AP World History .k12.ga.us
AP World History
Unit 9 - Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World.
The Americas in the Age of Independence.
The Making of Industrial Society.
Chapters 29 and 31 – Pages 753-813, 847-876.
Chapter 30 – Pages 815-839.
Colonial Society in the Americas
The history of colonial societies in America is one of interactions of cultures: European, American, African.
Mining, fur trapping, and the cultivation of cash crops formed the economic basis of these societies and Christianity emerged as the dominant religion in the western hemisphere.
The mestizo population, a mixture of European and Euro-American offspring, came to dominate political, economic, and cultural affairs.
The Formation of Multicultural Societies
European migrants radically transformed the social order in places where they established settler colonies of imperial states.
All European territories became places where people of varied ancestry lived in multicultural societies.
Because the vast majority of migrants to the Iberian colonies were men, many of these men entered into relationships with native women that produced offspring known as mestizo or mixed.
This was especially true in Mexico.
Women were more prominent in Peru where migrants lived in cities, married among themselves, and kept mostly apart from the native populations.
Outside the cities, in Mexico, and other less settled regions, Spanish men associated with native women and gave rise to mestizo society.
Brazil developed as an even more ethically and racially diverse society than Mexico.
In Brazil, where few European women were available, Portuguese men frequently entered into relationships with native women and with African slave women.
Various ethnic combinations emerged from these unions including mestizos, mulattoes (those born of Portuguese and African parents), zambos (those born of indigenous and African parents), and combinations arising from union within and between these groups.
Peninsulares, the term applied to migrants born in Europe who came to reside in Spanish or Portuguese colonies, stood at the top of the social hierarchy.
Criollos or creoles, individuals born of Iberian parents in the Americas, were next in status.
Early in the colonial period, mestizos lived on the fringes of society, but as time passed and their numbers grew, especially in Brazil and Mexico, they were adopted into the social fabric of colonial societies.
Mulattoes, zambos, and other people of mixed heritage became prominent in Brazilian society, though always subordinate to anyone of European or European and mixed heritage while slaves and conquered peoples remained at the bottom of the social hierarchy.
In North America, the social structure of French and English colonies developed much differently, in large part because European women were much more numerous among those migrants.
Though French fur traders associated with native women to produce offspring known as metis, in more settled regions, liaisons between French men and native women were much less common.
The English colonies experienced the least mingling of cultures as the English viewed the indigenous people as heathens, too lazy to acquire property or even cultivate the land, and soon extended this scorn to imported Africans who were seen as inferior beings.
English settlers strongly discouraged relationships between Europeans and non-Europeans, often refusing to accept or even acknowledge the resulting offspring.
These sharp boundaries between groups in the English colonies soon produced virulent racism.
Despite their exclusionary attitudes, the English settlers readily adopted useful cultural elements such as terms and technologies from the indigenous people and from the enslaved Africans.
The English settlers adopted names for plants and animals not found in Europe and often the styles of clothing and warfare used by the indigenous people.
Likewise, African food crops and agricultural techniques proved useful to the settlers.
REVOLUTIONS AND NATIONAL STATES IN THE ATLANTIC WORLD
Chapter 29
Popular Sovereignty and Political Upheaval
Enlightened and revolutionary ideas.
Popular sovereignty:
The condition of being politically free.
Relocating sovereignty in the people.
Traditionally monarchs claimed a "divine right" to rule.
The Enlightenment challenged this right, made the monarch responsible to the people.
John Locke's theory of contractual government:
Authority comes from the consent of the governed.
Basic rights to life, liberty, and property, and that any ruler who violated could deposed.
Freedom and equality:
Important values of the Enlightenment.
Demands for freedom of worship and freedom of expression.
Demands for political and legal equality.
Voltaire
Used literary satire and harsh direct criticism to call for religious toleration and freedom of expression.
Condemned legal and social privileges of aristocrats.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract.
"Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains"
Equality not extended to women, peasants, laborers, slaves, or people of color.
Ideals of Enlightenment were significant global influence.
Philosophe:
Any of the literary men, scientists, and thinkers of 18th-century France who were united, in spite of divergent personal views, in their conviction of the supremacy and efficacy of human reason.
They were dedicated to the advancement of science and secular thought and to the open-mindedness of the Enlightenment.
They included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
The philosophes compiled the Encyclopédie, one of the great intellectual achievements of the century.
The American Revolution:
Tension between Britain and the North American colonies.
Legacy of Seven Years' War: British debt, North American tax burden.
Mounting colonial protest over taxes, trade policies, Parliamentary rule.
Colonial boycott of British goods.
Attacks on British officials.
Paul Revere’s engraving.
Propaganda.
Tea Act – lowered the price of tea.
Boston Tea Party, 1773.
Political protest over representation in Parliament: Continental Congress, 1774.
“No Taxation Without Representation”
Stamp Act – tax on paper products.
Sugar Act – stop smugglers.
Quartering Act.
Quebec Act – Catholicism in Canada.
British troops and colonial militia skirmished at the village of Lexington, 1775.
The Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776.
Original version, slavery was abolished.
Jefferson reluctantly removes under pressure from southern delegates.
Thirteen united States of America severed ties with Britain.
Declaration inspired by Enlightenment and Locke's theory of government.
The American Revolution, 1775-1781.
British advantages: strong government, navy, army, plus loyalists in colonies.
American advantages: European allies, George Washington's leadership.
Home field advantage.
Hit-and-run tactics.
Motivation.
Weary of a costly conflict, British forces surrendered in 1781.
Building an independent state:
Constitutional Convention, 1787.
Constitution guaranteed freedom of press, of speech, and of religion.
American republic based on principles of freedom, equality, popular sovereignty.
Full legal and political rights were granted only to men of property.
French Revolution:
Drew inspiration from the American Revolution.
More radical in scope, time frame, and ideals.
Ideal was to repudiate the old order known as the ancien regime, and to replace it with new cultural, social, and political structures.
Estates General – the French national legislature.
Three estates:
1st Estate - Clergy - 1% of population.
2nd Estate – Nobility – 2% of population.
3rd Estate – the rest of France – 97% of population.
Each estate had one vote.
Ensure the rights of the few would continue despite the wishes and welfare of the many.
Financial crisis provided the immediate cause of the French Revolution.
French treasury was bankrupt.
Wars.
Excessive spending.
Nobility unwilling to give up its tax exemption forced King Louis XVI to call into session the Estates General.
Raise new taxes.
Many representatives wanted sweeping political and social reform.
It had been more than 150 years since they had convened.
After several weeks of frustrating debate, members of the Third Estate withdrew from the Estates General.
The National Assembly formed by representative of Third Estate, 17 June 1789.
Tennis Court Oath.
Demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty.
Angry mob seized the Bastille on 14 July, sparked insurrections in many cities.
National Assembly wrote the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen"
Proclaimed the equality of all men.
Idea that sovereignty resides in the people.
Principles of liberty, property, and security.
Prohibited social distinctions.
"Liberty, equality, and fraternity" was the slogan and values of the National Assembly.
The Assembly abolished the feudal system.
Altered the role of church.
Made the king the nation’s chief executive official.
Deprived him of any legislative authority.
France became a constitutional monarchy, 1791.
Changes not welcomed by the nobility or foreign supporters of the king.
Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime.
Also, declared war on Spain, Britain, and the Netherlands.
The Convention replaced National Assembly under new constitution, 1791.
French Constitution of 1791.
France became a constitutional monarchy.
An elective, legislative body, the Convention was established.
Church property was confiscated and clergy lost their privileged status.
Peasants were freed from the dues and services owed to their landlords.
French women gained important property rights and the right to a divorce.
The Convention instituted the levee en mass.
Universal conscription of people and resources to counter the invading forces.
“Terror to root out traitors”
Guillotine.
Executed more than 40,000 counterrevolutionaries.
French prisons – 300,000 suspected enemies of the revolution.
King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette executed, 1793.
Maximillian Robespierre:
Sought to remake France.
Radical Jacobins dominated the Convention in 1793-94 in a "reign of terror"
Revolutionary changes: in religion, dress, calendar, women's rights.
July 1794, Robespierre was arrested and executed.
Group of conservatives seized control of France.
The Directory.
Unable to resolve France’s military or political problems, the Directory as not effective.
The timing was perfect for a man with a plan:
Napoleon Bonaparte.
Brilliant military leader; became a general in the royal army at age twenty-four.
Supported the revolution; defended the Directory.
His invasion of Egypt was defeated by British army.
Overthrew the Directory and named himself consul for life.
Napoleonic France brought stability after years of chaos.
Made peace with the Roman Catholic church and pope.
Extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews.
Napoleonic Code/Civil Code of 1804:
Political and legal equality for all adult men.
Restricted individual freedom, especially speech and press.
Napoleon's empire:
1804, proclaimed himself emperor.
Dominated the European continent:
Iberia, Italy, Netherlands
Defeated Austria and Prussia.
Fought British on high seas.
Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 destroyed Grand Army.
The fall of Napoleon:
Forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814, exiled on Elba.
Escaped, returned to France, raised army, but was defeated by British in 1815 at Waterloo.
The emergence of ideologies:
Conservatism and Liberalism.
Conservatism: resistance to change.
Importance of continuity, tradition.
Liberalism:
Welcomed change as an agent of progress.
Championed freedom, equality, democracy, written constitutions.
American Revolution: a natural and logical outcome of history.
French Revolution: violent and irresponsible.
Congress of Vienna, 1814-15:
Conservative leaders determined to restore old order after defeat of Napoleon.
Succeeded in maintaining balance of power in Europe for a century.
Failed in repressing nationalist and revolutionary ideas.
The Influence Of Revolution
Haitian Revolution
The America and French Revolutions paved the way for violent social and political revolution in Saint-Domingue, the wealthy French sugar, coffee, and cotton-producing colony located on western Hispaniola.
Today, that location is the nation of Haiti.
In 1790, the colony included about 40,000 white French settlers, 30,000 free people of color known as gens de coleur, and about 500,000 black slaves, most of whom were born in Africa.
Working conditions in Saint-Domingue were brutal.
More economical for plantation owners to work their slaves to death.
As a result of this harsh treatment, a substantial number of slaves escaped to the mountainous regions of Haiti.
By the late 18th century, these escaped slaves, known as maroons, had formed their own societies and sometimes attacked plantations in search of food, goods, and new recruits.
Also, by the end of the 18th century, 500 gens de coleur who had been sent to America to aide in the American Revolution returned home ready to reform society there.
White planters, fueled by the desire for self-government stemming from the French revolution, wanted self-government for themselves
Opposed any attempts to bring social or political equality to the gens de coleur.
In August 1791, the island descended into chaos as 12,000 slaves, led by a Voudou priest named Boukman, attacked and killed white plantation owners, destroyed their property, and within a few weeks attracted almost 100,000 slaves into their ranks.
The white factions responded and fought both slave and gens de coleur factions.
The situation grew more complex as French troops arrived to restore order in 1792 and British and Spanish forces arrived in 1793 in hopes of benefiting from France’s colonial problems.
When Boukman died a few weeks into the fighting, he was succeeded by Francois-Dominique Tousaint, who called himself Louverture, “the opening,” which refers to an opening in the enemy’s ranks.
Intelligent, educated, and a skilled organizer, Toussaint was also a shrewd judge of character.
He used these skills to build a strong, well-disciplined army, to play the French, British, and Spanish troops against each other, and to jockey for power among the other black and mulatto generals.
By 1791, his army of 20,000 controlled most of the island.
By 1801, he produced a constitution which granted equality and citizenship to all Saint-Domingue residents.
He declined to declare full independence from France in hopes of avoiding an invasion by Napoleon’s troops.
His hopes were unfulfilled, however, as Napoleon sent 40,000 French troops to the island in 1802.
Despite Toussaint’s attempts at negotiation, the revolutionary was arrested and sent to France, where he died of maltreatment in 1803.
However, later that year, an outbreak of yellow fever decimated the French army and Toussaint’s successors drove the remaining but sickly French troops from their shores.
By January 1, 1804, Haiti had become the second independent republic in the western hemisphere.
The ideals of the Enlightenment and of revolution spread to the Portuguese and Spanish colonies in the Americas.
Conflicts between the peninsulares, colonial officials from Portugal or Spain and the
criollos, individuals born in he Americas of Portuguese or Spanish descent, became increasingly common.
Resented the political and economic restrictions placed on them by the Iberian governments.
Replace the peninsulares and maintain their own privileged class.
Mexican independence:
Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1807 weakened royal control of colonies.
1810: peasant revolt in Mexico led by Father Hidalgo, defeated by conservative creoles.
1821: Mexico briefly a military dictatorship, then in 1822 a republic.
South part of Mexico was split into several independent states in 1830s.
Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) led independence movement in South America.
Inspired by George Washington, took arms against Spanish rule in 1811.
Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America, 1824.
Defeated Spanish forces in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru.
Coordinated his efforts with Jose de San Martin in Argentina and Bernardo O’ Higgins in Chile.
Hoped to create a great confederation modeled after the USA.
Bolivar's effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s.
Brazilian independence:
Portuguese royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro, 1807.
The king's son, Pedro, agreed to Brazilian independence, 1821.
Became Emperor Pedro I in the independent Brazil (reigned 1822-1834).
Creole dominance in Latin America:
Independence brought little social change in Latin America.
Principal beneficiaries were creole elites.
Between 1810 and 1825, the criollos successfully led independence movements establishing republics in all Spanish colonies in the Americas except Cuba and Puerto Rico.
Testing the limits of revolutionary ideals:
Women's rights.
Enlightenment call for equality not generally extended to women.
Women used logic of Locke to argue for women's rights.
Mary Wollstonecraft:
Women possessed same natural rights as men.
Women crucial to revolutionary activities.
French revolution granted women rights of education and property, not the vote.
Olympe de Gouges's declaration of full citizenship for women too radical.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
Women made no significant gains in other revolutions
Women's rights movements gained ground in the nineteenth century in United States and Europe.
The Consolidation of National States in Europe
Nations and nationalism.
Cultural nationalism:
An expression of national identity.
Emphasized common historical experience.
Used folk culture and literature to illustrate national spirit.
Political nationalism more intense in the nineteenth century.
Demanded loyalty and solidarity from members of the national group.
Minorities sought independence as a national community.
Young Italy formed by Giuseppe Mazzini.
Zionism: Jewish nationalism as a response to widespread European anti-Semitism.
Movement founded by Theodor Herzl to create a Jewish state in Palestine.
Jewish state of Israel finally created in 1948.
Nationalist rebellions against old order throughout nineteenth century.
Greek rebels overcame Ottoman rule in 1827.
1830 and 1848, rebellions in France, Spain, Portugal, and German states.
Conservative government usually restored afterward but ideals persisted.
The unification of Italy and Germany:
Cavour and Garibaldi united Italy by 1870.
Mazzini's Young Italy inspired uprisings against foreign rule in Italy.
Cavour led nationalists and expelled Austrian authorities in northern Italy, 1859.
Garibaldi controlled southern Italy, returned it to King Vittore Emmanuele, 1860.
Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) created a united Germany.
In Germany, nationalist rebellion was repressed in 1848.
Bismarck provoked three wars that swelled German pride.
1871, Prussian king proclaimed emperor of the Second Reich.
THE AMERICAS IN THE AGE OF INDEPENDENCE
The Building of American States
The Canadian Dominion:
Independence without war.
Autonomy and division characterized Canadian history.
French Quebec taken by Britain after the Seven Years' War.
British authorities made large concessions to French Canadians.
After 1781, many British loyalists fled United States to seek refuge in Canada.
The War of 1812 unified Canada against U.S. invaders.
Anti-U.S. sentiments created sense of unity among French and British Canadians.
1830s, tensions between French citizens and growing English population.
1840-1867, British authorities granted home rule to Canadians.
Dominion of Canada created in 1867.
A federal government with a governor-general acting as the British representative.
Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign affairs until 1931.
Prime Minister John Macdonald strengthened Canadian independence and unity.
Persuaded western and maritime provinces to join the Dominion, 1860s.
The National Policy:
Plan to develop national economy.
Wanted to attract migrants and British capital but to protect Canadian industries.
Construction of Canadian Pacific Railroad opened the west to settlement.
Boom in agricultural and industrial production late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Heavy U.S. investment in Canada.
Owned 30 percent of Canadian industry by 1918.
American Economic Development
Latin American dependence:
Colonial legacy prevented industrialization of Latin American states.
Spain and Portugal never encouraged industries.
Creole elites continued land-based economies after independence.
The investment capital which did make its way to locals was zealously guarded by elites seeking to protect their traditional positions of status and power.
Colonial legacies in economics and politics stunted local industries which could not compete with imported European goods.
Latin American elites benefited from control of imports.
British didn't invest in industry in Latin America.
No market for manufactured goods.
British investors were selective in their choices.
Instead invested in cattle and sheep ranching in Argentina.
Supplied British wool and beef.
Most of profits returned to Britain.
Benefited immensely as the invention of refrigerated cargo ships meant low cost meat could be sold for profit in Britain.
European migrants formed the majority of urban workers in Latin America.
Did not share in the economic benefits.
Cultural contributions were significant to rapidly growing cities like Buenos Aires.
Some attempts at industrialization with limited success.
Mexico:
Dictator Porfirio Diaz.
Attempted industrialization.
Profits produced from construction projects, glass, chemical and textile industries, and a small steel industry went into the pockets of the Mexican oligarchy and foreign investors rather than being reinvested in his nation.
Diaz encouraged foreign investors to build rails, telegraphs, and mines.
Little wealth went back into industrial development.
Even less went to urban workers who became increasingly disgruntled.
While Mexican industry boomed, average Mexican standard of living declined.
The revolutionary outbreak of 1911 reflects this frustration.
Thus foreign investors, especially the British, instead of local people, benefited from Latin America’s mining industries and agricultural production.
Economic growth in Latin America driven by exports: silver, beef, bananas, coffee.
American Cultural and Social Diversity
United States:
Seneca Falls. Convention of 1848 (New York).
Feminists draft their “declaration of sentiments”
Reconstruction.
More than 25 million migrants came to the United Sates between 1840-1914.
Brought new foods, religions, traditions, and languages.
Many were pushed into living in ethnic neighborhoods.
Canada:
Political development is often described in terms of divisions between French and British settlers.
Indigenous peoples of Canada were an essential part of cultural development.
As in the United States, Indians of Canada found themselves increasingly pushed out of their own land.
Trappers and farmers settled across Canada.
Slavery affected the cultural context of Canada.
Canada allowed slavery until 1833.
Escaped slaves from the U.S. helped to form a population of black Canadians.
Not equal and segregated.
Asian and eastern European migrants were drawn to Canada as laborers.
Found themselves outside the Canadian mainstream.
Dominated by descendants of British and French settlers.
Northwest Rebellion:
Metis, descendants of fur traders, resented the growing westward expansion of British farmers.
Led by Louis Riel who fought to protect the metis local land rights.
Tried to forestall the completion of the Canadian pacific Railroad.
Attempt failed and he was executed for treason.
Foreshadowed the long-term cultural conflict between Canadians of indigenous, British and French descent.
Latin America:
Social hierarchy based on ethnicity and color.
Migrants further complicated this social hierarchy with the addition of East Asians, Indians, and eastern Europeans.
Gaucho:
Egalitarian tradition.
Like the North American cowboy, led independent and self-sufficient lives.
By the late 1800s, the gauchos were more romance than reality.
Machismo:
Social ethic that honors male strength, courage, aggression, and cunning.
Integral part of Latin American tradition.
Women were excluded from political life.
Rural women were especially vulnerable and isolated.
The Making of Industrial Society Patterns of Industrialization
Industrialization is the transformation of agrarian and handcraft industries into reorganized and mechanized systems of production.
New technology.
Products produced by machine rather than by hand.
In the mid-18th century, areas of China, Japan, and Great Britain had dynamic economic systems that were based on agriculture with navigable rivers and canals that facilitated trade.
Increase population.
Ecological problems.
Soil depletion.
Deforestation.
Hindered expansion.
Great Britain and western Europe turned to coal deposits and natural resources from abroad.
Enclosure movement.
Water transport and commercial centers provided the additional underpinnings to industrialization.
This fortunate confluence of factors put Great Britain into the forefront of industrialization.
The lengthy distance between the Yangtze and coal deposits deferred Chinese industrialization to a much later time.
Britain’s closes association with the Americas provided raw materials for the emerging textile industry.
Cotton.
Textile mills were the first mechanized industry.
Flying shuttle.
Accelerated weaving.
Spinning mule.
Powered by steam.
Could produce a 100 times more thread than a manual spinning wheel.
The mule produced too much thread for the weavers to keep up with.
Edmund Cartwright.
Invented the first water-powered loom.
By the 1820s, the era of the hand weaver was over.
Industrialization of the textile industry produced huge increases in the availability of cheap cotton cloth.
Provided 1000’s of jobs.
By the 1830s, the textile industry was the leading business in Britain and accounted for 40% of its exports.
Eventually, cheap textile production depended on the steam engine.
Scottish engineer James Watt.
Power of the steam engine was measured in horsepower, something laymen could understand.
In addition to innovations in power sources, higher quality iron and steel was produced through the use of coke ( a purified form of coal) rather than charcoal.
Price of iron ore dropped.
Common material of bridges, buildings, and ships.
Bessemer process.
Produced better and cheaper steel.
Steel was stronger, harder, and more resilient than iron.
In 1815, George Stephenson successfully tested the first locomotive, simply a steam engine on wheels.
Burned too much coal, so sailing ships remained the mode of transportation until the middle of the 19th century.
By the 1850s, greater efficiency allowed steamship engines to power ships and trains.
Since ships and trains had huge carrying capacity, the price of transportation decreased dramatically.
Dense networks to rail and ship traffic tied regions and their products closer to ports and commercial centers.
Steamboats were more effective upriver.
The process of industrialization that began in textile mills had improved the modes of transportation.
In the early capitalist period:
Putting-out system.
Slaves.
Unskilled mine workers.
By the mid-19th century, the factory system replaced all of these production modes in industrial economies.
Large, complicated machines needed enormous spaces and specialized workers.
In a fortunate turn of events, factors such as
Rural overpopulation.
Declining job opportunities.
Increased financial difficulties for small farmers.
Provided the factories with an abundant labor supply.
Factory mangers had more control over their workers.
Quality of the work was completely supervised.
The nature of work changed to lessen the craftsmanship of a single individual so workers began to see themselves as mere wage earners.
Also produced a new class of wealthy factory owners.
As the quality and consistency of products went up so did the pressures to produce more in a shorter period of time.
Laborers found themselves working exceedingly long hours.
Artificial light.
Six days a week.
The factory clock and whistle with the pressure of constant supervision filled workers’ lives with tension and misery.
Work with unprotected machinery was dangerous.
Violent protests in England:
Luddites.
Displace craftsmen who destroyed machines at night.
Popular until the government hanged 14 of them in 1813.
Initially, the English government protected its new industry by forbidding the export of any machines, plans, or workers.
Entrepreneurs in other countries found ways to obtain information.
Bribery.
Kidnapping.
Smuggling plans and machines themselves.
By the 1850s, the United States, Belgium, France, and Germany were industrializing.
Belgium and France were in the forefront of innovation.
Germany lagged behind due partially to the instability of many competing German states.
Iron and steel production increased.
Railroad systems.
With German unification in 1871, Bismarck’s government sponsored industrialization with magnificent results in mining, armaments, and shipping.
North America:
Industry and society were transformed when industrial innovations were combined with abundant natural resources.
New England – textile center.
At first, young women from rural areas (Lowell mills) provided the necessary labor.
Later, the U.S. became a primary destination for European immigrants.
By 1900, the United States was an industrial powerhouse.
State sponsored canals.
Railroad and steamship lines.
Transportation and heavy industry complemented each other.
Industrial Capitalism.
After the textile industry flourished, other industries began to mass-produce standardized products.
Eli Whitney.
Cotton gin.
Also, invented the process by which each factory worker used a specific machine that made just one part that fit into whatever was being produced.
Interchangeable parts.
By the end of the 19th century, sewing machines, clocks, and everything in between were standardized.
Henry Ford.
Assembly line.
Prices for cars decreased (Model T).
As manufacturing evolved so did the business model.
In order to buy the very expensive machinery, it was necessary to find investors.
Corporations were developed to fund the new industries.
Hundreds to millions of people bought stock in companies and received the profits in dividends if the company did well.
If the company failed, corporations and their investors were protected by laws that limited the losses.
Corporations controlled:
Railroads.
Shipping lines.
Factories.
Investment banks and brokerage firms developed to support corporations.
Eventually, some corporations tired of competition.
Monopolies.
Eliminate all of their competitors by one of two methods.
Vertical Organization.
Purchase companies that fed into and led out of their prime business.
For example, a steel company purchased the iron ore mines as well as the rail companies that transported the ore to the factory and carried the steel to its final destination.
John D. Rockefeller – oil industry (Standard Oil).
Andrew Carnegie - U.S. Steel.
Friedrich Alfred Krupp - mines, steel mills, and munitions plants.
Horizontal integration.
Owner of one steel mill purchased every other one that he could.
By the end of the century, some governments outlawed monopolies while others did very little to control them.
Industrial Society
Benefits to industrialization included:
Cheap manufactured goods.
Increased standard of living.
Population growth.
Demographic transition:
Fertility rates began to drop.
Couples in industrial societies had fewer children.
Cost was higher in an industrial society.
As rural workers searched for jobs, the clustered in cities with factories.
In 1900, London was the largest city in the world with six million people.
Urbanization caused several problems:
Severe air and water pollution.
Human sewage and waste from factories flowed freely into streets, streams, and rivers.
Contaminated water led to diseases such as cholera and typhus.
Housing was inadequate.
Crowded many people into small places.
Tuberculosis.
The horrible living conditions bred crime and prostitution.
In the latter part of the 19th century, city governments began to address their problems by providing clean water sources, enclosed sewage lines, and police forces.
Transcontinental migrations:
Millions of European workers chose to find work in the Americas.
Irish – potato famine.
Pogroms against Jews in western Russia.
Difficult circumstances in Europe.
They settled in industrial cities such as New York, Cleveland, Pittsburgh.
Provided the United States with a constant supply of labor.
Industrialization changed the social class organization in most countries.
It eliminated the need for a slave class because slaves did not have the resources to buy what factories produced.
New classes of wealthy businesspeople challenged the privileges of the nobility and military.
Middle class grew to include small business owners, factory managers, accountants, and skilled workers along wit professionals such as teachers, physicians, and attorneys.
Working classes were made up of factory and mine workers who were less skilled than their predecessors had been.
The family went through profound changes.
Strong adults could leave the family to become wage earners.
Family members began to live separate lives.
Men’s position in society was enhanced by industrial work.
Professional men – purposeful self-improvement.
Workers – athletic events, gambling, dog fighting, bars.
Cult of Domesticity:
Women were relegated to domestic chores.
Encouraged to devote themselves.
Raising children.
Managing households.
Preserving family values.
Working-class children:
Hired at factories.
Worked long hours for less pay than adults.
The abuses were so noteworthy that the British Parliament held investigations.
Passed laws in the 1840s to regulate and restrict child labor.
In 1881, mandatory school attendance laws were passed in England.
Among the most vocal critics of the abusive labor situations in factories were the socialists.
The means of producing and distributing goods is owned collectively or by a centralized government that often plans and controls the economy.
Identified economic inequity as the primary problem.
Condemned the working conditions for women and children.
Utopian socialists:
Factory system out of a model community in which there were no inequities.
Communism:
Freidrich Engels, factory owner.
Karl Marx, journalist.
Rejected utopian socialism.
Social problems caused by capitalism.
Two social classes:
Proletariat (producers).
Bourgeoisie (Capitalists).
Doomed to struggle with each other.
All aspects of modern society were the tools of the bourgeoisie.
Das Kapital.
Manifesto of the Communist Party.
Marx aligned himself with Communists who advocated the abolition of private property.
The conditions of the overworked and abused masses would lead to an inevitable overthrow of the capitalist system leaving a “dictatorship of the proletariat.”
Eventually, the new system would stabilize forming a just and equitable society.
The communist ideology of Marx and Engels grew popular through the 19th century.
Not accepted by many socialists.
Governments of industrialized societies began to respond.
Expanded the vote to men with little property.
Otto von Bismarck introduced
Medical insurance.
Pensions.
Unemployment compensation.
Workers began to form organizations called trade unions to work for better wages and working conditions.
They were considered illegal by factory owners and government.
The primary weapon of trade unions was the strike, which often turned violent as owners hired replacement workers and police forces battled with the strikers.
Eventually, trade unions became legal and led to reforms that lessened the chance that workers would look to communist solutions to their problems.
Global Effects of Industrialization
Later in the 19th century, the Russian and Japanese governments worked actively to change their economies.
The use of raw materials in industry quickly forced the globalization of industrialization as early sources were depleted.
Industrialized countries often controlled the countries that had natural resources by buying their raw materials cheaply and returning manufactured goods to those countries.
Russia:
The tsarist government encouraged the construction of railroads to unify the vast country.
Link western Europe to east Asia.
Added 35,00 miles of track in 40 years.
Stimulated the coal, steel, and iron industries.
Count Sergei Witte served as the finance minister who promoted industrialization.
Protect infant industries with a tariff and government support.
Supported shipping companies.
Provided educational institutions for engineers and seamen.
Bring in foreign investors.
Set up savings bank.
Became the fourth greatest producer of steel by 1900.
Large coal, iron, and armament industries.
Japan:
Pushed its economy into industry by hiring thousands of foreign experts for planning and instruction in industrial techniques.
Opened new technical schools.
Constructed railroads.
Banking system.
Opened mines.
Soon, Japanese industries were producing ships.
Armaments.
Silk.
Cotton.
Chemicals.
Glass.
Once businesses could operate independently, the government sold them to private businessmen who often formed large industrial empires known as zaibatsu.
Rather than private investors, zaibatsu were usually run by one family.
By 1900, Japan was a full-fledged member of industrialized societies and far beyond any other Asian country.
International Division of Labor:
Industrialization affected other countries primarily with a new division between countries that produced raw materials and those that produced manufactured goods.
In dependent economies, foreign investors owned the businesses while foreign governments controlled the policies.
Companies adopted free trade policies that damaged native industries.
Workers were paid wages too low to enable them to buy many manufactured goods.
The result was wealth concentrated in a small group with little opportunity for economic prosperity.
As a world trade system, division between those who produced raw materials and those who processed and consumed them worked spectacularly well as trade increased and the world’s economies were solidly linked to each other.
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