CHAPTER 32



CHAPTER 32

Into the Twenty-First Century, 1989–2016

Focus Questions

32.1 What were the important issues in George H. W. Bush’s presidency, and how were they handled?

32.2 How did the American population shift and grow between 1990 and 2016?

32.3 What were the accomplishments and failures of the Clinton administration?

32.4 How did George W. Bush become president, and what did he do in the White House?

32.5 What challenges faced Barack Obama and the American people during the first decade of the twenty-first century?

32.6 What does the 2016 presidential election reveal about the American political system and economy?

Chapter Outline

Introduction: “This Will Not Stand”: Foreign Policy in the Post–Cold War Era

32.1 The First President Bush

32.1.1 Republicans at Home

32.1.2 Ending the Cold War

32.1.3 The Gulf War

32.2 The Changing Faces of America

32.2.1 A People on the Move

32.2.2 The Revival of Immigration

32.2.3 Emerging Hispanics

32.2.4 Advance and Retreat for African Americans

32.2.5 Americans from Asia and the Middle East

32.3 The New Democrats

32.3.1 Clinton and Congress

32.3.2 Scandal in the White House

32.4 Republicans Resurgent

32.4.1 The Disputed Election of 2000

32.4.2 George W. Bush at Home

32.4.3 The War on Terrorism

32.4.4 Widening the Battlefield

32.4.5 Bush Reelected

32.5 Barack Obama’s Triumph and Trials

32.5.1 The Great Recession

32.5.2 New Challenges and Old

32.5.3 Past and Present: Did the Election of Barack Obama Change Anything?

32.5.4 Doubting the Future

32.6 Charting the Past: The 2016 Presidential Election

32.6.1 2016: The Primaries

32.6.2 2016: Characterizing the Economy

32.6.3 2016: Sources of News

32.6.4 The History of Election Turnout

32.6.5 2016: Electoral College and Popular Vote

Conclusion: The End of the American Future—or Not?

Chapter Summary

INTRODUCTION: “THIS WILL NOT STAND”: FOREIGN POLICY IN THE POST–COLD WAR ERA

PRESIDENT GEORGE H. W. BUSH WAS CAUGHT OFF-GUARD WHEN IRAQI DICTATOR SADDAM HUSSEIN INVADED KUWAIT IN AUGUST 1990. PRESIDENT BUSH QUICKLY MADE THE DECISION TO EXPEL THE IRAQIS, BASED PRIMARILY ON THE SENSE THAT THE END OF THE COLD WAR ENCOURAGED SMALL NATIONS TO SETTLE REGIONAL QUARRELS BY FORCE NOW THAT SUCH WARS WOULD NOT INVOLVE THE UNITED STATES OR THE SOVIET UNION. BUSH WAS WILLING TO SHOW THAT THE UNITED STATES, AS THE WORLD’S ONLY SUPERPOWER, WAS WILLING TO KEEP THE PEACE.

32.1 The First President Bush

WHAT WERE THE IMPORTANT ISSUES IN GEORGE H. W. BUSH’S PRESIDENCY, AND HOW WERE THEY HANDLED?

Bush was elected president in 1998 after serving eight years as Reagan’s vice president. Although he did not win reelection, he did score some major victories in his foreign policy.

32.1.1 Republicans at Home: Bush continued Reagan’s policy of reducing the role of the federal government and sponsored few initiatives beyond the Americans with Disabilities Act. Despite a campaign promise of “no new taxes,” in 1990 he agreed to raise taxes to bring down the massive national debt of the Reagan era. A slow recession ended the prosperity of the 1980s.

32.1.2 Ending the Cold War: Shortly after Bush’s inauguration, there was a major uprising against the Chinese government and the Soviet Union began to break apart. Bush approached both developments cautiously. He did not want to interfere with America’s growing trade with China, and he did not want to see Russia sink into turmoil.

32.1.3 The Gulf War: Bush responded to Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait by organizing an international coalition to condemn the invasion. In what evolved into Operation Desert Storm, American and coalition forces attacked the Iraqi forces occupying Kuwait. After air power reduced Saddam’s troops to immobility, a land assault was mounted that cleared Kuwait in just 100 hours. Bush, however, did not push on to Baghdad, stopping when he achieved his goal of liberating Kuwait.

32.2 The Changing Faces of America

HOW DID THE AMERICAN POPULATION SHIFT AND GROW BETWEEN 1990 AND 2016?

The two most dramatic demographic changes during the last decade of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first century were the continued movement of the population to the South and West and the arrival of immigrants from developing countries.

32.2.1 A People on the Move: By 1990, a majority of Americans lived in the South and West, and in 1994, Texas passed New York as the nation’s second-largest state. Important differences in income and education existed between rural and urban areas. The 2000 census revealed that the portion of the population over 65 was growing rapidly.

32.2.2 The Revival of Immigration: Immigration increased between 1990 and 2010. Immigrants from Latin America made up more than half of the new arrivals, and they tended to settle in the urbanized areas of such states as California, New York, and Florida. About one-quarter of new immigrants came from Asia. As usual, the flood of immigrants provoked debate over whether immigrants were a benefit or liability to society.

32.2.3 Emerging Hispanics: In 2002, Hispanics became the nation’s largest ethnic group. In general, they were young, relatively poor, less educated than other minorities, and willing to work in low-paying positions. Concerns about the large numbers of Mexicans coming into California and the Southwest prompted Congress to take action. An amnesty was offered to those already in America illegally before 1982, but Congress promised to enforce the immigration laws more strictly in the future. That effort, however, failed to stop illegal immigrants from continuing to make attempts to enter the United States.

32.2.4 Advance and Retreat for African Americans: African Americans formed the second-largest ethnic minority, more than 12 percent of the population. African American had made some gains in certain areas of life, as more blacks were finishing high school and going on to college and more blacks owned their own businesses. However, African Americans were still much poorer than whites and still more likely to spend time in prison. African American frustration partially explains events that led to a riot in Los Angeles in 1991, in which more than 50 people were killed. Blacks also experienced more losses from Hurricane Katrina because their homes tended to be in more vulnerable areas, and many lacked the ability to flee before the storm.

32.2.5 Americans from Asia and the Middle East: In 2000, Asian Americans were the fastest-growing minority in the United States. Compared to other minorities, Asian Americans were in general well educated and affluent, but some groups, especially refugees from Southeast Asia, experienced hardship and persecution. Another rapidly growing ethnic group came from the Middle East, especially from Arab countries, Israel, and Iran. After 9/11, prejudice against Arab Americans ran high, but, in general, Americans of Middle Eastern origin did well in America.

32.3 The New Democrats

WHAT WERE THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND FAILURES OF THE CLINTON ADMINISTRATION?

Democrats benefited from the lingering recession of the early 1990s, choosing moderate candidates and appealing to the middle class. They regained the White House in 1992 with the election of Bill Clinton.

32.3.1 Clinton and Congress: True to his campaign, President Clinton made the economy his top priority and adopted fiscally conservative measures, such as cutting spending and raising taxes to achieve a balanced budget. To make the United States more competitive, he endorsed a Republican measure, the North American Free Trade Agreement, which eliminated tariffs on trade between the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Nevertheless, Republicans opposed Clinton on many issues, including his attempt to revamp the health care system. Clinton’s supposed involvement in a suspicious real-estate venture, “Whitewater,” hurt the president’s reputation. Under the leadership of “Newt” Gingrich, the Republicans won the congressional elections in 1999 and tried to hobble Clinton. Deadlock descended on Washington. Republicans finally overreached when they actually shut down the federal government, and Clinton was able to win reelection in 1996.

32.3.2 Scandal in the White House: The special prosecutor assigned to investigate Whitewater, Kenneth Starr, could not make a case that Clinton had done anything improper, but he did discover that Clinton had had an affair with a young White House intern. When Starr revealed the sordid story, along with a report outlining possible grounds for impeachment, the Republican House of Representatives moved to impeach the president. However, the American people were shocked by the sordid details and blamed the prosecutor for exposing families to such details. The impeachment effort failed, but Clinton’s reputation was damaged.

32.4 Republicans Resurgent

HOW DID GEORGE W. BUSH BECOME PRESIDENT, AND WHAT DID HE DO IN THE WHITE HOUSE?

The Democrats were optimistic going into the presidential election of 2000 because the economy was in excellent shape, but the results disappointed them.

32.4.1 The Disputed Election of 2000: The Democratic nominee, Al Gore, had served as Clinton’s vice president for eight years and had the experience and knowledge to lead the nation, but he was tainted by his connection to Clinton. His opponent, George Bush, served as governor of Texas and was personable but lacked a full grasp of national issues. The campaign was complicated by consumer advocate Ralph Nader’s decision to run as the Green Party candidate. When the balloting was over on election night, Gore had a majority of the popular vote but not enough electoral votes to win the presidency. The decision ultimately depended on Florida, where the vote was extremely close. When the election was finally awarded to Bush, Gore asked for a partial recount, and the Republicans went to court to block him. The result was a series of rulings by the Florida Supreme Court to conduct a statewide recount, but that decision was overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in a 5–4 decision. The election demonstrated how divided the American people were by geography, class, gender, and race.

32.4.2 George W. Bush at Home: One of Bush’s first actions was to make a large tax cut. When the economy suddenly went into recession in 2001 and the national debt began to climb, Bush argued that taxes should be cut again to provide an incentive to spend, and Congress agreed. Bush’s other main legislative achievement was an education reform that mandated constant testing by the nation’s schools to see which were performing and which were failing. In addition to the economic downturn, several corporations corrupt practices were exposed.

32.4.3 The War on Terrorism: On September 11, 2001, terrorists crashed planes into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City and into the Pentagon in Washington. Passengers on a fourth plane foiled terrorists’ plans but were unable to regain control of the plane, which crashed in a field in Pennsylvania. In all, more than 3,000 persons died. It was quickly known that the operation had been organized by al-Qaeda, a network headed by Osama bin Laden, who had already attacked American interests around the world. He was being given refuge in Afghanistan by the government there. With Afghanistan as the prime target, President Bush ordered the Pentagon and CIA to destroy the Taliban, al Qaeda, and Osama bin Laden. Bush used air power and an alliance with local war lords to install a new government in Kabul, but Osama bin Laden was not captured or killed. At home, Bush responded to 9/11 by creating a new Department of Homeland Security and by persuading Congress to pass a “Patriot Act,” giving the federal government extensive powers to investigate suspected terrorists. Passed easily, the legislation soon raised concerns about the erosion of civil liberties.

32.4.4 Widening the Battlefield: After 9/11, Bush rejected traditional forms of international cooperation and proclaimed that he would punish countries sponsoring terrorism, denouncing countries like Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as the “axis of evil.” This new unilateralism called on the United States to accept the role of global policeman, including the use of preventive force. To back up his words, Bush began to prepare the American people for an invasion of Iraq by claiming that Saddam Hussein had a large arsenal of biological, chemical, and even nuclear weapons. Congress authorized the use of force, but the United Nations (UN) voted to send inspectors back to Iraq to look for evidence that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction. Inspectors found none. When France and Russia threatened to veto UN authorization for the war, Bush proceeded anyway. In March 2000 the invasion began with a sudden air strike, followed by a thrust by American and British infantry and armor. Baghdad quickly fell, but no weapons of mass destruction were found, Iraq fell into anarchy, and insurgents began to attack the American occupation forces. The different religious and ethnic groups in Iraq began to fight one another, threatening the U.S. goal of a stable Iraqi government.

32.4.5 Bush Reelected: In 2004 Bush ran as a resolute commander-in-chief who would keep the country safe against terrorist attacks. His opponent, John Kerry, a decorated veteran of the Vietnam War, ran a close race, but Bush won both the popular and electoral vote. The Republicans also strengthened their hold on Congress. Flushed with victory, Bush made “reform” of Social Security his top priority, but he was totally unable to persuade the people, or even the Republican Congress, to follow him. At the same time, the news from Iraq continued to be discouraging, leading Bush to increase the number of American troops in Iraq, reducing the violence of insurgents.

32.5 Barack Obama’s Triumph and Trials

WHAT CHALLENGES FACED BARACK OBAMA AND THE AMERICAN PEOPLE DURING THE FIRST DECADE OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY?

The fact that the new president, Barack Obama, was an African American made his accession to the White House historic, but it did not make the problems he inherited less daunting. The crash of the real estate bubble in 2007 severely hurt the economy.

32.5.1 The Great Recession: The financial crisis of 2008 scared the Bush administration and Congress into creating a relief package worth hundreds of billions of dollars for the financial sector. It was not enough to save giants like Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers. The crisis left the American public shaken and looking for a new alternative. They found it in the Democratic candidate for president, Barack Obama, who promised new hope. The weak economy continued and unemployment rose, causing Obama and the Democratic Congress to push through an economic stimulus package. In addition, Obama won passage of a medical insurance program despite opposition from Republicans. The death of Osama bin Laden, withdrawal of American troops from Iraq, and planned withdrawal from Afghanistan represented a planned reduction of the role of the U.S. military in the Middle East. As Obama won reelection in 2012, the Republican Congress frustrated his efforts to deal with the nation’s economic problems.

32.5.2 New Challenges and Old: Gradually the economy improved and Americans were faced with other challenges. Affirmative action was controversial as the use of race in university admissions reached the Supreme Court, and race drew new attention as the “Black Lives Matter” protests grew. Abortion remained a cutting-edge issue, especially as the Supreme Court seated new justices. Some Americans felt there should be a limit placed on gay rights, particularly in the matter of marriage, but as attitudes changed, more than a dozen states allowed gay marriage.

32.5.3 Past and Present: Did the Election of Barack Obama Change Anything? As the first African American president, Barack Obama represented a new era of racial harmony to many Americans. However, the police shooting of a black teenager sparked protests against entrenched racism and counter protests by supporters of the police. Some suggested that the election of an African American aggravated racial tensions as whites resented seeing a black man in the White House and blacks were disillusioned that Obama didn’t do more for black people.

32.5.4 Doubting the Future: Americans began to question whether future generations would be better off than the current generation. Economic inequalities grew, Social Security grew strained by the retirement of the baby boom generation, health care costs were growing, immigration issues remained controversial, and environmental problems were not being solved. The 2016 presidential election represented the anger and disillusionment of the American people. After a divisive campaign, Donald Trump, an outsider known for his reality-television show and real estate empire, was elected over the former First Lady and former secretary of state Hillary Clinton.

32.6 Charting the Past: The 2016 Presidential Election

What does the 2016 presidential election reveal about the American political system and economy?

Low voter turnout in primaries is common, but states with early primaries play a stronger role in the election outcome than do states with later primaries. Election turnout is also low in the United States and sometimes the Electoral College decides who will be president even if that candidate did not receive the majority of the popular vote. An economic recession set in as the housing market collapsed and the government was forced to bail out the financial industry. Online news sources grew in importance, even as their reliability was questioned.

32.6.1 2016: The Primaries: Introduced to give voters a more direct role in the election process, primaries usually see lower voter turnout than do presidential elections. States with early primaries often play a key role in election results, as media coverage gives candidates a national audience and early momentum.

32.6.2 2016: Characterizing the Economy: The housing market boom collapsed by the end of 2007 and the Great Recession set in. The government bailout of the financial industry upset many Americans, and an Occupy Wall Street movement began in 2011 as economic recovery continued slowly and unevenly.

32.6.3 2016: Sources of News: Social media became the main source of news for a growing number of Americans, although older generations continued to get their news from mainstream print and broadcast sources. Online news sources alarmed many because unsubstantiated stories were easily circulated.

32.6.4 The History of Election Turnout: Barriers to voting have been mostly eliminated, but voter turnout in the United States is lower than turnout in most countries in Western Europe.

32.6.5 2016: Electoral College and Popular Vote: The Electoral College selects the president of the United States, based on a certain number of votes per state connected to the popular vote. This system allows a candidate to focus on key states but can lead to a president winning the Electoral College while not receiving the majority of the popular vote.

Conclusion: The End of the American Future—or Not?

THROUGHOUT HISTORY, AMERICA WAS THE LAND OF OPPORTUNITY, BUT BY 2016 THE FUTURE SEEMED DIM TO MANY AMERICANS. TERRORISM AND THE GREAT RECESSION BROUGHT FEAR AND DISILLUSIONMENT. HOWEVER, LIFE CONTINUED AS IMMIGRANTS ARRIVED, CHILDREN RECEIVED AN EDUCATION, PEOPLE MARRIED, AND CHILDREN WERE BORN. AMERICANS HAD OVERCOME CHALLENGES IN THE PAST SO THERE WERE REASONS TO BE OPTIMISTIC.

Key Terms

32.1

o Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): Passed by Congress in 1991, this act banned discrimination against the disabled in employment and mandated easy access to all public and commercial buildings.

o Operation Desert Storm: The American and coalition military offensive against Iraq in 1991, which liberated Kuwait and dealt a serious but not fatal blow to Saddam Hussein’s regime.

32.2

o Sunbelt: A broad band of states running across the South from Florida to Texas, extending west and north to include California and the Pacific Northwest. Beginning in the 1970s, it experienced rapid economic and population growth.

o undocumented aliens: Illegal immigrants, mainly from Mexico and Central America.

32.3

o North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): A free-trade plan among the United States, Canada, and Mexico enacted by Congress in 1993.

o Contract with America: In the 1994 congressional elections, Congressman Newt Gingrich had Republican candidates sign a document in which they pledged support for such things as a balanced-budget amendment, term limits for members of Congress, and a middle-class tax cut.

32.4

o war on terror: Initiated by President George W. Bush after the attacks of September 11, 2001, the broadly defined war on terror aimed to weed out terrorist operatives and their supporters throughout the world.

o unilateralism: A national policy of acting alone without consulting other nations.

o weapons of mass destruction (WMD): Biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons capable of widespread destruction.

32.5

o affirmative action: The use of laws or regulations to achieve racial, ethnic, gender, or other diversity, as in hiring or school admissions. Such efforts are often aimed at improving employment or educational opportunities for women and minorities.

Shared Writing and Journal Prompts

32.1 The First President Bush

WHAT WERE THE IMPORTANT ISSUES IN GEORGE H. W. BUSH’S PRESIDENCY, AND HOW WERE THEY HANDLED?

IN DOMESTIC AFFAIRS, THE FIRST PRESIDENT BUSH FOCUSED ON FIXING THE SAVINGS AND LOAN INDUSTRY AND BALANCING THE BUDGET. ALTHOUGH CONTINUING REAGAN’S LIMITED INTERFERENCE IF AMERICAN LIVES, BUSH DID PASS THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT. IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS, HIS ADMINISTRATION SAW THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND OFFERED ECONOMIC AID TO MEMBERS OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES, WHICH FORMED AFTER THE BREAK-UP OF THE SOVIET UNION. THE GULF WAR OF 1991 LIBERATED KUWAIT AND WEAKENED THE IRAQI REGIME OF SADDAM HUSSEIN BUT DIDN’T REMOVE SADDAM FROM POWER IN BAGHDAD.

32.2 The Changing Faces of America

HOW DID THE AMERICAN POPULATION SHIFT AND GROW BETWEEN 1990 AND 2016?

Americans continued to migrate to the Sunbelt in the 1990s and early 2000s, and immigration continued to grow. Hispanics formed the largest segment of the immigrant population and included millions of illegal immigrants. African Americans gained ground economically but still suffered from poverty, as Hurricane Katrina demonstrated.

32.3 The New Democrats

WHAT WERE THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND FAILURES OF THE CLINTON ADMINISTRATION?

Clinton balanced the federal budget and helped revive the economy, which boomed during the 1990s. The North American Free Trade Agreement eliminated tariff barriers among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. But personal scandals led to Clinton’s impeachment, which he survived, although not without damage to his own reputation and that of the Democrats.

32.4 Republicans Resurgent

HOW DID GEORGE W. BUSH BECOME PRESIDENT, AND WHAT DID HE DO IN THE WHITE HOUSE?

George W. Bush became president in an election that turned on a ballot dispute in Florida, which was resolved only by the Supreme Court. As president, Bush persuaded Congress to cut taxes and, after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, to authorize invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. The war in Iraq bogged down amid an insurgency against the American-supported government in Baghdad.

32.5 Barack Obama’s Triumph and Trials

WHAT CHALLENGES FACED BARACK OBAMA AND THE AMERICAN PEOPLE DURING THE FIRST DECADE OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY?

The culture wars between conservatives and liberals continued into the twenty-first century, with abortion, affirmative action, gay rights, and evolution provoking controversy. The Great Recession shook the economy, and Americans wondered how to deal with problems of health care, retirement, illegal immigration, and the environment.

Past and Present: Did the Election of Barack Obama Change Anything?

Did the election of African American president Barack Obama ease or aggravate racial problems in America?

The election of Barack Obama seemed to highlight tensions, as some whites resented an African American in the White House and some blacks resented that Obama didn’t do more to help black people. In addition, protests about entrenched racism sparked counter protests, highlighting the divisions in society.

Shared Writing

If you could suggest one thing to ease racial tensions in America, what would it be?

Answers will vary, but here is a possible response: Racial tension is not an easy problem to solve. Interaction with a diverse group of people helps people learn about and accept differences, so ensuring that children have experiences with a wide variety of people could represent a first step. In addition, providing education about differences and ensuring children have the skills to interact with others could also ease racial tensions.

32.6 Charting the Past: The 2016 Presidential Election

What does the 2016 presidential election reveal about the American political system and economy?

Economic inequality was a key issue in the 2016 presidential race. The bailout of the financial industry in 2008 had upset many Americans. The electoral system makes is important for a presidential candidate to focus on key states in order to win the presidency rather than trying to win over all voters, because a win of the popular vote doesn’t necessarily mean a win in the Electoral College.

Class Activities

1. FOREIGN POLICY PRESENTATION: PLACE STUDENTS IN GROUPS OF TWO TO THREE AND ASSIGN EACH GROUP ONE OF THE COUNTRIES FROM THE CHAPTER THAT WAS A FOCUS OF AMERICAN INTERVENTION OR INTERACTION FROM 1990 TO THE PRESENT TIME. HAVE GROUPS RESEARCH U.S. FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD THEIR ASSIGNED NATION OVER TIME, MAKING NOTE OF ANY CHANGES OR CONTINUITIES IN POLICY, AND PREPARE A THREE- TO FOUR-SLIDE PRESENTATION TO SHARE WITH THE CLASS. AFTERWARD, HOLD A CLASS DISCUSSION ON HOW AMERICA SHOULD INTERACT WITH THESE NATIONS IN THE FUTURE.

2. TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY ISSUES: ASSIGN EACH STUDENT ONE OF THE POLITICAL OR SOCIAL ISSUES FACING AMERICA IN THE NEW CENTURY. HAVE STUDENTS RESEARCH AND THEN WRITE A TWO- TO THREE-PAGE PAPER DESCRIBING THE PROBLEM AND EVALUATING PROPOSED SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM. SUGGESTED TOPICS INCLUDE IMMIGRATION, HEALTH CARE, CLIMATE CHANGE, ENERGY CONSERVATION, EDUCATION, GENDER EQUALITY, POLLUTION, POVERTY, AND ANY OTHER ISSUES STUDENTS MAY PROPOSE.

3. ELECTORAL COLLEGE WINS: ASSIGN EACH STUDENT ONE OF THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS IN WHICH THE WINNER DETERMINED BY THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE DID NOT RECEIVE THE MAJORITY OF THE POPULAR VOTES; THESE ARE SHOWN IN CHARTING THE PAST: THE 2016 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION, WHICH APPEARS ONLY IN REVEL. STUDENTS WILL RESEARCH THE ELECTION, FOCUSING ON WHICH STATES WERE KEY, CANDIDATES’ STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES, AND THE CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES. THEN, HAVE STUDENTS PAIR UP AND COMPARE AND CONTRAST THEIR ASSIGNED ELECTIONS. AFTERWARD, HOLD A CLASS DISCUSSION ON WHAT COMMON ELEMENTS WERE INVOLVED IN THESE SPECIFIC ELECTIONS.

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