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AssessingtheEvidencefortheTrojan Wars

BYC.BRIANROSE,PROFESSOROFCLASSICALARCHAEOLOGY,UNIVERSITYOFCINCINNATI;FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT,AIA

Therecentorforthcomingreleasesofseveralnewsword-and-sandalepics(Gladiator,Passionofthe Christ,AlexandertheGreat,andHannibal,amongothers)havesparkedawaveofinterestinantiquity notseensincethedaysofCecilB.DeMille.ThishasbeenthecaseforTroyinparticular,andsincethe "Troy"filmmakershavetakencertainlibertieswithbothHomer'snarrativeandBronzeAgearchaeology,I'veincludedhereasynopsisofwhatwehavelearnedfromtherecentTuebingen-Cincinnati excavationsinandaroundthemoundofTroy.ThesehavebeendirectedbyManfredKorfmannsince 1988,andIhavehadthepleasureofservingasHeadofGreek,Roman,andByzantineexcavations andresearchsincethattime. Weshouldbeginwithareviewofgeography,becausethisisthemostimportantcomponentofthe story.TroyislocatedinnorthwesternTurkey,nearthemoderncityofCanakkale,anditoccupiesthe easiestcrossingpointbetweenEuropeandAsia.Inantiquitythesitecontrolledtheentrancetothe DardanellesorHellespont,anarrowstraitthatconnectedtheAegeanSeawiththeSeaofMarmara, Constantinople/Istanbul,andtheBlackSea. Troy'sstrategicgeographicallocationmadeitatargetofattackthroughoutitshistory.Wespeakof oneTrojanwar,butinfactthereweremany,stretchingfromthethirdmillenniumB.C.through1915, thedateoftheBattleofGallipoli,whichoccurredontheoppositesideofthestraitsfromTroy. WhoevercontrolledTroy,orGallipoliforthatmatter,couldcontrolallmaritimetrafficbetweenthe AegeanandBlackSeas.Thewars,inotherwords,werefoughtformoneyandpower,notforawoman namedHelen. ThesiteofTroyisnowamoundmeasuringroughly600x450ft.,whichconsistsoften(notnine) settlements,onebuiltabovetheother,andrepresentingaperiodofnearly4,500yearsofoccupation. Thefirstsettlementwasfoundedca.3,000B.C.,andthelastsettlementdatestothelateByzantine period,ca.1400A.D.Inthecourseofthissequenceofhabitation,themoundrosemorethanthirty feetabovethesurroundingplains.Whenthesettlementwasfirstfounded,thewateroftheDardanellesextendedallthewaytothenorthernsideofthemound,butsiltinggraduallymovedthe coastlinefurtheraway,andbythelateBronzeAgeitwasatleastamilefromthesite.Theareatothe northofthemoundhadbecomequitemarshy,andshipswouldhavebeenforcedtodocknearthe moderntownofBesiktepe,ontheAegean. Thestoryofthewar,accordingtoHomer 'sIliadandotherancientsources,involvestwoprincipal opponents:theunitedcitiesofMycenaeanGreeceagainstTroyanditsallies(theAmazonsand Lyciansamongthem).Itwasthusastrugglebetweeneastandwest,punctuatedbytheabductionof womenonbothsides:theTrojansseizedHelen,wifeofKingMenelaos,fromSparta;theGreeks seizedtheTrojanwomenBriseisandChryseisasconcubines.Afteraseriesofbattlesspanningten years,thecitywasdestroyed,withacolossalwoodenhorseservingastheGreeks'meansofentryinto thecity.Inantiquity,thebattlewasbelievedtohaveoccurredinthelateBronzeAge,duringthefirst quarterofthe12thcenturyB.C.

May2004 AssessingtheEvidencefortheTrojanWars Copyright?2004bytheArchaeologicalInstituteofAmerica

IfweexaminetheremainsofTroyduringthatperiod,wefindevidencefortwodestructions,one occurringintheearly13thcentury(the6thsettlement),andoneatthebeginningofthetwelfth centuryB.C.(the7thsettlement).ThesixthsettlementwasthestrongestandlargestoftheBronze Agephasesofthesite(theBronzeAge,ingeneral,is3,000-1,000B.C.).Thedatesofthesettlementare roughlyfrom1700-1275B.C.,andthereweretwomaincomponentsofitsdefensivesystem:a fortificationwallsurroundingthecitadel,andalargeditchcutfromthebedrock,whichcompletely surroundedtheLowerCity(theresidentialareatothesouthofthecitadel). Thecitadelfortificationwallswereover12ft.thickandover27ft.high,andwereconstructedof limestonetoppedbymudbrick.Theditchwaslocated1200ft.tothesouthofthecitadel,and measuresabout12ft.inwidthand6ftindepth.Itisalsolikelythattherewasanadditionaldefensive wallontheinnersideofthisditch,Thecitadel/ditchcombinationconstitutesoneofthemost sophisticateddefensesystemspreservedfromalateBronzeAgesite.Tosuccessfullyattackthecity,a warriorwouldhaveneededtodismountfromhischariotandclimbintoandoutoftheditch,allthe whiledodgingarrowsshotbythedefendingTrojans;itwouldthenhavebeennecessarytorun through1200ft.ofterrainandsubsequentlyscaleastonewallover27ft.high.Thismadethecity practicallyimpregnable.Theinteriorofthecitadelwasoccupiedbyaseriesoflarge,multi-room limestonebuildings,althoughnonewouldhavecontainedthecolossalstoneandgoldimagesof godsthatfiguresoprominentlyinthefilm"Troy". Whowerethepeoplewhobuiltsuchelaboratedefenses?Inspiteoftheextensiveexcavationsthat havetakenplaceatTroyoverthecourseofthelast130years,wehaveonlyonepieceofwritingfrom thelateBronzeAgelevelstohelpuswiththeanswer.Thisisabronzeseal,discoveredin1995,and onlyafewmillimetersindiameter.ItcontainsaninscriptioninLuwian,thelanguageusedbythe HittitekingdomincentralTurkeyduringthesecondmillenniumB.C. ThisisnotthefirsttimethatevidencehassurfacedofalinkbetweentheHittitekingdomandBronze AgeTroy.AlthoughwehavevirtuallynowritingfromTroy,aseriesofclaytabletshavebeenuncoveredintheHittitecapitalatHattusa.Oneofthetablets,datingtotheearly13thc.B.C.,speaksofa politicalalliancebetweentheHittitesandAleksandu(Alexandros),therulerofWilusa.Alexandros wasanothernameforParis,thesonthelegendarykingPriamintheIliad,andexpertsintheHittite languagebelievethatWilusawastheHittitenameforIlion,whichwasanothergeographical designationforTroyanditssurroundings. OtherlateBronzeAgetabletsspeakofTroy/IlionasaboneofcontentionbetweentheHittitesand theAhhiyawans.ManyscholarswouldidentifythelattergroupastheAchaeans,anothernamefor theMycenaeanGreeks.ItlooksasifthewestcoastofTurkeywasalternatelyclaimedbyboththe HittitesandtheGreeks,andthereisgoodarchaeologicalevidencethattheGreekshadafootholdin someofthecitiesonthewestcoastofTurkeyinthe15th,14th,and13thc.B.C.Itisconceivablethat TroywascaughtupinthisstrugglebetweeneastandwestduringthelateBronzeAge. WhywouldTroyhavebeensuchaprize?Somescholarshaveclaimedthatitwasthesite'sstrategic geographicallocationthatmadeitsodesirable.ThistheoryassumesthatTroywouldhavebeena desirabletargetforattackbecausethevictorwouldhavecontrolledcommercialtraffictoandfrom theBlackSea,andwouldhavechargedshipsthatsoughtpassagethroughthestraits.Thecharges wouldhavebeenintheformofgoodsandrawmaterials,notcoins,sincecoinageasweknowitwas notinventeduntiltheseventhcenturyB.C.Wedonotyethaveenoughevidencetobeabletoassess theextentofthetrafficthatmovedthroughtheDardanellesinthelateBronzeAge.Additional excavationatsitesaroundtheperimeteroftheBlackSeashouldclarifythesituation. ThereisnoevidenceforaHelenasthespurtowar,althoughwomenwereclearlyviewedascommoditiesinthelatesecondmillenniumB.C.OurbestevidenceforthiscomesfromtheMycenaean palaceofPylosinsouthwesternGreece,wherearchaeologistCarlBlegendiscoveredalargenumber ofclaytabletswritteninanearlyformofGreekcalledLinearB.Oneofthesetablets,datingtothe thirteenthcentury,speaksofwomenseizedasslavesfromthewestcoastofTurkeyandtakento Pylos,wheretheywerechargedwithrunningthetextileindustry.

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AssessingtheEvidencefortheTrojanWars

ThesixthsettlementofTroywasseverelydamagedca.1275B.C.,andthedamageseemstohave beencausedbyamajorearthquake.Seismicactivityhasalwaysbeenaprobleminthisregion,andit continuestobe.Thecitadelwallswererepaired,andlifecontinued,althoughnotasbefore.Mostof theinhabitantswhohadlivedoutsidethewallsofthecitadelnowmovedinsideit,oraroundits perimeter. Theinteriorofthecitadelbecamecrowdedwithhouses,somewithpartywalls,andenormous storagevesselsorpithoiweresunkinthefloorsofthehouses.Securitywasclearlymoreofaconcern thanithadbeen,andtheresidentsattemptedtobringenoughprovisionssothattheywouldbeable tosubsistwithintheprotectionofthewallsforalongerperiodoftime.Thissettlement,whichwas theseventh,wasdestroyedbyanattackca.1200B.C.Thedestructionlevelisnearly5ft.highinsome places,andcontainsburnedtimbers,partsofhumanskeletons,arrowheads,andpilesofslingstones thatwereintendedtohavebeenusedintheattack. Thereisnoevidencethatacolossalhorsewithhollowinteriorplayedanyroleintheattack,although itisconceivablethatthecitadelwallswerestruckwithabatteringramthatcontainedhorsedecoration.Thearmorwornbytheattackerswouldhavebeenmadeofbronze(notsteelasinthecurrent "Troy"film),andatleastsomeofthehelmetswouldprobablyhavebeenconstructedofboartusks. HomerspeaksoftheseboartuskhelmetsintheIliad,andtheyareactuallypreservedatseveral ancientsites,suchasKnossosandMidea,althoughnoBronzeAgearmorhasbeendiscoveredinthe currentexcavationsatTroy. Thematerialinthedestructionleveldoesnotgiveustheidentityoftheattackers,andtheperiod around1200witnessedthedestructionofalargenumberofcitadelsinbothGreeceandTurkey, includingMycenae,Tiryns,Pylos,andHattusa.Thecausesofthiswidespreaddestructionare disputed,butitisnotduetoonlyonefactor:earthquakes,warfare,andprobablyclimaticchange, whichadverselyaffectedagriculturalproduction,appeartohavebeeninvolved. ThisdidnotsignaltheendofhabitationatTroy:sectionsofthewallswererepaired,aswerethe buildings,andnewhouseswerebuiltastheseventhsettlementcontinued.Potterybegantobe producedinadifferentwaybeginningca.1130B.C.,andthenewformsandtechniquesbear similaritiestothosethatareknownfromtheBalkans;consequently,scholarsusuallyassumethat therewasaninfluxofsettlersfromsoutheasternEurope,althoughthereisnoevidencethatthis influxwasaccompaniedbyanattack.Anotherearthquakeprobablyoccurredinthetenthcentury B.C.,afterwhichwehavevirtuallynoevidenceforhabitationuntilthelateeighthcenturyB.C.,when theIliadwasprobablywrittendown. Bytheseventhcentury,thissitehadbeenidentifiedastheplacewheretheTrojanWarhadoccurred. SectionsofthelateBronzeAgecitadelwallwouldstillhavebeenvisibleatthistime,andthecustom oftheLocrianMaidensappearstohavebeeninstituted.ThisisatraditionlinkedtotheGreekhero Ajax,whoreportedlyrapedCassandra,daughterofKingPriam,inthesanctuaryofAthenaatTroy.As penance,theGreekcityofLocris,whichwasthehometownofAjax,wasobligedtosendtwo maidenstoTroyannuallytoserveAthenaandcleanhersanctuary.Thistributecontinueduntilthe earlyfirstcenturyB.C.,andthepresenceofthesemaidenswouldhavehelpedadvertisethesiteas thelocationoftheHomericwar.Aseriesofhighprofilevisitsfollowed,includingthePersianking Xerxes,duringhiswarswithGreece;AlexandertheGreat,duringhiswarswiththePersians;and manyoftheRomanemperors,whotracedtheirdescentfromtheBronzeAgeTrojans. ThebestoveralltreatmentinEnglishoftheevidencefortheTrojanWaristherevisedversionof MichaelWood'sInSearchoftheTrojanWar(California,1996).Foramorein-depthanalysisofthe mostrecentdiscoveriesatTroy,youcanturntoStudiaTroica,theannualexcavationjournalofthe currentexcavations,publishedbyPhilippvonZabern(),as wellastheTroywebsite: Homer 'sIliadarebyRichmondLattimoreandRobertFagles.

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AssessingtheEvidencefortheTrojanWars

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