CHAPTER 23



CHAPTER 23

From Roosevelt to Wilson in the Age of Progressivism, 1900–1920

Focus Questions

23.1 What were the six major characteristics of Progressivism?

23.2 What methods did Progressive reformers use to attack problems in the cities and states?

23.3 How would you describe the personality and programs of Theodore Roosevelt?

23.4 What were the major measures of Theodore Roosevelt’s term from 1905 to 1909?

23.5 Why was the presidency so difficult for William Howard Taft?

23.6 What were the central principles of Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom?

23.7 How did Progressives address the social, political, and economic challenges confronting the United States from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries?

Chapter Outline

Introduction: What Jane Addams Decided

23.1 The Spirit of Progressivism

23.1.1 The Rise of the Professions

23.1.2 The Social-Justice Movement

23.1.3 The Purity Crusade

23.1.4 Woman Suffrage, Women’s Rights

23.1.5 A Ferment of Ideas: Challenging the Status Quo

23.2 Reform in the Cities and States

23.2.1 Interest Groups and the Decline of Popular Politics

23.2.2 Reform in the Cities

23.2.3 Action in the States

23.3 The Republican Roosevelt

23.3.1 Busting the Trusts

23.3.2 “Square Deal” in the Coalfields

23.4 Roosevelt Progressivism at Its Height

23.4.1 Regulating the Railroads

23.4.2 Cleaning Up Food and Drugs

23.4.3 Conserving the Land

23.5 The Ordeal of William Howard Taft

23.5.1 Party Insurgency

23.5.2 The Ballinger‒Pinchot Affair

23.5.3 Taft Alienates the Progressives

23.5.4 Differing Philosophies in the Election of 1912

23.5.5 Past and Present: How Big Is Too Big?

23.6 Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom

23.6.1 The New Freedom in Action

23.6.2 Wilson Moves Toward the New Nationalism

23.7 Charting the Past: The Progressive Era

23.7.1 The Progressive Era: Reforming the City

23.7.2 Creating the Virtuous Democracy

23.7.3 Reforming American Business

Conclusion: The Fruits of Progressivism

Chapter Summary

INTRODUCTION: WHAT JANE ADDAMS DECIDED

THE QUANDARY FACED BY JANE ADDAMS IN THE 1912 ELECTION REPRESENTED THE PARTY CHOICES FACING THE NATION. THE GROWING PERSONAL SPLIT BETWEEN TEDDY ROOSEVELT AND HIS HAND-PICKED SUCCESSOR, WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT, LED TO A NEW PROGRESSIVE PARTY THAT COMPETED WITH THE REPUBLICAN PARTY. THIS SPLIT ALLOWED THE PROGRESSIVE WING OF THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY TO WIN THE WHITE HOUSE WITH THE ELECTION OF WOODROW WILSON.

23.1 The Spirit of Progressivism

WHAT WERE THE SIX MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRESSIVISM?

Progressives touched all aspects of society with their six broad traits: concern about industrial life, optimism about human nature, confidence in their right to intervene in people’s lives, a preference for voluntary reform but a willingness to involve the government when needed, a belief that combined evangelical Protestantism and the natural and social sciences, and the distinction of its reforms touching the whole nation.

23.1.1 The Rise of the Professions: Progressive attitudes were especially strong among the young men and women who entered law, medicine, business, education, and social work. Proud of their skills, they made these occupations into professions by requiring tough entrance requirements and by forming national associations.

23.1.2 The Social-Justice Movement: Reformers realized that helping individuals here and there was not enough, so they turned their attention to larger social problems, such as poverty, tenement housing, and low wages, which they attacked with scientific precision. Social work developed as a separate field in the social sciences.

23.1.3 The Purity Crusade: Progressives fought successfully against such vices as prostitution and alcohol. The Women’s Christian Temperance Union pressured nineteen states to adopt prohibition laws and played a pivotal role in pushing through the Eighteenth Amendment.

23.1.4 Woman Suffrage, Women’s Rights: Many of the reform-minded Progressives were women who joined agencies like the National Conference of Social Work and the General Federation of Women’s Clubs. Although these organizations successfully lobbied on the state level, women realized that they could influence Congress more directly if they had the vote. More women became involved in the suffrage movement, based on the idea that women would use political power to benefit the disadvantaged. In 1890 the National American Woman Suffrage Association was formed and worked effectively to get the Nineteenth Amendment passed in 1920.

23.1.5 A Ferment of Ideas: Challenging the Status Quo: The Progressives were pragmatists, as defined by the philosopher William James. For them, the value of an idea was measured by the action it inspired. John Dewey, a Progressive educator, developed educational techniques that stressed personal growth, free inquiry, and individual creativity. In Denver, Judge Ben Lindsey pioneered improved conditions for urban children and earned an international reputation. Another major intellectual movement, socialism, also gained increased support during the era. A Socialist Party was formed in 1901 and won a number of local elections. It ran Eugene Debs for president in 1912, polling more than a million votes.

23.2 Reform in the Cities and States

WHAT METHODS DID PROGRESSIVE REFORMERS USE TO ATTACK PROBLEMS IN THE CITIES AND STATES?

Progressives wanted to use government at the federal, state, and local levels to accomplish their goals. Government power increased, even on the federal level, and the bureaucracy grew because Progressives believed that government by experts was the solution to most problems.

23.2.1 Interest Groups and the Decline of Popular Politics: The percentage of people who voted declined rapidly in the Progressive Era, partly because lobbying efforts by interest groups, such as labor unions and professional associations, were so effective in getting favorable legislation passed.

23.2.2 Reform in the Cities: The urban reform leagues became more active after 1900. Copying business methods, they gave greater efficiency to urban government by forming a professional, nonpolitical civil service.

23.2.3 Action in the States: Reformers realized that certain problems had to be solved on the state level, and state after state created regulatory commissions to investigate most aspects of economic life, seen as a way to end corruption. On the political level, Progressives added three new features to American government: the initiative, the referendum, and the recall. In 1917, Progressives celebrated passage of the Seventeenth Amendment, which provides for the direct election of U.S. senators. Just as there were famous reform mayors, so were there reform governors. The most notable was Robert M. La Follette, whose “Wisconsin Idea” was a comprehensive program of reform that soon spread to other states.

23.3 The Republican Roosevelt

HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE PERSONALITY AND PROGRAMS OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT?

Theodore Roosevelt often defied convention, as when he invited Booker T. Washington to the White House. He brought an exuberance to the presidency and surrounded himself with able associates.

23.3.1 Busting the Trusts: Roosevelt believed that trusts could sometimes be good, but he intended to attack those he considered bad. In 1902 the government brought antitrust cases against the Northern Securities Company, a railroad holding company owned by Morgan and Rockefeller, and other companies. In 1904 Northern Securities was dissolved. The case established Roosevelt as a “trust-buster,” but the title is undeserved. Compared with Taft, Roosevelt started relatively few antitrust suits and believed regulation was a better tool to control business. Roosevelt also created the Department of Commerce and Labor, in part to investigate interstate commerce.

23.3.2 “Square Deal” in the Coalfields: In 1902 a prolonged strike called by the United Mine Workers against the coal mine operators in Pennsylvania threatened the entire economy. Roosevelt summoned both sides to the White House, and when the companies balked at a settlement, Roosevelt threatened to use the army to seize the mines. The companies gave in. In this case, as in others, Roosevelt saw his role as that of a broker between contending interests.

23.4 Roosevelt Progressivism at Its Height

WHAT WERE THE MAJOR MEASURES OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT’S TERM FROM 1905 TO 1909?

Roosevelt easily won the election of 1904 but vowed to not run again.

23.4.1 Regulating the Railroads: Roosevelt addressed the complaints of farmers by passage of the Hepburn Act, which strengthened the authority of the Interstate Commerce Commission to set maximum railroad rates.

23.4.2 Cleaning Up Food and Drugs: The publication of The Jungle by Upton Sinclair in 1906 shocked the nation into realizing how unsanitary the meatpacking industry was. After reading the book, Roosevelt pushed Congress to pass the Meat Inspection Act and other legislation to regulate patent medicines.

23.4.3 Conserving the Land: Roosevelt, who was always interested in conservation, almost quadrupled the number of acres protected by the federal government. He believed conservation meant the wise use of natural resources. He called for even more pro-labor legislation as his term came to an end. He had promised not to run again in 1908 and tapped William Taft as his successor.

23.5 The Ordeal of William Howard Taft

WHY WAS THE PRESIDENCY SO DIFFICULT FOR WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT?

Taft had been an able administrator and was used to settling problems quietly, but he served as president just as the conservative wing of the Republican Party, previously cowed by Roosevelt, began to reassert itself.

23.5.1 Party Insurgency: The issue that most divided the Progressive and conservative wings of the Republican Party was the tariff. It was generally agreed that the rates set by the Dingley Tariff had to be lowered, but Progressives wanted deep cuts. Taft eventually sided with the conservatives, who passed the Payne-Aldrich Act of 1909. The Progressives broke with Taft, and talk grew of choosing Roosevelt to run in the 1912 election.

23.5.2 The Ballinger‒Pinchot Affair: Taft further antagonized Progressives and Roosevelt when he fired Gifford Pinchot, a leading conservationist, because of his insubordination toward Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger, whom Pinchot accused of selling public lands to friends. Taft conserved more land than Roosevelt did, but his contribution was obscured by the controversy.

23.5.3 Taft Alienates the Progressives: Even when Taft attempted to support Progressive measures, such as his successful effort to strengthen the ICC by the Mann-Elkins Act of 1910, he found himself deserted by the Progressives. In the 1910 congressional elections, Taft attacked the Progressives, weakening the entire Republican Party and allowing the Democrats to gain control of Congress. Taft worked well with the Democratic Congress; together, they passed legislation protecting laborers and creating an income tax (the Sixteenth Amendment). Taft also pushed ahead with antitrust suits, including one against a merger that Roosevelt had approved. Roosevelt and Taft began to publicly disagree, and in 1912 Roosevelt announced his candidacy for president.

23.5.4 Differing Philosophies in the Election of 1912: Although Taft was nominated by the Republican Party, he had no chance of victory. Roosevelt ran as the candidate of the Progressive (or “Bull Moose”) Party, and Woodrow Wilson was nominated by the Democrats. Roosevelt campaigned on the promise of a “New Nationalism,” in which a national approach to running the country would be utilized and in which wasteful competition would be replaced by efficiency. Wilson promised a “New Freedom,” in which big business and the government would be restrained so that the individual could forge ahead on his own. Because the Republican vote was divided, the Democrats won the White House and both houses of Congress.

23.5.5 Past and Present: How Big is Too Big? Progressives disagreed on how to control the trusts. Roosevelt wanted to regulate trusts, but Wilson wanted to break them up. During the 2008 financial crisis, a similar controversy arose over whether the banks were too big and should be broken up or whether more regulation was needed. Some new restrictions were imposed, but their effectiveness is unclear and banks got even bigger.

23.6 Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom

WHAT WERE THE CENTRAL PRINCIPLES OF WOODROW WILSON’S NEW FREEDOM?

Woodrow Wilson reached the White House through an academic rather than a political career. He had been a history professor and the president of Princeton University before being elected governor of New Jersey. A Progressive and an intellectual, Wilson was one of America’s most effective presidents in terms of passing bills that he supported.

23.6.1 The New Freedom in Action: Wilson led Congress in the passage of several important measures. The Underwood Tariff Act of 1913 cut tariff rates substantially, the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 reformed the banking system and gave the United States a stable but flexible currency, and the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 outlawed unfair trade practices and limited the use of court injunctions against labor unions. With this much accomplished, Wilson abruptly announced that the “New Freedom” had been achieved in November 1914.

23.6.2 Wilson Moves Toward the New Nationalism: Wilson retreated from reform because he was distracted by the outbreak of war in Europe; when he took up reform again, he found that Republicans had gained in Congress. He blocked many actions proposed by Congress and his record on race disappointed many African Americans, especially as government bureaus became segregated. In 1916, Wilson, who wished to be reelected, again pushed Progressive reforms. He intervened in strikes on the side of the workers, expanded the government’s ability to regulate industry, created a commission to recommend tariff rates, and gave his support to female suffrage. In blending elements of the New Freedom with elements of the New Nationalism, Wilson adopted a pragmatic approach to reform and won a close election in 1916.

23.7 Charting the Past: The Progressive Era

How did Progressives address the social, political, and economic challenges confronting the United States from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries?

23.7.1 The Progressive Era: Reforming the City: Progressives responded to the many problems that developed as America’s cities grew. The pollution and poor neighborhoods created a need for reform in many areas, including protecting youth, securing workers’ rights, transforming corrupt politics, and improving the lives of urban dwellers. Settlement houses were one of the most successful Progressive reforms. As immigrants arrived in New York, they faced unsafe working conditions such as was seen during the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire that killed more than a hundred people. Progressives tried to reform labor conditions to improve the lives of immigrant workers. In California, Progressives worked to better assimilate immigrant families.

23.7.2 Creating the Virtuous Democracy: Attempts to remove barriers to political participation was a goal of Progressive reformers. African American Progressives such as Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois took different positions on effecting African American equality. Women also fought for political equality and saw several states in the West grant women the right to vote. With the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment, U.S. senators would be chosen directly by voters rather than state legislatures.

23.7.3 Reforming American Business: Progressives attempted to reform business practices that exploited workers. Labor organizers faced a fractured workforce and little political support for their cause until Progressives began raising the issue to the national level. In addition, Progressives became concerned about the number of mergers and consolidations in corporate America and made attempts to reduce the powers of big business. Legal challenges sometimes worked to entrench rather than erase inequalities.

Conclusion: The Fruits of Progressivism

THE PROGRESSIVE ERA LASTED LITTLE MORE THAN THE DECADE BETWEEN 1906 AND 1916, BUT IT HAD A PERMANENT INFLUENCE ON AMERICAN LIFE. THE PROGRESSIVES ENERGIZED GOVERNMENT AT ALL LEVELS TO CORRECT GLARING INEQUITIES AND BROUGHT INTELLIGENT PLANNING TO THE WORK OF REFORM. IT WAS EXPECTED THAT A BENEVOLENT BUREAUCRACY WOULD CONTINUE TO MANAGE AMERICAN LIFE IN AN ENLIGHTENED WAY, BUT THE SLAUGHTER AND MADNESS OF WORLD WAR I ENDED THE OPTIMISM ON WHICH PROGRESSIVISM HAD BEEN BASED.

Key Terms

23.1

o social-justice movement: During the 1890s and after, this movement attracted followers who sought to free people from the often devastating impact of urban life. It focused on the need for housing reform, more stringent child labor regulations, and better working conditions for women.

o National American Woman Suffrage Association: Founded by Susan B. Anthony in 1890, this organization worked to secure women the right to vote. It stressed careful organization and peaceful lobbying.

o pragmatism: An early twentieth-century doctrine, based on the ideas of William James. Pragmatists were impatient with the concept of truth as an abstract reality. They believed that truth should work for the individual and that people were not only shaped by their environment but also helped to shape it. If an idea worked, it became truth.

23.4

o Hepburn Act: A 1906 law that strengthened the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to regulate the railroads.

o conservation: President Theodore Roosevelt made this principle one of his administration’s top goals. Conservation in his view aimed at protecting the nation’s natural resources, but called for using them wisely rather than locking them away.

23.5

o New Nationalism: President Theodore Roosevelt’s program calling for a national approach to the country’s affairs and a strong president to deal with them; efficiency in government and society; and protection of children, women, and workers. It accepted “good” trusts, and exalted the expert and the executive. It also encouraged large concentrations of capital and labor.

o New Freedom: Woodrow Wilson’s program, which emphasized business competition and small government. It sought to rein in federal authority, release individual energy, and restore competition. It achieved many of the Progressive social-justice objectives while pushing for a free economy rather than a planned one.

23.6

o Underwood Tariff Act: This 1913 law reduced tariff rates and levied a graduated income tax to make up for the lost revenue.

o Federal Reserve Act: This 1913 act created a central banking system, consisting of

12 regional banks governed by the Federal Reserve Board. It was an attempt to provide the United States with a sound yet flexible currency.

o Clayton Antitrust Act: This law outlawed interlocking directorates (in which the same people served as directors for several competing companies), forbade policies that created monopolies, and made corporate officers responsible for antitrust violations. It also declared that unions were not conspiracies in restraint of trade, and outlawed the use of injunctions in labor disputes unless they were necessary to protect property.

Shared Writing and Journal Prompts

23.1 The Spirit of Progressivism

WHAT WERE THE SIX MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRESSIVISM?

Progressivism sought cures for social and economic problems and was defined by six major characteristics: (1) a desire not to harm big business but to humanize and regulate it; (2) optimism about human nature; (3) a willingness to intervene in people’s lives; (4) a tendency to turn to the authority of the state and the government; (5) belief in a combination of evangelical Protestantism and the natural and social sciences; and (6) a nationwide base.

23.2 Reform in the Cities and States

WHAT METHODS DID PROGRESSIVE REFORMERS USE TO ATTACK PROBLEMS IN THE CITIES AND STATES?

Progressive reformers turned increasingly to the government to carry out their measures. At the same time, ironically, fewer people tended to vote. Reformers focused on life in the growing cities. Robert M. La Follette of Wisconsin personified the movement. His focus was on improving factory safety, regulating the railroads, and adopting political reforms.

23.3 The Republican Roosevelt

HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE PERSONALITY AND PROGRAMS OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT?

Roosevelt attacked some trusts and, through the courts, broke up a railroad holding company. His intervention in the coal strike of 1902 reflected his active, energetic personality and represented an advance in presidential power.

23.4 Roosevelt Progressivism at Its Height

WHAT WERE THE MAJOR MEASURES OF THEODORE ROOSEVELT’S TERM FROM 1905 TO 1909?

Winning easy election in 1904, Roosevelt persuaded Congress to improve railroad regulation, backed pure food and drug laws, and enlarged national parks. In all these actions, he reflected the values of the Progressive generation: a reliance on experts, a faith in government power to initiate reform, and a desire to tame big business.

23.5 The Ordeal of William Howard Taft

WHY WAS THE PRESIDENCY SO DIFFICULT FOR WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT?

Roosevelt had left Taft a variety of difficult problems, including the tariff and a widening split between Progressive and conservative Republicans. Taft increasingly alienated the Progressives and Roosevelt. In the election of 1912, Taft finished third behind Woodrow Wilson and Roosevelt.

Past and Present: How Big Is Too Big?

According to American economic thinking since the early twentieth century, how big is too big? Who decides, and on what grounds?

Economic thinking holds that an institution is too big when the failure of the institution would pose an unacceptable risk to related systems. The government would decide whether the institution met that criterion.

Shared Writing

Should the government bailout big banks or other businesses that are on the verge of collapse?

Answers will vary, but here is one possible response: If a bank or business is so big that its failure would result in the collapse of the entire financial system or an entire industry or would result in irreparable harm to society, then the government has an obligation to ensure that the economic system does not fail.

23.6 Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom

WHAT WERE THE CENTRAL PRINCIPLES OF WOODROW WILSON’S NEW FREEDOM?

Victorious in 1912, Wilson set out to put into effect the central principles of his New Freedom program, including tariff reform, an antitrust law, and the Federal Reserve Act, a measure that still guides our economy today. By 1916, however, Wilson found greater value in Roosevelt’s New Nationalism, which had emphasized government intervention and measures to protect women, labor, and other groups.

23.7 Charting the Past: The Progressive Era

How did Progressives address the social, political, and economic challenges confronting the United States from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries?

Progressive reformers attempted to improve the lives of Americans by addressing the problems associated with urbanization, political corruption, the power of big business, and racial inequality.

Class Activities

1. PRESIDENTIAL REPORT CARDS: HAVE STUDENTS CREATE A THREE-COLUMN CHART, WITH EACH COLUMN REPRESENTING ONE OF THE PROGRESSIVE ERA PRESIDENTS: THEODORE ROOSEVELT, WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT, AND WOODROW WILSON. NEXT TO EACH PRESIDENT’S NAME, STUDENTS SHOULD LIST THAT PRESIDENT’S ACTIONS AND THEN GIVE THAT PRESIDENT A GRADE OF A, B, C, OR F. AFTER STUDENTS FINISH THEIR CHARTS, HOLD A CLASS DISCUSSION IN WHICH STUDENTS EXPLAIN THEIR REASONS FOR BESTOWING EACH GRADE.

2. WOMEN’S RIGHTS TIMELINE: HAVE STUDENTS CREATE AN ANNOTATED TIMELINE OF THE ROUTE TO SUFFRAGE FOR WOMEN, INCLUDING AT LEAST TEN EVENTS AND PEOPLE FROM THE 1700S UP TO THE PASSAGE OF THE NINETEENTH AMENDMENT. FOR EACH EVENT, THEY SHOULD INCLUDE THE DATE, A DESCRIPTION OF WHAT HAPPENED, AN EXPLANATION OF WHY IT WAS SIGNIFICANT IN LEADING TO VOTING RIGHTS FOR WOMEN, AND A SMALL HAND-DRAWN ILLUSTRATION.

3. PRIMARY SOURCE CONNECTION: ASSIGN EACH STUDENT ONE OF THE PRIMARY SOURCE SELECTIONS FROM CHARTING THE PAST: THE PROGRESSIVE ERA, WHICH APPEARS ONLY IN REVEL. STUDENTS SHOULD SUMMARIZE THE SELECTION AND GIVE A BRIEF PRESENTATION ABOUT THE AUTHOR’S PERSONAL BACKGROUND AS WELL AS THE STUDENT’S OWN POSITION ON THE TOPIC OF THE SELECTION.

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