Unit 1- Elementary Verbal Relations



Unit 12- Elementary Verbal Relations

1. Definition of Verbal Behavior. Skinner first defines verbal behavior as the behavior of an individual that has been reinforced through the mediation of another person's behavior. Its reinforcement has thus been indirect, whereas nonverbal behavior has been reinforced through the direct manipulation of the environment. [Past tense: Note that in this and all other definitions of types of relations between environment and behavior, the past tense is the correct way to describe the relation. It is the historical relation relevant to the development and maintenance of the behavior that determines the definition. Verbal behavior is behavior that has been reinforced through the mediation of someone else's behavior. Suppose on the next occurrence of the behavior it is not reinforced at all. Was it vb when it occurred? Yes, if up to that point its history fit the definition. We have a tendency to provide definitions and descriptions using the present or the future tense--"vb is behavior which is reinforced through the mediation of someone else's behavior" or "vb is behavior that will receive indirect reinforcement", but the past tense is always the correct one.] Exceptions: It is easy to find examples of behavior that seem like they ought to be classified as verbal but would not fit the definition; and to find examples that fit the definition but seem like they should not be considered verbal. Discussing such examples is useful way to explore the usefulness or consistency of Skinner's definition, to become familiar with his purpose in making the definition, and with the use he makes of it. Memorize the underlined definition above, and be able to give examples of verbal and nonverbal behavior, identifying the rfmt for each that qualifies it as verbal or nonvb (325,3)

2. Verbal and Vocal Behavior: A Possible Confusion. For Skinner, vb is any behavior reinforced through another person's behavior; so gesturing, writing, signing are all vb for Skinner (so long as they were developed through a history of indirect rfmt). However, in some contexts verbal is a synonym for "vocal" (making sounds with the vocal musculature or speaking). Writing, informal gesturing, using sign language (Amer. Sign Language) would then be considered nonvb, but for Skinner these would all be vb because of their history of indirect rfmt. Verbal is sometimes contrasted with quantitative; and sometimes it refers to the use of words, however displayed, and then it is contrasted with nonverbal communication, such as by gesturing, body posture, facial expression, etc. For Skinner the only requirement for behavior to be verbal is that it was developed through a history of indirect rfmt, that is, rfmt mediated through someone else's behavior. Try in the context of this course to use verbal only in Skinner's sense, otherwise there will be much confusion on your own part and myself as we try to react appropriately to what you say or write. Figure 1 below shows the two-way classification and provides a number of examples.

Figure 1. Verbal and Vocal Behavior

| |vocal |nonvocal |

| |making sounds with the vocal apparatus (as a way of |writing (to affect someone's behavior), gesturing (holding hand |

|verbal |affecting the behavior of someone else) speaking (to affect|up to get someone to stop moving toward you, pointing to get |

| |a listener) |someone to look at something), using American Sign Language (to |

| | |affect the behavior of another person) |

| |coughing (because of a discomfort in the throat), yawning |walking (in order to get somewhere), looking around (as an |

|nonverbal |(because of being sleepy), making various sounds not |attempt to find something), putting a key in a lock (to unlock |

| |related to anyone else having been affected by such sounds |the door), opening a door (in order to walk into a room) |

Another source of confusion: It is very important not to confuse stimuli and responses. When you find yourself using the terms response, respond, and responding you should be thinking of muscular or glandular activity. More specific terms or phrases should also have this implication. Thus walking, lever pressing, talking, vocalizing, writing, signing, and so on are all forms of responding, and in these cases (as with most operant relations) are forms of striped muscle action. When you find yourself using the terms stimulus, stimuli, stimulate, stimulation, and related terms you should be thinking of energy changes that affect an organism through its receptors, and you should be thinking of the particular sense mode involved. Stimuli should be thought of as visual, auditory, tactile, pain, warmth, cold, kinesthesis, vestibular sense, deep touch, deep pain, deep warmth or cold. All responses also have response products which are stimuli, but be sure to be clear whether you are referring to a response or a stimulus that happens to be a response product (not all stimuli, of course, are response products). Note that vocal is a response word. Do not refer to a vocal stimulus. The relevant stimulus is auditory. Using vocal as both a type of response (activity of the vocal musculature) and a type of stimulus (the auditory result of vocal behavior) is quite common, but leads to considerable confusion. In the context of this class (and in the context of any behavioral approach to language) vocal should always be a response word. The auditory stimulus that results from vocal behavior can be referred to as a vocal response product, which is longer than vocal stimulus but much less subject to misunderstanding. Similarly, responses that are evoked by various kinds of stimuli should not be called visual responses, auditory responses, etc. Confine terms like visual, auditory, etc. to stimuli. (Note also that stimulus is the singular form; stimuli is plural. Please do not, in this course, use stimuli as a singular form. To refer to a visual stimuli is grammatically quite incorrect. Contrast verbal and vocal behavior, and classify examples of each combination of the terms (each cell of the table in Figure 1). Also master the appropriate use of the response and stimulus words described in the paragraph above, and recognize inappropriate uses as such.

3. What Kind of Work is Verbal Behavior ? Verbal Behavior is described as "an exercise in interpretation", an "orderly arrangement of well-known facts, in accordance with a formulation of behavior derived from an experimental analysis of a more rigorous sort" (the analysis presented in Skinner's Behavior of Organisms, 1938). In other words, in VB Skinner attempts to organize and interpret well-known aspects of speaking and listening in terms of the respondent and operant functional relations relevant to his analysis of the behavior of rats and pigeons. Be able to give the underlined statement or your own version of the same notion in answer to the question "What kind of work is Verbal Behavior?

Elementary Verbal Relations

In Verbal Behavior (1957) Skinner identified and named six types of functional relations between controlling variables and verbal responses: mand, tact, intraverbal, textual, echoic, and audience relations. In the section on transcription he almost named two more, which can be usefully referred to as copying a text and taking dictation. (Skinner’s elementary verbal relations were all described in terms of topography-based (lecture) vb. Similar relations can be described for stimulus-selection-based (lecture) vb, but the descriptions have to be altered so as to eliminate topography as a major component of the relation. Skinner's analysis has greatly facilitated our ability to talk effectively about vb, and the elementary behavioral units are an essential aspect of this analysis.

Jack Michael has proposed a new taxonomy that does not identify new or previously overlooked relations, but rather provides names for implied categories, and thus a place for several forms of vb that were not previously classifiable. The suggested change also makes the basic categories more nearly collectively exhaustive. The new terms are codic and duplic, which like echoic, textual and intraverbal, function as adjectives preceding behavior or relation, and are convenient for instructional purposes.

4. Mand

a. MO Control of Response Form. A type of vb with the response form or topography controlled by a current unlearned or learned establishing operation (EO) or in more recent terms a motivative operation (MO).(What are EOs or MOs? What do they do? ) This definition identifies the momentary evocative (What are evocative and what are function-altering relations?) control by the EO or MO. Give a definition in terms of the variable that controls (in the evocative sense) the response form (for clarifications read 327-328).

b. Common-Sense Definition. In common-sense terms, a mand is a type of vb with the response form determined by what the speaker wants from the listener. Those who wish to use Skinner's classification but not his technical terms refer to the mand relation as requesting or demanding. Give the common-sense definition of the mand.

c. Kinds of Topographies. The response can consist of speaking, writing, signing (as with the sign language of the deaf), finger spelling sending Morse code (auditory or visual), semaphore flags, and others. This point is important in contrasting the mand with some codic and duplic verbal relations for which a particular topography is specified. (Mands can also be selection-based and not involve differential topographies. For example a person using the Picture Exchange System can request something by pointing at a picture of that object, event, etc. Just read.

d. Mand Types and Things Manded. Skinner classified mands as requests, commands, entreaties (on the basis of how the listener had been reinforced) and as mands for nonverbal action versus mands for verbal action (called questions), plus some other associated types (p. 38-41). Another way of classifying mands is to say that one can mand objects, actions, attention, and more complex events as when one asks for information, or says "Thank you" because an increase in the listener's future favorable behavior has been effective as rfmt. Just read.

e. Mand Reinforcement. The rfmt for a mand is specific to that mand. Thus the rfmt for a request is receiving what is requested; the rfmt for a command is that the listener does what was commanded, etc. This point is important in contrasting the mand with all of the other elementary verbal relations, which receive generalized rfmt , not specific to the particular tact, intraverbal response, etc. What is the rfmt for the mand? Give examples. (332)

5. Tact

a. Definition. A type of vb with response form controlled primarily by an immediately prior nonverbal discriminative stimulus or SD (an object, action, relation, property, etc.) (What is a discriminative stimulus or SD?). Here a nonverbal stimulus is being contrasted with a verbal stimulus (a stimulus resulting from someone's vb--a written word, a spoken word, seeing a finger spelled word, seeing a signed verbal stimulus, etc. ) Give this definition.

b. Reinforcement. As with all of the elementary verbal relations except the mand, the evocative effect of an EO or MO on the form of the tact is minimized by the fact that the rfmt for the tact is usually generalized conditioned rfmt What is the rfmt for the tact?

c. Sense Mode of Stimulus. Tacts can be controlled by SDs of any sense mode. This is important in contrasting the tact relation with some codic and duplic relations where the sense mode of the controlling SD is specified. Just read.

d. Kinds of Topographies: Speaking, writing, signing, finger spelling, sending Morse code, etc. (Tacts can also be selection based and not involve differential topographies. For example a person using a communication board can tact by pointing at the symbol for the relevant object, event, etc. ) Just read.

e. Common-Sense Terms. There are some common-sense terms that may seem appropriate for the tact relation, such as naming and describing, and many who wish to use Skinner's classification system but not his technical terms do refer to the tact as naming (and the mand as requesting) but as Skinner makes quite clear, there are good reasons for avoiding such a substitute. What are these reasons? They are complex and will not be considered at this time in this course. I will probably provide a little lecture material on this point. What is the common-sense term for the tact relation? For the mand relation? (What is Skinner's view of such common-sense substitutes for his technical vb terms?)

6. Intraverbal Behavior (Note that the term is intraverbal, not interverbal.)

a. Definition. A type of verbal behavior with the response form controlled by (1) a verbal stimulus (the product of someone's verbal behavior—but the same behavior may have verbal and nonverbal products--lecture point) with which (2) the response does not have point-to-point correspondence. Give the definition of the intraverbal relation (335)

b. Point-To-Point Correspondence. This is Skinner's term for a relation between stimulus and response that is in effect when subdivisions or parts of the stimulus control subdivisions or parts of the response. (Note: There is no sense in which stimuli and responses actually resemble each other in the physical sense of resemble. lecture point) Give this definition of point-to-point correspondence.

c. Intraverbal Examples. An example of intraverbal behavior is a tendency to say swamp as a result of hearing someone say alligator.(The "sw" part of the response is not any more related to or caused by the "al" part of the stimulus than to the "ig" part of the stimulus, etc.) Give several original examples of the intraverbal relation (335)

d. Kinds of Topographies and Controlling Stimuli. The response can be speaking, writing, signing, etc. and the verbal stimulus can be the result of someone's vocal, writing, signing, etc. behavior. Many other topographies are possible, as well as selection-based relations where topography is not relevant. However, note carefully that for American Sign Language, also called Ameslan, or just Sign (which is not equivalent to finger spelling) vocal or written responses to signs, or signing responses to vocal or written words are intraverbal behavior. There is generally no point-to-point correspondence between signs and words. The sign for cat, for example, consists of stroking imaginary facial whiskers. This clearly has no point-to-point correspondence with either the spoken or the written cat . (The situation is somewhat complicated by initialized signs that incorporate some aspect of finger spelling.

lecture point) The finger spelled cat, of course, has point-to-point correspondence with both spoken and written cat, but not with the sign for cat. Within signing, there are intraverbal relations, as when a signer has a tendency to make the sign for the color blue, when seeing some someone else make the signs in sequence for red and white.: What kinds of topographies, etc.? Also recognize the non point-to-point issue with words and sign language responses.

7. Codic Behavior ("Codic" is meant to suggest the kind of relation seen in a formal code, where one stimulus is said to stand for another stimulus that it does not resemble in any physical way (as in Morse code where a sequence of dots and dashes stands for a letter of the alphabet but does not look like or sound like that letter—also theoretically similar to non-identity matching to sample lecture point).

a. Definition. A type of verbal behavior with the response form controlled by (1) a verbal stimulus, with which it (2) has point-to-point correspondence, but (3) there is no formal similarity between stimulus and response product[1]. Give this definition.

b. Formal Similarity. This is Skinner's term for the case where the controlling stimulus and the response product are (1) in the same sense mode (both are visual, or both are auditory, or both are tactile, etc.) and (2) resemble each other in the physical sense of resemblance (look alike, sound alike, feel alike, etc.) If stimulus and response product are not in the same sense mode there is clearly no formal similarity; but even when they are in the same sense mode the stimulus and response product may not resemble each other, as with auditory Morse code stimuli and saying or writing the words being sent in code: Give this definition of formal similarity.

c. Kinds of Topographies and Controlling Stimuli. In a general sense, codic behavior can be speaking, writing, signing, and other forms, and the controlling verbal stimuli can be visual, auditory, tactile, etc. However for each of the subcategories below the kind of topography as well as the sense mode of the controlling verbal stimulus is strictly specified (e.g. textual behavior must be a vocal R and a visual S). Just read.

d. Textual Behavior. This is a subcategory of codic behavior. In the textual relation the stimulus is visual (written or printed words) and the response consists of speaking. In common-sense terms textual behavior is reading out loud, without the implication that the reader necessarily understands—can react in any other way to what is being read.Give this definition of textual behavior, and give some original examples.

e. Taking Dictation. This is a subcategory of codic behavior. In taking dictation, the stimulus is auditory (the response product of someone's vocal behavior) and the response consists of writing what is heard. Note that the term comes from what a stenographer does, but in the present usage there is no implication that a large sample of behavior is being recorded. Give this definition of taking dictation, and give some original examples.

f. Other Kinds of Codic Behavior. There is at present no commonly used form of codic behavior involving signs. The relations between finger spelling responses or visual response products and vocal responses or auditory response products are clearly codic. The relation between finger spelling and written behavior or stimuli is sometimes codic and sometimes duplic because some of the finger spelling hand shapes look like the corresponding written letters. Braille reading (out loud) is codic behavior as is writing in Braille what one hears spoken. Recognize a relation as codic if I describe examples such as the ones immediately above. Describe and give examples of the form of codic sign behavior developed by Stokoe. Be able to describe at least two forms of codic behavior other than textual and taking dictation.

8. Duplic Behavior ("Duplic" is meant to suggest duplicating something exactly as it is--of course within normal limits, not as with a photocopy machine.)

a. Definition. This is a type of verbal behavior with the response form controlled by (1) a verbal stimulus, and (2) the response product has formal similarity with the controlling stimulus. (Sometimes the necessity for point-to-point correspondence between stimulus and response is cited as a third requirement, but formal similarity between stimulus and response product almost always implies point-to-point correspondence between stimulus and response so this third requirement need not be listed.) Give this definition of duplic behavior.

b. Kinds of Topographies and Controlling Stimuli. In a general sense, duplic behavior can be speaking, writing, signing, and other forms, however for each of the subcategories below the kind of topography as well as the sense mode of the controlling verbal stimulus is strictly specified. Just read.

c. Echoic Behavior. This is a subcategory of duplic behavior. In the echoic relation the stimulus is auditory and the response is speaking (echoing what one hears). Give this definition. Be able to recognize and to provide examples.

d. Copying a Text. This is a subcategory of duplic behavior. In copying a text the stimulus is visual and the response is writing (copying what one sees in written form). Give this definition. Be able to recognize and to provide examples.

e. Other Kinds of Duplic Behavior. Imitating someone's signs is also duplic (called "mimetic behavior"), as is finger spelling what one sees someone else finger spell, sending the same Morse code stimulus that you see or hear, etc. These latter two have no special names.: Recognize a relation as duplic if I describe examples such as the ones immediately above. Recognize and correctly use the term mimetic behavior just as you use echoic and copying a text.

With the five basic category names it now becomes possible to identify all of the common forms of verbal behavior in terms of important defining properties, as well as to classify any new form that develops. The two new categories (codic and duplic) also make it unnecessary to extend existing categories to novel conditions because no technical term is available, as when one refers to Braille reading as textual behavior. Braille reading is clearly a form of codic behavior, and would be expected to share functional properties with other members of the same category, but to call it, and all other forms of codic behavior involving a vocal response textual is potentially confusing. A similar undesirable extension occurs when sign imitation is called echoic behavior, which is avoided by calling it mimetic behavior or simply identifying it as one of the several types of duplic behavior. (The suggested terminology is an instance of the general effort to eliminate ambiguity from technical and scientific language, an effort that is often initiated and possibly most keenly appreciated by those who spend most of their time teaching others to use that scientific language.)

9. Figures 2, & 3. The two figures on the next page show the verbal relations in terms of response forms and controlling variables. Fig. 2 shows them defined in everyday terms, several of which (want, same word, different word) are not appropriate for technical purposes, but can help in one's first contact with this area. Fig. 3 provides the technically appropriate definitions. FTO: Provide all the information in Figure 3—that is, be able to produce Figure 3 from memory.

|[pic] |

|[pic] |

10. The development of meaning or symbolic behavior involves a procedure called stimulus equivalence. Be able to describe the example of a child learning how to read (346,2)

11. Basic equivalence relations. Be able to define symmetry, reflexivity, and transitivity (346, 5, 347, 1-3)

12. What does symbolic matching involve? (347,4)

Verbal Behavior Practice Exercise: Part 1

Classify each of the following examples using the following terms and abbreviations: mand (M), tact (TA), intraverbal (IV), codic (CO), duplic (DU). Also add the following special terms when appropriate: echoic (E), textual (TE), copying a text (CT), taking dictation (TD). If the example is not verbal behavior then write nonverbal (NV).

RESPONSE CONTROLLING VARIABLE

A tendency to . . . solely as a result of . . .

1. sign "tree" seeing a tree

2. say "fish" hearing "fish"[2]

3. write "wet" hearing "ocean"

4. say "fast" hearing a car go by rapidly

5. say "out" wanting to be outside

6. open a window wanting it to be cooler

7. write "large" hearing "large"

8. say "help" hearing "help"

9. sign "cat" hearing "cat"

10. say "a" seeing "a" (is there really point-for-point?)

11. say "a" hearing "a"

12. write "a" hearing "a" (is there really point-for-point?)

13. write "a" seeing "a"

14. write "happy" seeing L[3] smile

15. say "red" seeing "red"

16. write "around" seeing "around"

17. say "tact" hearing "tact"

18. say "over" seeing "under"

19. sign "red" seeing L sign "apple"

20. say "and" seeing "and"

21. sign "look" seeing L sign "look"

22. write "stop" wanting L to stop

23. sign "over" seeing L jump over something

24. run being in a hurry

25. write "before" hearing "before"

26. sign "come here" wanting L to be closer

27. write "dog" seeing "dog"

28. write "5" seeing "2+2="

29. say "because" seeing "because"

30. say "tree" seeing a bush

31. finger spell "dog" hearing "dog"

32. say "bacon" smelling bacon cooking

33. sign "time" wanting to know the time

34. write "happy" hearing "happy"

35. say "five" seeing "5"

36. say "bug" seeing "insect"

37. say "impossible" hearing "impossible"

38. write "car" smelling gasoline

39. get a drink of water wanting a drink of water

40. write "George" seeing George

41. say "George" seeing "George"

42. say "fast" hearing "fast"

43. say "and" seeing "and"

44. say "Thank you" L's doing something for you (verbal or

nonverbal S?)

45. say "hope" seeing "hope"

46. say "Washington" seeing "Washington"

47. write "stop" hearing "stop"

48. say "dog" touching Braille stimuli for "dog"

49. say "Thanks" wanting L to help you in future

50. say "You're welcome" hearing L say "Thank you"

51. say "left" seeing something on your left

52. sign "smoke" smelling smoke

53. say "over" hearing "over"

54. say "if" seeing "if"

55. close a window because L says "close the window" (You are

not trying to classify L’s behavior.)

56. write "percent" seeing "%"

57. sign "warm" it being warm in the room

58. look at a clock[4] wanting to know the time

59. write "nothing" seeing "nothing"

60. write "nothing" hearing nothing

61. sign "because" seeing L finger spell "because"

62. write "bad"[5] wanting to hurt her feelings

63. say "work" seeing 21 exams to be graded

64. write "table" hearing "table"

65. write your name L saying "write your name"

66. say "reinforcement" seeing "reinforcement"

67. say "stand up" seeing "stand up"

68. write "red" seeing an apple

69. say "I won't do it" hearing "I won't do it"

70. say "cow"[6] hearing a horse neigh

71. say "operant" touching Braille stimuli. for "operant"

72. write "operant" touching Braille stimuli. for "operant"

73. writing "HELP" in the snow hoping a pilot in a plane will see it

74. sign "chair" seeing a table

75. write "chair" seeing L sign "chair"

76. write "3" seeing "3"

77. write "into" hearing "into"

78. smile being happy

79. say "please" seeing "please"

80. say "please" wanting to get what is asked for[7]

81. say "chair" seeing L sign "table"

82. say "George" seeing George's wife

83. say "describe" hearing "describe"

84. saying "you're welcome" wanting L to thank you the in future

85. Braille write "because" hearing "because"

86. write "coffee" wanting some

87. saying "mesa" hearing "table"

88. pointing at the word "cup" seeing a cup

89. pointing at a Bliss sign for "dog" hearing a dog bark

90. pointing at a Bliss sign for "mother" hearing L say "father"

91. pointing at a Bliss sign for "cup" seeing L point at same sign.

END

Part 1 Answers

1. TA

2. DU-E

3. IV

4. TA

5. M

6. NV

7. CO-TD

8. DU-E

9. IV

10. IV

11. DU-E

12. IV

13. DU-CT

14. TA

15. CO-TE

16. DU-CT

17. DU-E

18. IV

19. IV

20. CO-TE

21. DU

22. M

23. TA

24. NV

25. CO-TD

26. M

27. DU-CT

28. IV

29. CO-TE

30. TA

31. CO

32. TA

33. M

34. CO-TD

35. IV

36. IV

37. DU-E

38. TA

39. NV

V0. TA

41. CO-TE

42. DU-E

43. CO-TE

44. TA

45. CO-TE

46. CO-TE

47. CO-TD

48. CO

49. M

50. IV

51. TA

52. TA

53. DU-E

54. CO-TE

55. NV

56. IV

57. TA

58. NV

59. DU-CT

60. TA

61. IV

62. M

63. TA

64. CO-TD

65. NV

66. CO-TE

67. CO-TE

68. TA

69. DU-E

70. TA

71. CO

72. CO

73. M

74. TA

75. IV

76. DU-CT

77. CO-TD

78. NV

79. CO-TE

80. M

81. IV

82. TA

83. DU-E

84. M

85. CO

86. M

87. IV

88. TA

89. TA.

90. IV

91. DU.

END

Verbal Behavior Practice Exercises: Part 2

Make up an answer sheet that looks like the exercises of Part 1, and provide examples that fit each of the specifications below. I use the following abbreviations: L=the listener; FS=finger spelling or finger spelled. I also refer to various kinds of stimuli (especially for the tact relation) as follows: object (e.g. a tree), action (tree falling down), property (size or color of the tree), relation (tree is behind the house).

|1. TA of an object |20. IV (S neither auditory nor visual) |

|2. M for attention |21. M for an object |

|3. IV (vocal R, visual S) |22. TA (signed R) |

|4. CO (visual S, vocal R) |23. IV (visual S) |

|5. DU (auditory S, vocal R) |24. IV (auditory S) |

|6. DU (visual S, written R) |25. IV (tactile S) |

|7. CO (auditory S, written R) |26. DU (Tactile S) |

|8. NV (auditory S, manual R) |27. DU (visual S) |

|9. DU (R neither vocal nor written) |28. M (NOT for object, or attention) |

|10. TA ( tactile S) |29. DU (visual S, but not CT) |

|11. M for action |30. TA (taste S, R not vocal) |

|12. IV (R=FS) |31. IV (sign R, auditory S) |

|13. TA (S=L's action) |32. IV (S = seeing L's FS) |

|14. TA (S=a relation; R=Braille writing) |33. IV (visual S, but not written words) |

|15. TA (R=FS; S=a property) |34. part M, part TA |

|16. DU (R=FS) |35. part TA, part IV |

|17. NV (visual S) |36. part M, part IV |

|18. NV (vocal R) |END |

|19. IV (S is someone signing) | |

Answers for Verbal Behavior Exercises: Part 2

A tendency to solely as a result of . . .

1. sign, say, write, “tree" seeing, touching, hearing a tree

2. say "Excuse me" wanting L to look at you

3. say "three" seeing "One, two, "

4. say "three" seeing "three"

5. say "three" hearing "three"

6. write "three" seeing "three"

7. write "three" hearing "three"

8. close window hearing rain

9. sign "cat" seeing L sign "cat"

10. say "smooth" touching a piece of glass

11. say "stand up" wanting[8] L to stand up

12. FS "three" seeing L FS "One, two, "

13. write "running" seeing L running

14. Braille write "in front of" feeling 1 of 2 objects on a table

15. FS "green" seeing a green car

16. FS "green" seeing L FS "green"

17. move aside seeing an object coming toward you

18. coughing having a sore throat

19. say "cat" seeing L sign "cat"

20. say "cat" Braille reading "dog"

21. sign "book" wanting L to hand you a book

22. sign "book" seeing a book

23. say "write" seeing "Read and " on chalkboard

24. sign "cat" hearing "cat"

25. sign "cat" Braille reading "cat"

26. Braille write "cat" Braille reading "cat"

27. write "cat" seeing "cat"

28. say "thanks" wanting L to continue being favorable

29. FS "cat" seeing L FS "cat"

30. write "sour" tasting a lemon

31. sign "cat" hearing "cat"

32. say "cat" seeing L FS "dog"

33. sign "cat" seeing L sign "dog"

34. say "cake" as a result of seeing one on a L's table, and also wanting L to offer some.

35. say "green" in response to "What color is that car" (and the car has to be green)

36. say "green" in response to "What color would you like it (something) to be?"

-----------------------

[1]Response product refers to the stimuli that are produced by a response. Thus vocal responses have an auditory response product (also a visual response product consisting of the visual stimuli produced by vocalizing--lip and mouth movements); signing has a visual response product--the visual stimuli resulting from hand and arm movements as well as larger body movements and positions, facial expressions, etc. Finger spelling has a visual response product. The tactile response product that results when one feels or touches Braille stimuli is the stimulus that is most important in Braille reading by the visually impaired.

[2] Quotation marks in the controlling variable indicate a verbal stimulus.

[3] I use the letter "L" as an abbreviation for "the listener"

[4] Assume that you are alone in a room.

[5] On a student's exam answer.

[6] Assume the speaker is a city person.

[7] Assume that "please" precedes a more lengthy request.

[8] "Wanting" is short for there being in effect an establishing operation (EO) such that the event or action named would function as an effective form of reinforcement EOs of this sort are learned (CEOs), and cannot usually be described with single terms such as "deprivation" or "aversive stimulation" although the behavioral effect is the same or very similar.

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