The Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive for ferō, ferre, |from ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um = to bear, carry, endure; report: |
|tulī, lātus/a/um (follows normal formation rules) | |
| |LATIN |
| |Translation |
| |*see previous card |
| | |
| |1st Person S. |
| |lātus/a/um essem |
| |I had been carried* |
|Ch. 39 | |
| |2nd Person S. |
| |lātus/a/um essēs |
| |you had been carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person S. |
| |lātus/a/um esset |
| |he/she/it had been carried* |
| | |
| |1st Person Pl. |
| |lātī/ae/a essēmus |
| |we had been carried* |
| | |
| |2nd Person Pl. |
| |lātī/ae/a essētis |
| |you had been carried* |
| | |
| |3rd Person Pl. |
| |lātī/ae/a essent |
| |they had been carried* |
| | |
|Different ways to say whether in indirect questions |1. num = whether |
| |2. seu = whether; or if |
| |3. sive...sive= whether... or |
| |4. seu...seu = whether ...or |
| |5. utrum...an = whether...or |
| |6. utrum...necne = whether...or not |
|P.S. Miscellanea (card #1) |Give a meaning for these terms: |
| |data: |
| |post mortem: |
| |sub iudice |
| |obiter dicta |
|Ch. 39 |in loco parentis |
|P.S. Miscellanea (card #2) |Give a meaning for these terms: |
| |de iure: |
| |6b. de facto: |
| |sine die: |
| |nemine contradicente |
| |magnum opus: |
|Ch. 39 |exeunt omnes |
Ch. 40 ( (
| |Further uses of the Ablative |
|What’s in Ch. 40? |Subjunctives of irregular verbs |
| |Semi-deponent verbs |
|Ch. 40 |Adverbs of place or motion |
|There are 5 deponent verbs that take the ablative |1. ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum = to use; benefit (+ ABLATIVE) |
|instead of the accusative: |2. fruor, fruī, fructus sum = to enjoy (+ ABLATIVE) |
| |3. fungor, fungī, functus sum = to perform (+ ABLATIVE) |
| |4. potior, potīrī, potītus sum = to gain possession of (+ ABLATIVE or |
| |GENITIVE) |
|Ch. 40 |5. vescor, vescī, ----------- = to feast on (+ ABLATIVE) |
|Examples of the 5 deponent verbs that take the ablative:|Castrīs potītī sunt. =They got possession of the camp |
| | |
|Ch. 40 | |
|The Ablative of Comparison |This is an alternative to using quam + same case for both things compared.|
| |Notice the equal sign (=) used on p. 146. |
| |1. Sextus paulō celerius Marco currere potest. Sextus can run a little |
| |faster than Marcus. |
|Ch. 40 | |
|The Ablative of Measure of Difference (aka, The Abl. of |1. Sextus paulō (multō) celerius Marco currere potest.= Sextus can run a |
|Degree of Difference) |little (much) faster than Marcus. |
| |2. Haec via est decem milibus passuum longior quam illa via.= This road is|
| |longer than that road by ten miles. |
|Ch. 40 | |
|The Ablative of Price: |The ablative is used when a definite price is stated: Tibi septem denariīs|
| |hanc vaccam vendam. = I will sell you this cow for 10 denarii. |
|Ch. 40 | |
|The Genitive of Value |The genitive is used to express the value in which someone or something is|
| |held: |
| |1. Quantī est illa perna? = How much is that ham? [Get rid of the “of” in |
| |your translation] |
| |2. Magister magnī (parvī) studium asetimat. = The teacher considers |
| |studying of great (little) value. |
| |3. Puerī nōn floccī[1] librōs faciunt. = The boys do not care at all about|
|Ch. 40 |books. |
|The Ablative of Origin |often used with nātus/a/um “born of” |
| |1. Aeneas deā nātus est. = Aeneas was born of a goddess. |
|Ch. 40 | |
|What is the present active participle of eō, īre (“to |iēns, ientis = “going” |
|go”)? | |
|Ch. 40 | |
|Semi-Deponent Verbs (1) |A very small number of verbs that are active in the present system |
| |(present, imperfect, future), but passive (deponent) in the perfect system|
| |(perfect, pluperfect, future perfect) |
|Ch. 40 | |
|Semi-Deponent Verbs (2) |Here are the semi-deponents: |
| |audeō, audēre, ausus sum = to dare |
| |cōnfīdō, cōnfīdere, cōnfīsus sum = to trust (+ dative) |
| |fiō, fiērī, factus sum = to become, be made |
| |gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum = to be glad |
| |soleō, solēre, solitus sum = to be accustomed to, to be in the habit of, |
|Ch. 40 |usually (verb) |
|Special note on fiō, fiērī, factus sum = to become, be |This verb is used as the passive of faciō, facere, fēcī, factus/a/um...: |
|made |So, “Dinner will be made (was made) by my sister” = Cēna ā meā sorōre fiet|
| |(fiēbat). |
| |Note the irregular infinitive: fiērī |
|Ch. 40 | |
|The present subjunctive of sum, esse, fuī, futūrus/a/um |sim |
|Ch. 40 |sīmus |
| | |
| |sīs |
| |sītis |
| | |
| |sit |
| |sint |
| | |
|The imperfect subjunctive of sum, esse, fuī, |essem |
|futūrus/a/um |essēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |essēs |
| |essētis |
| | |
| |esset |
| |essent |
| | |
|The perfect subjunctive of sum, esse, fuī, futūrus/a/um |fuerim |
|Ch. 40 |fuerimus |
| | |
| |fueris |
| |fueritis |
| | |
| |fuerit |
| |fuerint |
| | |
|The pluperfect subjunctive of sum, esse, fuī, |fuissem |
|futūrus/a/um |fuissēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |fuissēs |
| |fuissētis |
| | |
| |fuisset |
| |fuissent |
| | |
|The present subjunctive of possum, posse, potuī, |possim |
|potitūrus/a/um |possīmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |possīs |
| |possītis |
| | |
| |possit |
| |possint |
| | |
|The imperfect subjunctive of possum, posse, potuī, |possem |
|potitūrus/a/um Ch. 40 |possēmus |
| | |
| |possēs |
| |possētis |
| | |
| |posset |
| |possent |
| | |
|The perfect subjunctive of possum, posse, potuī, |potuerim |
|potitūrus/a/um |potuerimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |potueris |
| |potueritis |
| | |
| |potuerit |
| |potuerint |
| | |
|The pluperfect subjunctive of possum, posse, potuī, |potuissem |
|potitūrus/a/um Ch. 40 |potuissēmus |
| | |
| |potuissēs |
| |potuissētis |
| | |
| |potuisset |
| |potuissent |
| | |
|The present subjunctive of volō, velle, voluī, |velim |
|volitūrus/a/um |velimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |velis |
| |velitis |
| | |
| |velit |
| |velint |
| | |
|The imperfect subjunctive of volō, velle, voluī, |vellem |
|volitūrus/a/um |vellēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |vellēs |
| |vellētis |
| | |
| |vellet |
| |vellent |
| | |
|The perfect subjunctive of volō, velle, voluī, |voluerim |
|volitūrus/a/um |voluerimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |volueris |
| |volueritis |
| | |
| |voluerit |
| |voluerint |
| | |
|The pluperfect subjunctive of volō, velle, voluī, |voluissem |
|volitūrus/a/um |voluissēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |voluissēs |
| |voluissētis |
| | |
| |voluisset |
| |voluissent |
| | |
|The present subjunctive of mālō, mālle, māluī, |mālim |
|mālitūrus/a/um |mālimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |mālis |
| |mālitis |
| | |
| |mālit |
| |mālint |
| | |
|The imperfect subjunctive of mālō, mālle, māluī, |māllem |
|mālitūrus/a/um |māllēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |māllēs |
| |māllētis |
| | |
| |māllet |
| |māllent |
| | |
|The perfect subjunctive of mālō, mālle, māluī, |māluerim |
|mālitūrus/a/um |māluerimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |mālueris |
| |mālueritis |
| | |
| |māluerit |
| |māluerint |
| | |
|The pluperfect subjunctive of mālō, mālle, māluī, |māluissem |
|mālitūrus/a/um |māluissēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |māluissēs |
| |māluissētis |
| | |
| |māluisset |
| |māluissent |
| | |
|The present subjunctive of nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, |nōlim |
|nōlitūrus/a/um |nōlimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |nōlis |
| |nōlitis |
| | |
| |nōlit |
| |nōlint |
| | |
|The imperfect subjunctive of nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, |nōllem |
|nōlitūrus/a/um |nōllēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |nōllēs |
| |nōllētis |
| | |
| |nōllet |
| |nōllent |
| | |
|The perfect subjunctive of nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, |nōluerim |
|nōlitūrus/a/um |nōluerimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |nōlueris |
| |nōlueritis |
| | |
| |nōluerit |
| |nōluerint |
| | |
|The pluperfect subjunctive of nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, |nōluissem |
|nōlitūrus/a/um |nōluissēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |nōluissēs |
| |nōluissētis |
| | |
| |nōluisset |
| |nōluissent |
| | |
|The present subjunctive of ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um|feram |
|Ch. 40 |ferāmus |
| | |
| |ferās |
| |ferātis |
| | |
| |ferat |
| |ferant |
| | |
|The imperfect subjunctive of ferō, ferre, tulī, |ferrem |
|lātus/a/um |ferrēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |ferrēs |
| |ferrētis |
| | |
| |ferret |
| |ferrent |
| | |
|The perfect subjunctive of ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus/a/um|tulerim |
|Ch. 40 |tulerimus |
| | |
| |tuleris |
| |tuleritis |
| | |
| |tulerit |
| |tulerint |
| | |
|The pluperfect subjunctive of ferō, ferre, tulī, |tulissem |
|lātus/a/um |tulissēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |tulissēs |
| |tulissētis |
| | |
| |tulisset |
| |tulissent |
| | |
|The present subjunctive of eō, īre, iī (īvī), |eam |
|itūrus/a/um |eāmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |eās |
| |eātis |
| | |
| |eat |
| |eant |
| | |
|The imperfect subjunctive of eō, īre, iī (īvī), |īrem |
|itūrus/a/um |īrēmus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |īrēs |
| |īrētis |
| | |
| |īret |
| |īrent |
| | |
|The perfect subjunctive of eō, īre, iī (īvī), |ierim |
|itūrus/a/um |ierimus |
|Ch. 40 | |
| |ieris |
| |ieritis |
| | |
| |ierit |
| |ierint |
| | |
|The pluperfect subjunctive of eō, īre, iī (īvī), |iissem |
|itūrus/a/um |iissēmus |
| | |
|Ch. 40 |iissēs |
| |iissētis |
| | |
| |iisset |
| |iissent |
| | |
|Adverbs Expressing Place or Motion (1) |Place Where |
| |Motion To |
| |Motion From |
|Ch. 40/ P.S. | |
| |hīc |
| |hūc |
| |hinc |
| | |
| |illīc |
| |illūc |
| |illinc |
| | |
| |ibi |
| |eō |
| |inde |
| | |
| |ubi? |
| |quō? |
| |unde? |
| | |
|Adverbs Expressing Place or Motion (2) |Place Where |
| |Motion To |
| |Motion From |
| | |
| |hīc = here |
| |hūc = hither, to here |
| |hinc = hence, from here |
|Ch. 40/ P.S. | |
| |illīc = in that place, there |
| |illūc = thither, to there |
| |illinc = thence, from there |
| | |
| |ibi = there |
| |eō = thither, to there |
| |inde = thence, from there |
| | |
| |ubi? = where? |
| |quō? = whither?, to where? |
| |unde? = whence?, from where? |
| | |
Ch. 41 ( (
| |Indirect statement |
|What’s in Ch. 41? |Infinitives- formal presentation of all infinitives in all tenses and |
|Ch. 41 |voices |
| |Alternative future inf. of futūrus esse (fore) |
|What is indirect statement (I.S.)? |Most basically, indirect statement is the reporting of someone else’s |
| |words. For example: |
| |John: “I love old movies.” [Direct statement] |
|(AKA indirect discourse; AKA oratio obliqua) |--------------------------- |
|Ch. 41 |Heather says that John loves old movies. [Indirect statement] |
|How to recognize I.S. |The following items appear in indirect statement: |
| |1. Verb of the Head that introduces the I.S. |
| |(2.) “that” supplied in English translation only |
| |3. accusative subject of I.S. |
| |4. verb in the I.S. is an infinitive (i.e., it is not conjugated with |
|Ch. 41 |personal verb endings) |
|Some examples of “verbs of the head” (1) |dīcere = to say |
| |scīre = to know |
|[You should always be able to supply “that” after these | |
|verbs in your English translation] |loquī = to say |
|Ch. 41 |crēdere = to believe |
| | |
| |narrāre = to tell |
| |cernere = to see, discern |
| | |
| |vidēre = to see |
| |intellegere = to understand |
| | |
| |discere = to learn |
| |respondēre = to answer |
| | |
|Some examples of “verbs of the head” (2) |negāre = to deny, say...not |
| |nescīre = to not know |
|[You should always be able to supply “that” after these | |
|verbs in your English translation] |pūtāre = to think |
| |gaudēre = to be glad |
|Ch. 41 | |
| |spērāre = to hope |
| |noscere = to know |
| | |
| |audīre = to hear |
| |habēre = to consider |
| | |
| |cognoscere = to get to know, learn |
| |cogitāre = to think, contemplate |
| | |
|What are the different Latin infinitives in tenses and |Present Active Infinitive |
|voice? |Present Passive Infinitive |
| |Perfect Active Infinitive |
| |Perfect Passive Infinitive |
| |Future Active Infinitive |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
| |Future Passive Infinitive (rare) |
| |Gerundive Infinitive (to be learned later: chh. 51-2) |
|Review of the Present Active Infinitive |The Present Active Infinitive = the 2nd principal part |
| |1st Conjugation |
| |-āre |
| |portāre |
| | |
|Ch. 41 |2nd Conjugation |
| |-ēre |
| |vidēre |
| | |
| |3rd Conjugation |
| |-ere |
| |ponere |
| | |
| |3rd –iō Conjugation |
| |-ere |
| |capere |
| | |
| |4th Conjugation |
| |-īre |
| |audīre |
| | |
|Review of the Present Passive/Deponent Infinitive |The Present Passive/Deponent Infinitive is formed from the 2nd principal |
| |part as follows: |
|[Watch out for 3rd Conjugation!!!] |1st Conjugation |
| |-ārī |
|Ch. 41 |portārī |
| | |
| |2nd Conjugation |
| |-ērī |
| |vidērī |
| | |
| |3rd Conjugation |
| |-ī |
| |ponī |
| | |
| |3rd –iō Conjugation |
| |-ī |
| |capī |
| | |
| |4th Conjugation |
| |-īrī |
| |audīrī |
| | |
|Review of the Perfect Active Infinitive |The Perfect Active Infinitive for all verbs is formed from the 3rd |
| |principal part stem + -isse |
| |Examples: portāvisse, habuisse, cēpisse, posuisse, audīvisse |
|Ch. 41 | |
|Review of the Perfect Passive/Deponent Infinitive |The Perfect Passive/Deponent Infinitive for all verbs is the 4th principal|
| |part + esse |
| |Examples: portātus/a/um esse, habitus/a/um esse, captus/a/um esse, |
| |positus/a/um esse, audītus/a/um esse, locūtus/a/um esse, secūtus/a/um esse|
|Ch. 41 | |
|Review of the Future Active Infinitive |The Future Active (Deponent) Infinitive for all verbs is formed from the |
|[Deponents also have this infinitive] |4th principal part stem + -ūr sound + esse |
| |Examples: portātūrus/a/um esse, habitūrus/a/um esse, captūrus/a/um esse, |
| |positūrus/a/um esse, audītūrus/a/um esse, locūtūrus/a/um esse, |
| |secūtūrus/a/um esse, futūrus/a/um esse |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
|Alternate future active infinitive for |The Romans often used the word fore as an alternative to any form of |
|futūrus/a/um esse |futūrus/a/um esse |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
|Relative Time of Infinitives to the Main Verb of the |TENSE [voice doesn’t matter] |
|sentence |RELATIVE TIME |
| | |
|[Nota Bene: This also applies to the tenses participles]|Present Infinitive |
| |Simultaneous to main verb (of the head) [=] |
| | |
|Ch. 41 |Perfect Infinitive |
| |Time Prior to main verb (of the head) [-] |
| | |
| |Future Infinitive |
| |Time Subsequent or Future to main verb (of the head) [+] |
| | |
|Example of I.S. with a present main verb: [Active | |
|Infinitives] |regere. (=) |
|is ruling. (=) |Putāmus Julium rēxisse. (-) |
|We think that Julius (has) ruled. (-) |rectūrum esse. (+) |
|will rule. (+) | |
|Ch. 41 | |
|Example of I.S. with a PAST tense main verb: [Active | |
|Infinitives] |regere. (=) |
|was ruling. (=) |Putāvimus Julium rēxisse. (-) |
|We thought that Julius had ruled. (-) |rectūrum esse. (+) |
|would rule. (+) | |
| | |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
|What is up with the future passive idea in I.S.? |[Technically, does exist, but should probably be avoided. There is a form|
| |which only survives in Cicero: (1) the 4th principal part in the neuter + |
| |(2) īrī. Example: portātum īrī]…For indirect statement, you will more |
| |usually see (1) fore ut (or futūrum esse ut) + (2) present subjunctive |
| |(primary sequence) or imperfect subjunctive in secondary sequence. |
|Ch. 41 |Ex.: fore ut portētur or portāretur, etc. |
|Example of I.S. with a present main verb: [Passive | |
|Infinitives] |servārī (=) |
| |Crēdimus pātriam servātam esse (-) |
|is saved. (=) | |
|We believe that | |
|the country was/has been saved. (-) | |
|will be saved. (+) | |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
| | |
| |Crēdimus fore ut pātria servētur. (+) |
|Example of I.S. with a PAST tense main verb: [Passive | |
|Infinitives] |servārī (=) |
| |Crēdidimus pātriam servātam esse (-) |
| | |
|was (being) saved. (=) | |
|We believed that | |
|the country had been saved. (-) | |
|would be saved. (+) | |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
| | |
| |Crēdidimus fore ut pātria servārētur. (+) |
Here are more examples from the worksheet [note the differences between (a), (b), (c) & (d)]:
DIRECT STATEMENT: “Puer altus villōsōs ovēs tondet/totondit/tondet.” = The tall boy is shearing/(has) sheared/will shear shaggy sheep.
| (a) I.S. introduced by a present tense main verb of the head [primary sequence] |
|tondēre. |
|M Mater dīcit puerum altum villōsōs ovēs totondisse. |
|tōnsūrum esse. [-um to agree with puerum] |
| is shearing |
|Mother says that the tall boy was shearing/ (has) sheared the shaggy sheep. |
|will shear |
|I.S. introduced by a past tense main verb of the head [secondary/historical sequence] |
|tondēre. |
|Mater dīxit puerum altum villōsōs ovēs totondisse. |
|tōnsūrum esse. [-um to agree with puerum] |
| was shearing |
|Mother said that the tall boy had sheared the shaggy sheep. |
|would shear |
|(c) Passive I.S. introduced by a present tense main verb of the head [primary sequence] |
|tondērī. |
|Mater dīcit ( villōsōs ovēs ā puerō altō tōnsōs esse. |
|fore ut villōsī ovēs ā puerō altō tondeantur. |
| are (being) shorn |
|Mother says that the shaggy sheep were carried/ have been shorn by the tall boy. |
|will be shorn |
|(d) Passive I.S. introduced by a past tense main verb of the head [secondary/historical sequence] |
|tondērī. |
|Mater dīxit ( villōsōs ovēs ā puerō altō tōnsōs esse. |
|fore ut villōsī ovēs ā puerō altō tondērentur. |
| were (being) shorn |
|Mother said that the shaggy sheep had been shorn by the tall boy. |
|would be shorn |
|How do reflexives (sē & suus/a/um) work in I.S.? |Reflexives refer back to the subject of the verb (of the head) which |
| |introduces the indirect statement |
|Ch. 41 | |
|What is the difference between...?: |Both translate as “Marcus says that he brought the water.” But, the sē in |
|Marcus dīcit sē aquam tulisse. |(1) indicates that Marcus himself brought the water. The eum in (2) |
|Marcus dīcit eum aquam tulisse |indicates that some other dude brought the water and not Marcus |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
|Another example using reflexives in I.S.: |Both translate as “The girls say that they will bring the water.” But, the|
|Puellae dīcunt sē aquam lātūrās esse. |sē in (3) indicates that the girls themselves will bring the water. The |
|Puellae dīcunt eās aquam lātūrās esse. |eās in (4) indicates that some other girls will bring the water. |
| | |
|Ch. 41 | |
|Review of reflexive pronouns | |
|by person & number |1st Sing |
| |2nd Sing |
|[Note that the 3rd person is the same in singular & |3rd Sing |
|plural. Also, note that 3rd person is for all 3 |1st Plur |
|genders] |2nd Plur |
|[Why is there no nominative?] |3rd Plur |
|Ch. 41 | |
| |Nom |
| |---- |
| |---- |
| |---- |
| |---- |
| |---- |
| |---- |
| | |
| |Gen |
| |meī |
| |tuī |
| |suī |
| |nostrī |
| |vestrī |
| |suī |
| | |
| |Dat |
| |mihi |
| |tibi |
| |sibi |
| |nōbīs |
| |vōbīs |
| |sibi |
| | |
| |Acc |
| |mē |
| |tē |
| |sē |
| |nōs |
| |vōs |
| |sē |
| | |
| |Abl |
| |mē |
| |tē |
| |sē |
| |nōbīs |
| |vōbīs |
| |sē |
| | |
|Note on participles in indirect statement. |2 infinitives are formed by adding esse to a participle: (1) the perfect |
| |passive/deponent infinitive, (2) the future active infinitive |
| |√ Be sure to make the ending on the participle accusative case, & agree |
|Ch. 41, page 150 |with the subject in gender & number |
|Careful with phrases that begin with dīcitur “it is said|dīcitur is followed by nominative + infinitive, NOT accusative + |
|(that)” |infinitive: |
| | |
|[and other similar phrases] |dīcitur Caligula quattuor annōs rēxisse = it is said (that) Caligula ruled|
| |for 4 years. (or) Caligula is said to have ruled for 4 years. |
| |[Caligula is the subject of dīcitur] |
|Ch. 41 | |
|Adjectives formed from verbs ending in –ilis or –bilis |Some examples: |
|denote passive qualities |crēdibilis, crēdibile = believable, credible |
| | |
|Ch. 41, P.S. |flēbilis, flēbile = lamentable |
| | |
| |docilis, docile = teachable |
| | |
| |facilis, facile = easy, doable |
| | |
Chapter 42 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 42? |No new grammar. Ch. 42 continues exercises with indirect statement. |
| | |
|Ch. 42 | |
|Adjectives formed from verbs ending in –āx in the |Some examples: |
|nominative singular & –ācis in the genitive singular |loquāx, loquācis = talkative (loquacious) |
|denote a habit or tendency | |
| |audāx, audācis = daring, bold (audacious) |
|Ch. 42, P.S. | |
| |capāx, capācis = holding (capacious) |
| | |
| |rapāx, rapācis = grasping (rapacious) |
| | |
| |tenāx, tenācis = clinging (tenacious) |
| | |
Chapter 43 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 43? |Result Clauses (Consecutive Clauses) |
| |Trigger Words |
|Ch. 43 | |
|What is a result clause? |A result clause is a dependent subjunctive clause that shows the “result” |
| |of the action of the main clause. |
| |Example: George ate so much pizza that he couldn’t eat dessert. (The |
| |clause of result is in italics.) |
| | |
|Ch. 43 | |
|What are the components of a result clause? |Main Clause with a trigger word |
| |result clause always introduced by ut |
|Ch. 43 |subjunctive verb in the ut clause (usually present subjunctive, imperfect |
| |subjunctive) |
|Trigger words |Trigger words are characteristic of result clauses: |
| |tam = so (with adjectives and adverbs) |
| |tantus/a/um = so much, so great |
| |tantum (adverb) = so much |
| |tot = so many |
| |totiēns = so often |
|Ch. 43 |ita = in such a way, so |
| |adeō = to such an extent, so much |
| |tālis, tāle = such, of such a sort |
|Examples of Result Clauses (primary sequence) |Aurelia laughs so often that no one tells her jokes. = |
| |Aurelia totiēns rīdet ut nēmō eī ioca dīcat. |
| | |
|Ch. 43 | |
| |That girl is so beautiful that I want to marry her. = |
| |Illa puella est tam pulchra ut eam in mātrimōnium dūcere cupiam. |
|Examples of Result Clauses (secondary sequence) |The wild horse ran with so much speed that he couldn’t be caught. = Equus |
| |ferus tantā celeritāte cucurrit ut nōn capī posset. (posset is imperfect |
|Ch. 43 |subj.) |
| |That girl was so beautiful that I wanted to marry her. = Illa puella erat|
| |tam pulchra ut eam in mātrimōnium dūcere cuperem. |
|Careful with negative result clauses |Negative result clauses are initiated by ut (not nē) + one of the |
| |following negative words: |
| |nōn= not |
| |nihil / nīl = nothing |
| | |
| |numquam = never |
|Ch. 43 |neque...neque / nec...nec = neither..nor |
| | |
| |nūllus/a/um = none |
| |nusquam = nowhere |
| | |
| |nēmō = no one |
| |nōndum = not yet |
| | |
| |vix = barely, scarcely |
| | |
| | |
|Sequence of tenses in result clauses |In result clauses the normal rules of sequence of tenses are not |
| |necessarily followed; the subjunctive tense can vary depending on the |
| |sense. |
| | |
|Ch. 43, p. 154 | |
| |Tam dīligenter herī labōrābat ut hodiē fessus sit. = |
| |He worked so hard yesterday that today he is tired. |
|Perfect Subjunctive in result clauses |The Perfect Subjunctive is used in result clauses to show the simple |
| |aspect or the actuality of an event.: |
| |Tam diū herī labōrābat ut eī decem denariōs dederimus. = He worked so long|
| |yesterday that we gave him 10 denarii. |
|Ch. 43 | |
|Inscriptions on tombstones: abbreviations |Some examples: |
| |D.M. = dīs mānibus “to the deified sprits of the dead” |
| | |
| |[dīs is a contracted form of deīs; and mānibus is from the word mānēs, |
| |mānium which means ghost or departed soul] |
| | |
| |s = (1) could be an abbreviation for sanctus/a/um or (2) for soror, |
|Ch. 43, P.S. |sorōris |
| | |
| |a.d. = ante diem (never annō Dominī on ancient tomb markers) |
| | |
Chapter 44 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 44? |Conditional Clauses/Conditional Sentences |
| |sī/nisi |
|Ch. 44 | |
|Types of Conditions |Simple/General/Open |
| |Contrary to Fact |
| |Future More Vivid |
| |Future More Vivid with Emphatic Protasis |
| |Future Less Vivid |
|Ch. 44 |Mixed Conditions |
|Terminology for conditions: |“Protasis” = the if-clause. The Protasis is the hypothesis. [If x is 6, |
|(protasis/apodosis) |...] |
| |“Apodosis” = the conclusion of the if-clause (protasis) [..., then y is 8]|
|Ch. 44 |The protasis is usually before the apodosis, but not always: the apodosis|
| |may come 1st. |
| |Formulae |
|Present Simple/General* Condition |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
|*General can be translated “if ever” or “whenever” | |
| |Latin |
|Ch. 44 |present indicative |
| |present indicative |
| | |
| |English |
| |“verbs” |
| |“verbs” |
| | |
| |(1) If x is 7, then y is 11. (2) If ever/Whenever it rains, my dog starts|
| |barking. |
| |Sī mel vīnō additur, fit dulcius. = If (ever) honey is added to wine, it |
| |becomes sweeter. |
| |Formulae |
|PAST Simple/General* Condition |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
|*General can be translated “if ever” or “whenever” | |
| |Latin |
| |any past indicative |
| |any past indicative |
|Ch. 44 | |
| |English |
| |“(has/have) verbed / was verbing / had verbed” |
| |“(has/have) verbed / was verbing / had verbed” |
| | |
| |(1) If x was 7, then y was 11. (2) If ever/Whenever it rained, my dog |
| |barked. |
| |Sī mel vīnō addēbātur, factum est dulcius. = If (ever) honey was added to |
| |wine, it became sweeter. |
| |Formulae |
|Present Contrary-To-Fact Condition |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
|[the protasis is not true] | |
| |Latin |
| |imperfect subjunctive |
| |imperfect subjunctive |
|Ch. 44 | |
| |English |
| |“were verbing” |
| |“would verb” |
| | |
| |(1) If x were 7, then y would be 11. (2) If it were raining, my dog would|
| |be barking. |
| |Sī mel vīnō adderētur, nēmō biberet. = If honey were (being) added to the |
| |wine, no one would be drinking it. |
| |Formulae |
|PAST Contrary-To-Fact Condition |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
|[the protasis is not true] | |
| |Latin |
| |pluperfect subjunctive |
| |pluperfect subjunctive |
|Ch. 44 | |
| |English |
| |“had verbed” |
| |“would have verbed” |
| | |
| |(1) If x had been 7, then y would have been 11. (2) If it had rained, my |
| |dog would have barked. |
| |Sī mel vīnō additum esset, nēmō bibisset. = If honey had been added to the|
| |wine, no one would have drunk it. |
| |Formulae |
|Future More Vivid Condition |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
| | |
| |Latin |
| |Future indicative |
|Ch. 44 |Future indicative |
| | |
| |English |
| |“verbs” |
| |“will verb” |
| | |
| |(1) If x is 7, then y will be 11. (2) If it rains tomorrow, my dog will |
| |bark. |
| |Sī mel vīnō addētur, nēmō bibet. = If honey is added to the wine, no one |
| |will drink it. |
| |Formulae |
|Future More Vivid Condition with Emphatic protasis |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
|[In this case, the Romans stress that the action of the | |
|protasis must be completed before the apodosis can take |Latin |
|place.] |Future Perfect indicative |
|Ch. 44 |Future indicative |
| | |
| |English |
| |“verbs” |
| |“will verb” |
| | |
| |(1) If x is 7, then y will be 11. (2) If it rains tomorrow, my dog will |
| |bark. |
| |Sī mel vīnō additum erit, nēmō bibet. = If honey is added to the wine, no |
| |one will drink it. |
| |Formulae |
|Future Less Vivid Condition |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
|“should-would” conditions | |
| |Latin |
| |present subjunctive |
|Ch. 44 |present subjunctive |
| | |
| |English |
| |“should verb” |
| |“would verb” |
| | |
| |(1) If x should be 7, then y would be 11. (2) If it should rain tomorrow,|
| |my dog would bark. |
| |Sī mel vīnō addātur, nēmō bibat. = If honey should be added to the wine, |
| |no one would drink it. |
| |“After sī, nisi, num and nē, all the ali’s drop away.” |
|“After sī, nisi, num and nē, ... |So: (1) sī quid = sī aliquid; (2) sī quis = sī aliquis; |
|[mnemonics] |(3) nisi quem = nisi aliquem; (2) sī cui = sī alicui; etc. |
|Ch. 44 | |
| |Name of Condition |
|Indicative Conditions [Latin Formulae] |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
| | |
| |Present General / Simple /Open |
| |Present Indicative |
| |Present Indicative |
| | |
|Ch. 44 |Past General / Simple /Open |
| |Any Past Indicative |
| |Any Past Indicative |
| | |
| |Future More Vivid |
| |Future Indicative |
| |Future Indicative |
| | |
| |Future More Vivid w/ emphatic protasis |
| |Future Perfect Indicative |
| |Future Indicative |
| | |
| |Name of Condition |
|Subjunctive Conditions [Latin Formulae] |Protasis |
| |Apodosis |
| | |
|Ch. 44 |Present Contrary to Fact |
| |Imperfect Subjunctive |
| |Imperfect Subjunctive |
| | |
| |Past Contrary to Fact |
| |Pluperfect Subjunctive |
| |Pluperfect Subjunctive |
| | |
| |Future Less Vivid |
| |Present Subjunctive |
| |Present Subjunctive |
| | |
|Mixed Contrary-To-Fact condition |Formulae |
| |Protasis |
|[when a past hypothesis continues to (be contrary) |Apodosis |
|present time] | |
| |Latin |
| |Pluperfect subjunctive |
| |imperfect subjunctive |
| | |
|Ch. 44 |English |
| |“had verbed” |
| |“would verb” |
| | |
| |(1) If x had been 7, then y would be 11. (2) If it had rained, my dog |
| |would be barking. |
| |Sī mel vīnō additum esset, nēmō biberet. = If honey had been added to the |
| |wine, no one would be drinking it. |
| |The ending –cumque indicates extreme indefiniteness: |
|The ending -cumque |Adjective: quīcumque, quaecumque, quodcumque = “whoever”, “whatever” |
| |ubicumque = “wherever” |
| |quōcumque = “(to) wherever”, “whithersoever” |
| |quācumque = “by/in whatever way” |
|Ch. 44/P.S. | |
Chapter 45 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 45? |Independent Subjunctives or Subjunctives in main clauses |
| |Exhortations (hortatory/jussive) |
| |Deliberative Questions |
| |Optative (wishes) – three types |
| |Potential |
| |Irregular subj. of audeo, audere, ausus sum |
|Ch. 45 | |
| |use present subjunctive & supply “Let” translation |
|1st Person Exhortations: The Hortatory Subjunctive |negative, use nē |
| |Examples: |
|Ch. 45 |Vīvam aut moriar! = Let me live or let me die! |
| |Nē hīc vīvāmus. = Let’s not live here! |
| |use present subjunctive & supply “Let” translation |
|3rd Person Exhortations: The Hortatory Subjunctive |negative, use nē |
| |Examples: |
|Ch. 45 |Vīvant aut moriantur! = Let them live or let them die! |
| |Nē hīc maneat. = Let him/May he not stay here! |
| |Use present subjunctive in a question |
|Deliberative Questions |Deliberative questions occur when the speaker is wondering what to do. |
| |Examples: |
| |Quid principī dīcāmus? = What should we say tot he emperor? // What are we|
| |to say to the emperor? |
| |Quō nunc eam. = (To) where am I to go now? |
|Ch. 45 | |
| |utrum...an is used in double questions: |
|utrum...an |Examples: |
| |utrum puellam hodie vocem an usque ad cras morer.= Should I call the girl |
|[refer to chapter 39] |today or wait until tomorrow? |
|Ch. 45 | |
| |wishes are often initiated with the word utinam (utinam is often shortened|
|Optative (wishes) |to ut) |
| |negative is nē |
| |Translation: (1) “I wish”, (2) “If only”, (3) “May”, (4) “Would that” |
| |(archaic), (5) “Might” (archaic) |
|Ch. 45 |The tense of the subjunctive determines the type of wish: |
| |wishes capable of being fulfilled (present subjunctive) |
| |wishes incapable of being fulfilled (imperfect subjunctive) |
| |past wishes unfulfilled (pluperfect subjunctive) |
| |use present subjunctive |
|wishes capable of being fulfilled |typically, use utinam / utinam nē |
| |Examples: |
| |(Utinam) puella mē vocet! = (1) If only the girl will call me. / (2) I |
| |wish the girl would call me. / (3) May the girl call me! / (4) Would that |
| |the girl call me! |
| |(Utinam) Nē crās pluviat. = (1) If only it will not rain tomorrow. / (2) I|
| |wish that it (may) not rain tomorrow. / (3) May it not rain tomorrow! (4) |
| |Would that it not rain tomorrow! |
|Ch. 45 | |
| |use imperfect subjunctive |
|wishes incapable of being fulfilled |typically, use utinam / utinam nē |
|[also called present unfulfilled wishes] |Examples: |
| |(Utinam) puella mē vocāret! = (1) If only the girl were calling me. / (2) |
|[these are most similar to present contrary to fact |I wish the girl were calling me. / (3) Would that the girl were calling |
|conditions] |me! |
| |(Utinam) Nē pluveret. = (1) If only it were not raining. / (2) I wish that|
| |it were not raining. / (3) Would that it were not raining! |
| | |
|Ch. 45 | |
| |use pluperfect subjunctive |
|PAST unfulfilled wishes |typically, use utinam / utinam nē |
| |Examples: |
|[these are most similar to past contrary to fact |(Utinam) puella mē vocāvisset! = (1) If only the girl had called me. / (2)|
|conditions] |I wish the girl had called me. / (3) Would that the girl had called me! / |
| |(4) Might the girl have called me! (archaic) |
| |(Utinam) Nē pluvisset. = (1) If only it had not rained. / (2) I wish that |
| |it had not rained. / (3) Would that it had not rained! (archaic) / (4) |
|Ch. 45 |Might it have not rained! (archaic) |
| |The potential subjunctive needs more discussion than what appears in the |
|Potential Subjunctive (1) |textbook |
| |Most commonly use the present subj, or imperfect subj., but also the |
| |pluperfect subjunctive |
| |Potential Subjunctive is similar to the apodoses of various conditions |
| |(with unexpressed protases) |
|Ch. 45 |Negative is nōn |
| |Often initiated by these subjunctives: velim, nolim, ausim, malim |
| |Translation: may, might, should, would |
|Potential Subjunctive (2: examples with velim, nōlim, |velim hīc manēre = I would/should/may/might like to stay here. |
|ausim, mālim) |nōlint hīc manēre = they would/should/may/might not want/be willing to |
| |stay here. |
| |Marcus pugnāre nōn ausit = Marcus would/ should/ may / might not dare to |
| |fight. |
|Ch. 45 |Julia dormīre mālit. Julia would prefer to sleep. |
| |(present subj.) Epistulam tibi scrībam. = I may write you a letter. |
|Potential Subjunctive (3) |(imperfect subj.) Epistulam tibi scrīberem. = I may/might/would/should |
|-other examples in other tenses |write you a letter. |
|(the perfect is less common) |(perfect subj.) Epistulam tibi scrīpserim. = I may |
| |(have)/might/would/should write you a letter. |
| |(pluperfect subj.) Epistulam tibi scrīpsissem. = I may/might/would/should |
| |have written you a letter. |
|Ch. 45 | |
|Inscriptions |Look at the abbreviations and the cultural info about the cult of Augustus|
| | |
|Ch. 45/P.S. | |
Chapter 46 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 46? |This is a review chapter: no new grammar |
| | |
|Ch. 46 | |
|Spatial prepositions (+ acc.) and adverbs |+ acc. |
| |Comparative |
|Ch. 46/P.S. |Superlative |
| |Superlative Translation |
| | |
| |extrā “outside” |
| |exterior, exterius |
| |extrēmus/a/um |
| |uttermost, extreme |
| | |
| |intrā “inside” |
| |interior, interius |
| |intimus/a/um |
| |innermost, most intimate |
| | |
| |post |
| |“after” |
| |posterior, posterius |
| |postrēmus/a/um |
| |last |
| | |
| |prae “before” |
| |prior, prius |
| |prīmus/a/um |
| |first |
| | |
| |suprā “above” |
| |superior, superius |
| |suprēmus/a/um |
| |highest, latest |
| | |
| |” |
| |” |
| |summus/a/um |
| |highest, greatest |
| | |
| |ultrā “beyond” |
| |ulterior, ulterius |
| |ultimus/a/um |
| |furthest, last |
| | |
Chapter 47 ( (
| |Cum clauses |
|What’s in Ch. 47? |Dum clauses |
| |The connecting relative |
|Ch. 47 |Alternate verb and noun forms |
| |When you come across a cum-clause, try “(1) when, (2) since, (3) although” |
|The mini-mantra for cum clauses | |
|Ch. 47 | |
| |If cum = “when”… |
|When conjunction cum = “when” |Present time/Primary sequence, use indicative mood |
| |Past time/Secondary sequence, use either indicative or subjunctive mood depending on the |
| |position: if cum clause is first clause of the sentence, use subjunctive. But if the |
| |cum clause follows the main clause, use indicative mood. |
|Ch. 47 | |
| |If cum = “whenever”… |
|When conjunction cum = “whenever” |use indicative mood, not subjunctive. |
| |Typically in the past, use the pluperfect indicative. |
| |[This is called “Circumstantial” cum// similar to present general or past general |
| |conditions] |
|Ch. 47 | |
|The future perfect tense in the cum |Sometimes the future perfect appears in the cum-clause, instead of a future. The future |
|clause (cum = “when”) |perfect merely stresses the completion of the action in the future: this usage is |
| |virtually the same as the future more vivid condition with emphatic protasis. |
| | |
|Ch. 47 |Cum tē crāsviderō, pecūniam tibi dabō. = When I (will) see you tomorrow, I will give you |
| |the money. |
|When conjunction cum = “since” |If cum = “since”… |
| |use subjunctive mood, not indicative, for both primary and secondary sequences. |
| | |
|Ch. 47 | |
|When conjunction cum = “although” |If cum = “although”… |
| |use subjunctive mood, not indicative, for both primary and secondary sequences. |
| |Typically, there will be a tamen (nevertheless) in the main clause |
| | |
|Ch. 47 | |
|Review chart of the moods for cum-clauses|cum |
| |“when” cum clause is positioned 1st |
|Ch. 47 |“when” cum clause is positioned 2nd |
| |“whenever” |
| |“since” |
| |“although” |
| | |
| |Primary Sequence |
| |indic. |
| |indic. |
| |indic. |
| |Subj. |
| |Subj. |
| | |
| |Secondary Sequence |
| |Subj. |
| |indic. |
| |indic. |
| |Subj. |
| |Subj. |
| | |
|The various meanings of dum |dum usually means “while,” but can also mean “until” [and sometimes “provided that”: the |
| |last use of dum is a shortened form of dummodo] |
|Ch. 47 | |
|The most common meaning of dum |dum usually means “while,” and is followed by the present indicative, even when the past |
| |tense is meant: |
|Ch. 47 |dum in agrō sedēmus, avis in capite amīcī meī astitit. = |
| |While we were sitting in the field, a bird landed on my friend’s head. |
|The use of the imperfect indicative in |Use the imperfect in the dum-clause, if the action of the main clause occurs throughout |
|the dum clause |the action of the dum clause: |
| |dum in agrō sedēbāmus, avēs in capite amīcī meī astābant. = |
|Ch. 47 |While we were sitting in the field, birds kept landing on my friend’s head |
|dum can mean “until” |dum can mean “until”, and just like other temporal conjunctions, usually takes the |
| |indicative: |
| |avēs in agrō spectābāmus, dum in capite amīcī meī astāre incipiēbant. = We were watching |
| |the birds in the field, until they started to land on my friend’s head |
|Ch. 47 | |
|If the dum-clause (“until”) shows |If the dum-clause (“until”) shows purpose, use the subjunctive mood: (1) present |
|purpose... |subjunctive in primary sequence, (2) imperfect subjunctive in secondary sequence. |
| | |
|Ch. 47 | |
|Examples of dum-clauses (“until”) showing|We are staying at home until father arrives/should arrive. = Domī manēmus dum pater |
|purpose... |adveniat. (primary sequence) |
| |We stayed at home until father arrived. = Domī manēbāmus dum pater advenīret. (secondary |
| |sequence) |
|Ch. 47 | |
|The “connecting relative” |The connecting relative (also called the “initial relative”) appears at the beginning of |
| |the sentence |
| |The connecting relative = (1) a connective (“and”) + (2) a pronoun (“him”, “her”, “them”,|
| |etc.). or... |
|Ch. 47 |The connecting relative = (1) a connective (“and”) + (2) a demonstrative (“this”, |
| |“these”, “that”, etc.). |
|Examples of the “connecting relative” |Quae cum ita sint, nunc sumus in perīculō. = And since these things are so, we are now in|
| |trouble. [Quae = et haec] |
| |Cleopātra forās ambulāvit. Quam cum vīdisset Antōnius, eam secūtus est. = Cleopatra |
|Ch. 47 |walked outside. And when Anthony saw her, he followed her. [Quam = et eam] |
|The archaic perfect: |The archaic perfect, 3rd person plural only: -ēre = -ērunt |
|-ēre = -ērunt |Poets use this alternate form to fit the meter |
| |3rd principal part stem + -ēre, instead of –ērunt: |
| |clāmāvēre = clāmāvērunt = “they (have) shouted” |
|Ch. 47/P.S. |vēnēre = vēnērunt = “they (have) come” |
|The omission of the perfect “v” or “vi” |In poetry, the “v” or “vi” in the perfect system is often omitted for the meter |
| |This omission is most common for 1st and 4th conjugation verbs: |
| |audiit = audīvit; parāsse = parāvisse; audierat = audīverat |
| |sometimes “ve” is omitted: nōrit = nōverit |
|Ch. 47/P.S. | |
|The word, fore |fore is an alternate form of futūrus/a/um esse |
| |fore will appear most often in indirect statement: |
|Ch. 47/P.S. |sperō eōs hīc mox fore = I hope they will be here soon. |
|fore + endings |If you put personal endings on fore, it is the same as the imperfect subjunctive of sum, |
| |esse: |
| |forem = essem |
| |forēmus = essēmus |
|Ch. 47/P.S. | |
| |forēs = essēs |
| |forētis = essētis |
| | |
| |foret = esset |
| |forent = essent |
| | |
|The future imperative |The future imperative, with the sense of performing the action now & in the future, has |
| |the following endings: |
| |Singular: -tō /// Plural: -tōte: |
| |estō /// estōte = be! |
| |scītō /// scītōte = know! |
|Ch. 47/P.S. |mementō /// mementōte = remember! |
|Alternative 2nd person singular ending |The verb ending –re is often used instead of –ris. |
|–re for -ris |This alternative form appears only in the present, future or imperfect tenses: |
| |audiēbāre = audiēbāris = you were being heard |
| |audiēre = audiēris = you will be heard |
| |portābere = portāberis = you will be carried |
|Ch. 47/P.S. | |
|Ablative for i-stem nouns |3rd declension i-stem nouns may end in –ī instead of –e: |
| |nāvī for nāve |
|Ch. 47/P.S. |cīvī for cīve |
|Accusative Plural for 3rd declension |the Accusative Plural for 3rd declension adjectives & i-stem nouns may end in –īs instead|
|adjectives + i-stem nouns |of –ēs: |
|Ch. 47 |omnīs cīvīs (acc. pl) = omnēs cīvēs (acc. pl) |
Chapter 48 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 48? |Clauses of Fearing (= Fear Clauses) |
| | |
|Ch. 48 | |
|Formulae for Clauses of Fearing (= Fear Clauses) |nē / nē...nōn + present subjunctive (primary sequence) |
| |nē / nē...nōn + imperfect subjunctive (secondary sequence) |
| |In English, use “verbs, may verb, might verb, would verb” |
| | |
|Ch. 48 | |
|Why nē and not ut? |nē is used instead of ut to introduce fear clauses, because in the Roman |
| |mind a verb of fearing is negative |
| |nē...nōn (ut...nōn) is used in negative fear clauses |
|Ch. 48 | |
|Examples of Clauses of Fearing (= Fear Clauses) |Puella verētur/timet nē mater sit īrāta. = The girl is afraid that (lest) |
| |her mother is/may be/might be mad. (primary sequence) |
| |Puella verēbātur/timēbat nē mater esset īrāta. = The girl was afraid that |
| |(lest) her mother was/might be mad. (secondary sequence) |
|Ch. 48 | |
|Examples of negative Clauses of Fearing (= Fear Clauses)|Puer verētur/timet nē mater cēnam nōn paret. = The boy fears that his |
| |mother is not/may not be/might not be making dinner. |
|Ch. 48 |Puer verēbātur/timēbat nē mater cēnam nōn parāret. = The boy feared that |
| |his mother was not/might not be making dinner. |
|No change of subject in Clauses of Fearing (= Fear |If there is no change in subject from the main clause to the fear clause, |
|Clauses) |use a complementary infinitive instead of a nē – clause: |
| |I am afraid to walk to school. = vereor/timeō ad ludum ambulāre. |
| | |
| | |
|Ch. 48 | |
|sē and suus/a/um in Clauses of Fearing (= Fear Clauses) |Any form of the reflexive pronoun, sē, or the reflexive adjective, |
| |suus/a/um, in fear clauses refers back to the subject of the leading verb |
| |in the main clause.: |
| |timēbant nē magister sē nōn dīmitteret. = They were afraid that the |
| |teacher would not/might not dismiss them. |
|Ch. 48 | |
|Reminder about deponent perfect participles... |Remember that perfect participles from deponent verbs can be translated in|
| |two ways: |
|Ch. 48 |(1) having verbed, (2) verbing: |
| |veritus/a/um = (1) having feared, (2) fearing |
Chapter 49 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 49? |Impersonal Verbs |
| |Impersonal verbs + accusative of the person |
| |Impersonal verbs + dative of the person |
| |Impersonal verbs + infinitives |
| |Intransitive verbs in the passive |
|Ch. 49 |(P.S.) The gender of 3rd declension nouns |
|Impersonal verbs (definition) |Impersonal verbs do not have a person performing the action, so always |
| |supply “it”... |
| |So, think of them as neuter: their perfect participles will end in -um |
|Ch. 49 | |
|Examples of Impersonal verbs |pluit = it is raining |
| |ningit = it is snowing |
| |tonat = it thunders |
|Ch. 49 |necesse est = it is necessary |
| |fās est = it is right |
|Examples of Impersonal verbs + accusative of the person |tē oportet = it behooves you = you ought |
| |eum pudet = it behooves him = he is ashamed |
|Ch. 49 |nōs iuvat = it delights us = we like |
| |mē taedet = it wearies me = I am tired of (+ genitive) |
|Examples of Impersonal verbs + dative of the person |tibi licet = it is allowed to you = you may |
|Ch. 49 |Augustō placuit = it pleased Augustus = Augustus decided |
| |nōbīs necesse est = it is necessary for us = we must |
|Impersonal verbs often take an infinitive |Examples: |
|Ch. 49 |nōbīs licut lūdōs spectāre = we were allowed to watch the games |
|Impersonal verbs often set up indirect statement |Examples: |
| |fās est Iōvem esse rēgem deōrum = it is right that Jupiter is king of the |
| |gods. |
| |Antōniō nūntiātum est Cleopatram esse mortuam. = It was announced to |
|Ch. 49 |Antony that Cleopatra was dead. |
|Intransitive verbs must be used impersonally in the |Intransitive verbs are verbs which do not take a direct object.: |
|passive |Antōniō nūntiātum est = It was announced to Antony |
| |Ferōciter pugnātum est = It was fought fiercely = There was a fierce |
| |battle / They (not specific) fought firecely |
| | |
| | |
|Ch. 49 | |
|Verbs of motion can be used impersonally in the passive |Verbs of motion (go, come, run, arrive, etc) can be used impersonally in |
| |the passive, BUT (1) translate them in the ACTIVE voice & (2) supply a |
|Ch. 49 |subject form context.[they make no sense in the English passive]: |
| |ventum est = we came; they came, you came (subject depends on the context |
| |of the sentence: literally “it was come”) |
|MORE EXAMPLES of Verbs of motion can be used |Ad silvam itur = They/we/you’ll* come to the forest. |
|impersonally in the passive |Ad silvam itum est = They/we/you’ll* came to the forest. |
| |undique concurritur = they/the men/we* run together (clash) from all sides|
| |undique concursum est = they/the men/we* ran together (clashed) from all |
| |sides |
| |*supply subject from the context |
| | |
|Ch. 49 | |
|Verbs that take the dative case become Impersonal verbs |If you make passive a verb that takes a dative, then also use it |
|in the passive |impersonally in the passive voice: |
| |captīvīs parcitur = it is being spared to the captives = the captives are |
| |being spared. |
| |captīvīs parsum est = it was spared to the captives = the captives were |
| |spared. |
| |mihi persuādētur = it is persuaded to me = I am being persuaded |
| |mihi persuāsum est = it was persuaded to me = I was persuaded |
| | |
|Ch. 49 | |
|MORE EXAMPLES of Verbs that take the dative case become |Cleopātrae imperābitur = Cleopatra will be ordered... |
|Impersonal verbs in the passive |Cleopātrae imperātum erat = Cleopatra had been ordered... |
| |tibi ignōscētur = you will be forgiven (it will be forgiven to you) |
| |tibi ignōtum est = you have been forgiven |
| | |
|Ch. 49 | |
|The gender of 3rd declension nouns |Most 3rd declension nouns ending in –er in the nominative singular are |
|-er type |masculine |
| |Exceptions: māter (F.), mulier (F.), linter (F.), iter (N.), vēr (N.) |
|Ch. 49/P.S. | |
|The gender of 3rd declension nouns |Most 3rd declension nouns ending in -or/-ōs in the nominative singular are|
|-or/-ōs type |masculine |
| |Exceptions: soror (F.), uxor (F.), arbor/arbōs (F.), cor (N.), aequor (N.)|
|Ch. 49/P.S. | |
|The gender of 3rd declension nouns |Most 3rd declension nouns ending in -iō in the nominative singular are |
|-iō type |feminine |
| |Exceptions: centuriō (M.), decuriō (M.) |
|Ch. 49/P.S. | |
|The gender of 3rd declension nouns |All 3rd declension nouns ending in -ās in the nominative singular are |
|-ās type |feminine |
|Ch. 49/P.S. |Exceptions: gigās “giant” (M.) |
|The gender of 3rd declension nouns |All 3rd declension nouns ending in -ūdō in the nominative singular are |
|-ūdō type |feminine |
|Ch. 49/P.S. | |
|The gender of 3rd declension nouns |ALL 3rd declension nouns ending in –e/-us/-en in the nominative singular |
|-e/-us/-en type |are NEUTER |
| |Examples: mare (sea), genus (race), corpus (body, stercus (dung), flūmen |
|Ch. 49/P.S. |(river), lumen (light) |
Chapter 50 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 50? |Gerunds |
| |Purpose with ad + accusative |
| |Purpose with causā + preceding genitive |
| |The gerund of eō, īre “to go” |
|Ch. 50 |P.S.: Funerary Inscriptions |
|Gerunds - Definition |Gerunds are verbal nouns in Latin and English: |
| |Example: I exercise by running. (running is a noun or gerund from the verb to run) |
|Ch. 50 | |
|Gerunds – Latin info |In Latin, gerunds are |
| |(1) neuter |
| |(2) singular |
| |(3) 2nd Declension [neuter] |
| |Gerunds decline like any 2nd Decl. neuter noun, like bellum (Infinitive, -ī, -ō, |
| |-um, -ō). |
| |The nominative is the infinitive, otherwise look for –nd- |
| |Active |
| |Gerunds never agree w/ anything. |
|Ch. 50 | |
|Gerunds – special notes on cases |Nominative: subject [infinitive in form] |
| |Genitive: whenever you need “of” or “for” (objective genitive); often shows purpose |
| |with causā or gratiā “for the sake of” |
| |Dative: rare; only with verbs that take a dative |
| |Accusative:* the –ndum form is NOT for DIRECT OBJECTS: only with ad “for the purpose|
| |of” [for direct objects use the infinitive] |
| |Ablative: usually shows means – “by means of”; often manner/respect with preposition|
| |in - “in” |
| | |
|Ch. 50 | |
|Gerunds – special note on the accusative* case |The accusative* case (–ndum form) only with ad “for the purpose of” and NOT for |
| |DIRECT OBJECTS |
| |Ille domum ad dormiendum rediit. = He returned home to sleep^ (for the purpose of |
| |sleeping). |
| |The direct object is an objective infinitive. In English we can say either (1) I |
| |like swimming, or (2) I like to swim. In Latin, it will always be the objective |
|Ch. 50 |infinitive (I like to swim) |
| |^ remember that in Latin, do not use the infinitive to show purpose |
|Gerunds – basic Latin declension | |
| |Latin |
| |English |
| | |
| |Nominative S. |
|Ch. 50 |Infinitive |
| |verbing |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |-ndī |
| |of (for) verbing |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |-ndō |
| |to/for verbing |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |-ndum |
| |verbing* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |-ndō |
| |WFBI verbing |
| | |
|Gerunds – Latin declension of 1st Conjugation | |
|Verbs |Latin |
|[Infinitive: -āre/ Deponent: -ārī] |English |
| | |
| |Nominative S. |
|Ch. 50 |portāre |
| |carrying |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |portandī |
| |of (for) carrying |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |portandō |
| |to/for carrying |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |portandum |
| |carrying* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |portandō |
| |WFBI carrying |
| | |
|Gerunds – Latin declension of 2nd Conjugation | |
|Verbs |Latin |
|[Infinitive: -ēre/ Deponent: -ērī] |English |
| | |
| |Nominative S. |
|Ch. 50 |monēre |
| |warning |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |monendī |
| |of (for) warning |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |monendō |
| |to/for warning |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |monendum |
| |warning* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |monendō |
| |WFBI warning |
| | |
|Gerunds – Latin declension of 3rd Conjugation | |
|Verbs |Latin |
|[Infinitive: -ere/ Deponent: -ī] |English |
| | |
| |Nominative S. |
|Ch. 50 |currere |
| |running |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |currendī |
| |of (for) running |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |currendō |
| |to/for running |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |currendum |
| |running* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |currendō |
| |WFBI running |
| | |
|Gerunds – Latin declension of 3rd-io | |
|Conjugation Verbs |Latin |
|[Infinitive: -ere/ Deponent: -ī] |English |
| | |
| |Nominative S. |
|Ch. 50 |fugere |
| |fleeing |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |fugiendī |
| |of (for) fleeing |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |fugiendō |
| |to/for fleeing |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |fugiendum |
| |fleeing* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |fugiendō |
| |WFBI fleeing |
| | |
|Gerunds – Latin declension of 4th Conjugation | |
|Verbs |Latin |
|[Infinitive: - īre/ Deponent: -īrī] |English |
| | |
| |Nominative S. |
|Ch. 50 |dormīre |
| |sleeping |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |dormiendī |
| |of (for) sleeping |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |dormiendō |
| |to/for sleeping |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |dormiendum |
| |sleeping* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |dormiendō |
| |WFBI sleeping |
| | |
|Gerunds – Latin declension of eō, īre “to go” | |
| |Latin |
| |English |
| | |
|Ch. 50 |Nominative S. |
| |īre |
| |going |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |eundī |
| |of (for) going |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |eundō |
| |to/for going |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |eundum |
| |going* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |eundō |
| |WFBI going |
| | |
|Gerunds – deponent verbs |Deponent verbs have gerunds: |
| | |
|(Example using loquor, loquī, locutus sum = to |Latin |
|speak) |English |
| | |
| |Nominative S. |
| |loquī |
| |speaking |
| | |
| |Genitive Sing |
| |loquendī |
| |of (for) speaking |
| | |
| |Dative Singular |
| |loquendō |
| |to/for speaking |
| | |
| |Accusative S |
| |loquendum |
| |speaking* |
| | |
| |Ablative Sing |
| |loquendō |
| |WFBI speaking |
| | |
|Nominative Examples of Gerunds: |(Vidēre est credere. = Seeing is believing |
|(Subject/Predicate Nominative) |(Mensās movēre est nōn gratum. = Moving tables is not fun. |
|Ch. 50 |( Esse quam vidērī = To be rather than to seem. Or, Being rather than seeming. |
|Genitive Examples of Gerunds: (1) “of” / “for” |(1)( modus operandī = “method of operating” |
|used after certain adjectives & nouns, |(1)( Perita erat loquendī = She was skilled at speaking. |
|especially (2) gratiā & causā - show purpose) |(2)( Agricola in agrum arandī causā (or gratiā) iit. = The farmer went into the |
| |field to plow (it)/for the sake of plowing. [Think of gratiā and causā as frozen |
|Ch. 50 |forms that exist to show purpose with a preceding genitive.] |
|Dative Examples of Gerunds: rare- only with |( nōn satis otiī habēbō carmina scrībendō. = I shall not have enough leisure (free |
|special verbs or adjectives that take the |time) for composing poems. |
|dative | |
|Ch. 50 | |
|Accusative Examples of Gerunds: with ad (or in)|Translate “for the purpose of”; “to” |
|to show purpose. |(Agricola ad arandum in agrum iniit = The farmer went into the field to plow |
|Ch. 50 |(it)/for the purpose of plowing. |
|Ablative Examples of Gerunds: most usually as |(Rīdendō cūrās dimittimus. = We send away our cares by laughing. |
|ablative of MEANS. |(carmina scrībendō Horātius fāmam meruit. = Horatius won fame by writing poems. |
| |(in carmina scribendō ille praestat. = Horatius excels in writing poems. |
| | |
|Ch. 50 | |
|Gerunds vs. Participles |Be careful NOT to confuse the English gerund and the present active participle, b/c |
| |they both end in “ing.” |
| |Remember that the gerund is a verbal NOUN, and the present participle is a verbal |
| |ADJECTIVE: |
| |Horatia sat in the garden singing. (Participle) |
|Ch. 50 |Horatia warmed up her voice by singing scales. (Gerund) |
|Review of the ways to show purpose with the |causā + a preceding genitive = “for the sake of verbing”, “to verb” |
|gerund |gratiā + a preceding genitive = “for the sake of verbing”, “to verb” |
| |ad + accusative = “for the purpose of verbing”, “to verb” |
| | |
|Ch. 50 | |
| | |
|How to remember the vowel changes per conjugation: |
|[pic] |
|[pic] |
| |
Chapter 51 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 51? |Gerundives, aka the Future Passive Participle |
| |Literal meaning of the Future Passive Participle |
| |Rules for turning Gerund Phrases into Gerundive Phrases |
| |Deponent Gerundives |
| |P.S. Two Epigrams |
|Ch. 51 |( The Roman Empire w/ map (page 107) |
|Gerundives – definition |Gerundives are also called “Future Passive Participles”: “to be verbed” |
| |Gerundives, therefore, work like –us/-a/-um adjectives (1st & 2nd |
| |Declension Adjectives) |
| |Agree with a noun |
| |Look like gerunds, because they have the “nd” |
|Ch. 51 | |
|How to distinguish Gerunds from Gerundives |GERUNDS... |
| |GERUNDIVES.. |
| | |
| |Verbal NOUNS |
|Ch. 51 |Verbal ADJECTIVES |
| | |
| |Don’t agree with anything |
| |Agree with a noun |
| | |
| |Only singular |
| |Can be singular or plural |
| | |
| |Only neuter |
| |Can be M, F, or N depending on the noun it agrees with |
| | |
| |ACTIVE |
| |PASSIVE |
| | |
|Gerundives – how to translate them |(1) mostly literally “to be verbed”: ager arandus = “the field to be |
| |plowed”; epistula mittenda = “the letter to be sent” |
| |(2) “verbing” in a gerund clause that has been converted to a gerundive |
| |clause. (see below) |
| |(3) Gerundive of Obligation: gerundive + form of the verb esse “to be” |
| |(see Chapter 52) |
| |(4) Gerundives with special verbs showing purpose or intent (see Chapter |
| |52) |
|Ch. 51 | |
|Gerundives – declension (singular) | |
| |Masculine S. |
| |Feminine S. |
| |Neuter S. |
| | |
|Ch. 51 |Nom S |
| |pugnandus |
| |pugnanda |
| |pugnandum |
| | |
| |Gen S |
| |pugnandī |
| |pugnandae |
| |pugnandī |
| | |
| |Dat S |
| |pugnandō |
| |pugnandae |
| |pugnandō |
| | |
| |Acc S |
| |pugnandum |
| |pugnandam |
| |pugnandum |
| | |
| |Abl S |
| |pugnandō |
| |pugnandā |
| |pugnandō |
| | |
| |Voc S |
| |pugnande |
| |pugnanda |
| |pugnandum |
| | |
|Gerundives – declension (plural) | |
| |Masculine PL |
| |Feminine PL |
| |Neuter PL |
| | |
|Ch. 51 |Nom Pl |
| |pugnandī |
| |pugnanda |
| |pugnanda |
| | |
| |Gen Pl |
| |pugnandōrum |
| |pugnandārum |
| |pugnandōrum |
| | |
| |Dat Pl |
| |pugnandīs |
| |pugnandīs |
| |pugnandīs |
| | |
| |Acc Pl |
| |pugnandōs |
| |pugnandās |
| |pugnanda |
| | |
| |Abl Pl |
| |pugnandīs |
| |pugnandīs |
| |pugnandīs |
| | |
| |Voc Pl |
| |pugnandī |
| |pugnandae |
| |pugnanda |
| | |
|Gerundives – most literal translation only | |
| |x = noun (singular/plural) |
| | |
| |Nom Sing/Pl |
|Ch. 51 |(x) to be verbed |
| | |
| |Gen Sing/Pl |
| |of (x) to be verbed |
| | |
| |Dat Sing/Pl |
| |to/for (x) to be verbed |
| | |
| |Acc Sing/Pl |
| |(x) to be verbed |
| | |
| |Abl Sing/Pl |
| |WFBI (x) to be verbed |
| | |
| |Voc Sing/Pl |
| |O (x) to be verbed! |
| | |
|Converting Gerund phrases into Gerundive phrases |Whenever the gerund takes an object, the Romans more often turned it into |
| |a “gerundive phrase” |
| |There is no difference in meaning between a gerund and a gerundive in this|
|Ch. 51 |usage. |
| |When translating a gerund or a gerundive phrase, always tranlsate the |
| |gerund/gerundive first |
|RULES for Converting Gerund phrases into Gerundive |Figure out what case you need (causā governs the genitive; ad the |
|phrases |accusative; means is ablative) |
| |Put the noun in that case. |
| |Make the gerundive agree with the noun in case, number and gender. |
| | |
|Ch. 51 | |
| |Remember, when translating a gerund or a gerundive phrase, always |
| |tranlsate the gerund/gerundive first |
|2 Examples of Gerund/Gerundives phrases |Horatius won fame by writing poems. = carmina scrībendō Horātius fāmam |
| |meruit. (gerund) = carminibus scrībendīs Horātius fāmam meruit. |
| |(gerundive) |
| |The poet is sitting in his study to compose new poems. = Poēta in tablīnō |
|Ch. 51 |nova carmina scrībendī causā sedet. (gerund) = Poēta in tablīnō novōrum |
| |carminum scrībendōrum causā sedet. (gerundive) |
|Gerundives of deponent verbs |Deponent verbs have a gerundive |
| |Deponent gerundive are passive in translation, like other gerundives: |
| |Examples: cōnandus/a/um = to be tried |
| |sequendus/a/um = to be followed |
| |miserandus/a/um = to be pitied |
|Ch. 51 | |
|Gerundives – an example using the vocative |Puer miserande, bene vīxistī et mortuus es! = O boy to be pitied, you |
|Ch. 51 |lived and died well! |
|Two Epigrams | |
| | |
|Ch. 51/P.S. | |
Chapter 52 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 52? |Gerundives (continued) |
| |The Gerundive of Obligation = Passive Periphrastic |
| |Impersonal Gerundives of Obligation (w/ Intransitive Verbs) |
| |Gerundives with special verbs showing purpose or intent |
| |P.S., Memorābilia: famous lines from Vergil |
| | |
|Ch. 52 | |
|Gerundive of Obligation (1st Card) |If a form of the verb esse “to be” is used as a helping verb with a |
| |gerundive, the whole phrase has a sense of obligation, necessity, or |
| |propriety. |
| |Since this is the main verb, put nominative endings on the gerundive. |
| |The dative case is used for the person showing agency |
| |This construction is always passive in Latin (aka, The Passive |
|Ch. 52 |Periphrastic), but can be made active in English |
|Examples of the Gerundive of Obligation |cēna nōbīs paranda est. = Dinner must be prepared by us. = We must prepare|
|(2nd Card) |dinner. [nōbīs is dative of agent] |
| |omnēs hī librī mihi legendī sunt. = All these books must be read by me. = |
| |I must read all these books. |
| |In carcerem iudicī mittendus eris. = You will have to be sent to prison by|
| |the judge. = The judge will have to send you to prison. |
|Ch. 52 |Drācō Dormiēns Nunquam Titillandus (est) = A Sleeping Dragon should never |
| |be tickled. ≈ Never tickle a sleeping dragon. |
|Examples of the Gerundive of Obligation in indirect |--> Indirect Statement (accusative + infinitive) |
|statement |Māter dīxit cēnam nōbīs parandam esse. = Mother said that dinner must be |
|(3rd Card) |prepared by us. = Mother said that we must prepare dinner. [nōbīs is |
| |dative of agent] |
| |Magister dīcit omnēs hōs librōs mihi legendōs esse. = The teacher says |
| |that all these books must be read by me. = The teacher says that I must |
| |read all these books. |
| |Iudex nūntiāvit tē in carcerem mittendum esse. = The judge announced that |
| |you will have to be sent to prison. |
|Ch. 52 |Hermiōne dīcit drācōnem dormientem nunquam titillandum (esse) = Hermione |
| |says that a sleeping dragon should never be tickled. |
|Impersonal Gerundives of Obligation (w/ Intransitive |Intransitive verbs (i.e., verbs that do not take a direct object; e.g., |
|Verbs) |verbs of motion) are used impersonally. |
| |In this event, the gerundives end in –ndum, and the helping verb is |
| |singular (est, erat, erit, fuit, sit, esset): |
|Ch. 52 |Nōbīs eundum est. = We must go. (literally: there must be a going by us.) |
|Examples of Impersonal Gerundives of Obligation (w/ |Puellīs festinandum erat. = The girls had to hurry. (literally: It had to |
|Intransitive Verbs) |be hurried by the girls) |
| |Nunc est bibendum = There must now be a drinking (i.e., Let’s make a |
| |toast. Famous poem of Horace) |
| |Hīc omnibus puerīs manendum erit. = All the boys will have to stay here. |
|Ch. 52 |(There will have to be a staying by all the boys.) |
|English words/expressions that have the gerund of |agendum * = the thing which must be done |
|obligation sound |agenda ** = the things which must be done |
| |memorandum * = something which must be remembered |
|* supply est |memoranda ** = the things which must be remembered |
|** supply sunt |addendum * = the thing which must be added |
| |addenda ** = the things which must be added |
| |corrigenda ** = the things which must be corrected |
| |mūtātīs mūtandīs = Because the things have changed, they had to change |
| |Amanda * = Amanda; “she who is fit/worthy to be loved” |
|Ch. 52 |Miranda * = Miranda; “she who is fit/worthy to be marveled at” |
| |legend = a story that must be read |
|Gerundives with special verbs showing purpose or intent |Sometimes the gerundive agrees with the object(s) of special verbs showing|
| |purpose or intent, e.g., curāre, dare, mittere (see 52.2): |
| |Domum magistra discipulum puniendum mīsit. = The teacher sent the student |
| |home to be punished. |
|Ch. 52 |Augustus ludōs Capuae celebrandōs curāvit. = Augustus arranged for (took |
| |care to (have)) the games celebrated at Capua. |
|P.S., Memorābilia: famous lines from Vergil |See P.S. |
|Ch. 52/P.S. | |
Chapter 53 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 53? |The Double Dative |
| |Predicative Dative (aka, Dative of Purpose) |
| |Expressions that take the Double Dative |
| |Relative Clauses of Purpose (subjunctive) |
| |quō Purpose Clauses (with a comparative) |
|Ch. 53 |P.S.: Memorābilia: famous lines from Horace |
|Double Dative Construction |The Double Dative (aka the Predicative Dative) has the following elements:|
| |a form of esse as the main verb |
| |a dative of purpose |
| |a dative of reference (usually a person) ( may also be called the dative |
| |of advantage/disadvantage |
| | |
|Ch. 53 | |
|Examples of the Double Dative |(Augustus is the dat. of reference; the other dative is the dative of |
|(Card 1) – see p. 176 |purpose) |
| |Augustō auxiliō esse = to be a help to Augustus |
| |Augustō cordī esse = to be dear to Augustus |
| |Augustō cūrae esse = to be a care/a cause of anxiety to Augustus |
| |Augustō exemplō esse = to be an example to Augustus |
|Ch. 53 | |
|More Examples of the Double Dative |Rōmānīs exitiō esse = to be a cause of destruction to the Romans |
|(Card 2) – see p. 176 |Rōmānīs odiō esse = to be hateful to the Romans; a source of hatred to the|
| |Romans |
| |Rōmānīs salūtī esse = to be a cause of safety to/for the Romans |
|Ch. 53 |Rōmānīs ūsuī esse = to be useful to the Romans |
|Various ways to translate the dative of purpose... |For example: odiō esse = |
| |(as) a hatred |
| |(as) a cause of hatred |
|Ch. 53 |(as) a source of hatred |
| |with some special English phrase: be hateful to |
|The relative clause of purpose |This clause simply is using a relative pronoun (quī, quae, quod) instead |
| |of ut to intoduce a purpose clause. |
| |The verb in this clause will be subjunctive (to show purpose): |
| |Quintus servōs ēmīsit quī ovēs custodīrent. = Quintus sent out slaves to |
|Ch. 53 |guard the sheep (literally, who might guard the sheep) |
|Purpose Clauses introduced by quō + a comparative |Purpose Clauses can be introduced by the ablative word quō + a comparative|
|adjective/adverb |adjective/adverb, instead of ut... |
| |Therefore, purpose clause which contain a comparative are usually |
| |introduce by quō instead of ut: |
| |Prīmā lūce proficīscimur quō celerius domum adveniāmus. = We are setting |
| |out at dawn to reach (so that we may) home more quickly. |
|Ch. 53 | |
|P.S., Memorābilia: famous lines from Horace |See P.S. |
| | |
|Ch. 53/P.S. | |
Chapter 54 ( (
|What’s in Ch. 54? |Summary of the Uses of ut |
| |ut + indicative (“as”, “when”, “since”) |
| |ut + subjunctive: |
| |in purpose clauses (see ch. 34) |
| |in indirect commands (see ch. 35) |
| |in result clauses (see ch. 43) |
| |other uses of ut not in this book |
| |P.S. : Augustī Testāmentum (Rēs Gestae Dīvī Augustī) |
| |P.P.S.: The death of the centurion Lucilius |
|Ch. 54 | |
|ut + indicative (“as”, “when”, “since”) |ut + indicative (“as”, “when”, “since”): |
|-page 179 |Helena, ut fāma est, ex ōvō nata est. = Helen, as is the tale, was born |
| |from an egg. |
|Ch. 54 |Ut amīcōs vīdit, clāmāvit. = As/When/Since he saw his friends, he shouted.|
|ut + subjunctive: |ut + subjunctive in purpose clauses (see ch. 34): |
|in purpose clauses (see ch. 34) |These subjunctive clauses show the purpose (why? Or for what reason / |
|in indirect commands (see ch. 35) |purpose?) of performing the main clause. |
|in result clauses (see ch. 43) |Follow rules of sequence of tenses |
| |Introduced by ut or nē + subjunctive |
| |Translation: (1) in order that may verb (primary) / might verb |
| |(secondary); (2) in order to verb; (3) so that, so as; (4) lest [negative |
| |only] |
|Ch. 54 | |
|ut + subjunctive: |Whenever someone orders / commands / wants / asks / persuades (main |
|in indirect commands (see ch. 35) |clause) someone (else) to perform an action (subjunctive) |
| |Follow rules of sequence of tenses |
| |Introduced by ut + subjunctive |
| |Negative is ut ...nōn (or ut + a negative word, e.g. numquam, nihil, etc.)|
| |Translation: to verb (primary/secondary) |
| | |
|Ch. 54 | |
|ut + subjunctive: |A result clause is a dependent subjunctive clause that shows the “result” |
|in result clauses (see ch. 43) |of the action of the main clause. |
| |Example: George ate so much pizza that he couldn’t eat dessert. (The |
| |clause of result is in italics.) |
| |Main Clause with a trigger word |
| |result clause always introduced by ut |
| |subjunctive verb in the ut clause (usually present subjunctive, imperfect |
| |subjunctive) |
| | |
|Ch. 54 | |
|Other ut clauses: |ut can sometimes mean “how” and is followed by the subjunctive... |
| | |
|(Ch. 54) | |
|P.S., Augustī Testāmentum (Rēs Gestae Dīvī Augustī) | |
|Ch. 54/P.S. | |
|P.P.S., The death of the centurion Lucilius | |
|Ch. 54/P.S. | |
Appendix 2: Continuous Indirect Speech ( (
|Multiple clauses (or compound sentences) in indirect |Indirect statements are expressed by the accusative subject and infinitive|
|statement |If there is more than one indirect staement, the subject of the second and|
| |subsequent infinitives is often omitted if it is the same as the first. |
| | |
|Appendix 2 | |
|Reflexives in indirect statement |In Indirect statements... |
| |The reflexives sē and suus/a/um always refer to the subject of the |
| |introductory verb |
|Appendix 2 | |
|Indirect Commands in indirect statement |In Indirect statements... |
| |Indirect commands are in the subjunctive without ut |
| |If negative, the indirect command inside an indirect statement is |
|Appendix 2 |introduced by nē. |
|Indirect Questions in indirect statement |In Indirect statements... |
| |Indirect questions are introduced by an interrogative word and have their |
|Appendix 2 |verbs in the subjunctive following sequence of tenses |
-----------------------
[1] A floccus is a tuft of wool, i.e., something of very little value. Similar to our expressions, (1) I do care one iota or whit, (2) Who gives a hoot?
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-iendum -iendum
-endum -endum
--andum
3rd-io 4th
2nd 3rd
1st
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