І .ua
І. В. Корунець
ПОРІВНЯЛЬНА
ТИПОЛОГІЯ
АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ ТА УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ МОВ
ЗМІСТ
ПЕРЕДМОВА 11
CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY, ITS AIMS AND METHODS
OF INVESTIGATION 13
Practical Aims and Tasks of Contrastive Typology 17
Methods of Investigation in Contrastive Typology 19
A Short Historical Outline of Typological Investigations 25
TYPOLOGY OF THE PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS 34
Typology of the Vowel Systems of the Contrasted Languages 36
Phonetic/Phonological Oppositions in the Vowel Systems 41
Typological Characteristics of the Consonantal Systems 45
Oppositions and Correlations in the Systems of Consonants 55
The Syllable in the Contrasted Languages 62
Syllable Generation and Syllable Division in the Contrasted
Languages 79
Qualitative Characteristics of English and Ukrainian Syllables 83
Word-Stress and Utterance Stress in English and Ukrainian 90
Utterance Stress in English and Ukrainian 95
Intonation/Prosody in English and Ukrainian 99
Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation 111
TYPOLOGY OF THE LEXICAL SYSTEMS 118
Factors Facilitating the Typological Study of Lexicon 118
The Semiotic or Global Classification of Lexicon 124
The Identification of Semiotic Superclasses of Words 126
Socially, Stylistically and Functionally Distinguished Classes
of Words 130
Onomasiological and Semasiological Characteristics of Different
Units of Lexicon 141
Word-Formation in English and Ukrainian 147
Combined Prefixal and Suffixal Formation of Words 153
Substantivisation, Adjectivisation, Verbalisation and Adverbialisation
in English and Ukrainian 163
Specifically English Types of Word-Formation 164
TYPOLOGY OF IDIOMATIC AND SET EXPRESSIONS 165
Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation 172
Exercises for Class and Homework 173
TYPOLOGY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
OF THE CONTRASTED LANGUAGES 179
Isomorphisms and Allomorphisms in the Morphemic Structure of
English and Ukrainian Words 179
Typology of the Parts of Speech in the Contrasted Languages 192
Typological Features of the Noun as a Part of Speech 196
Morphological Categories of the Noun 201
The Category of Case and its Realisation in English and
Ukrainian 207
The Category of Definiteness and Indefiniteness 211
Typology of the Adjective 213
Grading of Adjectives in English and Ukrainian 217
The Numeral as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian 220
Typological Characteristics of the Pronoun 224
Typological Characteristics of the English and Ukrainian Verb 231
Classes of Verbs in English vs. Ukrainian 233
Ways of Expressing Morphological Categories of the 239
English and Ukrainian Verb 239
Typology of the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb (Verbals) 243
Other Peculiar Features of English and Ukrainian Verbs 246
Typological Characteristics of the Adverb 248
Syntactic Functions of Adverbs in English and Ukrainian 253
Statives and their Typological Characteristics 254
TYPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL
WORDS 257
Modal Words and Phrases/Modals 257
Typological Characteristics of Prepositions 259
Typology of the Conjunctions ,. 264
Typological Characteristics of Particles 268
Typological Characteristics of Interjections/Emotives 272
Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation 275
Exercises for Class and Homework 276
TYPOLOGY OF THE SYNTACTIC SYSTEMS 281
Syntactic Processes, their Types and Ways of Realisation 281
Syntactic Relations and Ways of Their Realisation 291
Syntactic Relations in English and Ukrainian 301
Typology of the Word-Group / Phrase 307
Types of Word-Groups in English and Ukrainian 311
Typology of the Sentence 324
Structural Types of Sentences in English and Ukrainian 325
One-Member Sentences in English and Ukrainian 328
One-Word Sentences/Quasi-Sentences in English and Ukrainian.... 333
Communicative Types of Sentences in English and Ukrainian 336
The Structural Segmentation of the Sentence in English and Ukrainian 342
TYPOLOGY OF THE MAIN PARTS OF THE
SENTENCE 343
Typological Characteristics of the Subject 344
The Semantic Functions of the Subject 344
Typological Characteristics of the Predicate 346
The Compound Predicate and Ways of Expressing It 348
TYPOLOGY OF THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE
SENTENCE 351
Ways of Joining Different Adjuncts and Complements 357
in English and Ukrainian Word-Groups and Sentences 357
Typology of Adverbial Complements/Parts of the Sentence : 360
Functions of Adverbial Complements in the Sentence 361
The Adverbial Complement of Time /Обставина часу 362
Allomorphic Means of Expressing Complements of Time 364
The Adverbial Complement of Manner/Обставина способу дії 365
The Adverbial Complement of Cause (Reason) Обставина
причини 367
The Adverbial Complement of Purpose / Обставина мети 368
The Adverbial Complements of Result 368
(Consequence) Обставина наслідку 368
The Adverbial Complement of Condition/Обставина умови 370
The Adverbial Complement of Concession/Обставина поступки .... 370 Adverbial Complements of Attendant Circumstances/Обставини
супроводжуючих способів дії 372
The Adverbial Complement of Comparison/Обставина
порівняння 373
The Adverbial Complement of Degree/Обставина ступеня 374
The Adverbial Complement of Measure/Обставина міри 374
The Detached Secondary Parts of the Sentence/ Відокремлені
другорядні члени речення 375
The Detached Attribute/Відокремлене означення 376
The Detached Apposition/Відокремлена прикладка 376
The Detached Object/Відокремлений додаток 377
The Detached Adverbial Complements/ Відокремлені
адвербіальні члени речення 378
Typology of the Homogeneous Parts of the Sentence 380
Grammatically Independent Elements in the Sentence 382
Non-Segmentable Sentences in English and Ukrainian 385
Elements of Direct Address in English and Ukrainian 387
Typology of the Composite Sentence in the Contrasted
Languages 388
Typology of the Compound Sentence 390
1 Compound Sentences with Free/Neutral Interrelations between
Their Clauses 391
2. Compound Sentences with Adversative Interrelations between
Their Clauses 392
Contrastive and Adversative Compound Sentences 400
Compound Sentences with Asyndetically Adjoined Clauses 401
Typology of Semi-Compound Sentences 404
Extended Compound Sentences in English and Ukrainian 406
Compound-Complex Sentences in English and Ukrainian 407
Typology of The Complex Sentence 408
Typology of the Complex Sentence with Nominal Clauses 409
Typological Features of Subject Clauses 410
Typological Features of Predicative Clauses 412
Typological Features of Object Clauses 415
Typological Features of Attributive Clauses 419
Allomorphic Correlations between Some English and Ukrainian
Simple and Composite Sentences 423
Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses 425
Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses of Place (місця) 426
Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses of Time (часу) 427
Typological Features of the Clauses of Manner/ Attendant
Circumstances (способу дії) 429
Typological Features of the Clauses of Comparison (порівняння)... 430
Typological Features of the Clauses of Condition (умови) 431
Typological Features of the Concessive Clauses (поступки) 434
Typology of the Adverbial Clauses of Purpose (мети) 434
Typology of the Adverbial Clauses of Cause (причини) 437
Typology of the Subordinate Clauses of Result (наслідку) 439
Other Isomophic and Allomorphic Features in the System of the Composite Sentences in English and Ukrainian 440
The Complex Sentences with Mutually Subordinated Clauses 440
Types of Grammatical Ties between Clauses in English and
Ukrainian Composite Sentences 441
Typology of the Supersyntactic Units 445
Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation 449
Exercises for Class and Homework 451
BIBLIOGRAPHY 457
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CONTRASTIVE TYPOLOGY, ITS AIMS AND METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
Typology as a branch of linguistics comes from "type" or "typical", hence, it aims at establishing similar general linguistic categories serving as a basis for the classification of languages of different types, irrespective of their genealogical relationship.
Contrastive typology (порівняльна типологія), as the notion itself reveals it, represents a linguistic subject of typology based on the method of comparison or contrasting. Like typology proper, which has hitherto been practised, contrastive typology also aims at establishing the most general structural types of languages on the basis of their dominant or common phonetical/phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic features. Apart from this contrastive typology may equally treat dominant or common features only, as well as divergent features/phenomena only, which are found both in languages of the same structural type (synthetic, analytical, agglutinative, etc.) as well as in languages of different structural types (synthetic and analytical, agglutinative and incorporative, etc.).
The number of different languages which may be simultaneously subjected to typological contrasting at a time is not limited and is always predetermined by the aim pursued. The latter may be either theoretical or practical and involve the investigation of common or both common and divergent features/phenomena in the corresponding planes/aspects of the contrasted languages. The typological study of such features/ phenomena, which usually represent certain regularities in the structure of different languages may be facilitated (or made more difficult) by the existence or absence of some results hitherto obtained in the languages concerned for some other purpose and by means of other methods of linguistic investigation.
Contrastive typological investigations may be focused on various linguistic phenomena ranging from separate signs of the phonetic/ phonological, morphological, lexical or syntactic plane up to several languages. Any of these signs, features/phenomena or separate languages may be contrasted either synchronically or diachronically. But whatever
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the language features/phenomena or the planes/aspects to which they belong, and irrespective of the number of languages involved, the final aims of major typological investigations are the following:
to identify and classify accordingly the main isomorphic and allomorphic features characteristic of languages under investigation;
to draw from these common or divergent features respectively the isomorphic regularities (закономірності) and the allomorphic singularities (відмінності) in the languages contrasted;
to establish on the basis of the obtained isomorphic features the typical language structures and the types of languages;
to perform on the basis of the obtained practical data a truly scientific classification of the existing languages of the world;
to establish on this basis the universal features/phenomena, which pertain to each single language of the world.
Contrastive typological investigations are both various and manifold, they may involve a separate language feature or phenomenon pertained to some genealogically close or genealogically far/alien languages, and they may involve several features or phenomena pertained to many genealogically close or genealogically different languages. Besides, the object of Contrastive typology may as well be separate features and language units or phenomena pertained to both living and one or more dead languages. Consequently, the object of investigation may involve an extensive language area/material or it may involve a restricted object/ material of investigation. Due to this there are distinguished several branches of typological (or Contrastive typological) investigation often referred to as separate typologies. The main of these typologies are as follows:
1. Universal typology which investigates all languages of the world and aims at singling out in them such features/phenomena which are common in all languages. These features are referred to as absolute universals. Their identification is carried out not only on the basis of the existing (living) languages but also on the basis of dead languages like Sanskrit, ancient Greek or Latin. Also the hypothetic abstract etalon language created by typologists for the sake of investigation is widely made use of by universal typology. This "language" plays a very important
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role in foreseeing the quantitative representation of various features/ phenomena in different languages. Universal typology on its part provides the etalon language with all necessary data concerning the quantitative representation of various phonetical, lexical and grammatical features or means of expression.
Special or charactereological typology, in contrast to universal typology, usually investigates concrete languages, one of which is, as a rule, the native tongue. The language in which the description of isomorphic and allomorphic features is performed is usually referred to as metalanguage. In our here case the metalanguage is English.
General typology has for its object of investigation the most general phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic or stylistic features. This typological approach to the morphological structure of words in different languages enabled the German scholar W. Humboldt to suggest the first ever typological classification of languages (on the morphological basis).
Partial typology investigates a restricted number of language features/phenomena; for example, the system of vowels/consonants, the means of word-formation or the syntactic level units. As a result, several level typologies are distinguished: a) typology of the phonetic/ phonological level units; b) typology of the morphological level units; c) typology of the lexical level units; d) typology of the syntactic level units.
Areal typology (ареальна типологія) investigates common and divergent features in languages of a particular geographical area with respect to their mutual influence of one language upon the other. A scientific generalisation of such long-term influences in the phonetic/ phonological, lexical or even grammatical aspects of different languages of multinational areas like Dagestan, the Balkans, Transcarpathia/ Transcaucasia and others is of considerable theoretical and practical value.
Structural typology has for its object the means of grammatical expression, the order of constituent parts at the level of words, word- combinations and sentences. Structural typology aims at identifying mainly dominant features, which characterise the structural type of each of the contrasted languages.
Functional typology, as can be understood from its name,
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investigates the frequency of language units in speech, the regularities and particularities of their use with the aim of expressing different meanings.
8. Content typology investigates the types of possible meanings expressed by various language units and their forms in the contrasted languages. Worth mentioning are also some other branches of typological/ Contrastive typological investigations as:
9. Qualitative typology, investigating predominant features (phonetic, morphological, syntactic) in the contrasted languages and characterising them according to the predominance of some of these qualities. Hence, languages are found to be vocalic, consonantal or tender, harsh, etc. Due to the predominance of some morphological features languages may correspondingly be identified (classified) as synthetic, analytical, agglutinative, etc.
In opposition to qualitative typology quite obvious is the existence of
Quantitative typology which was singled out and identified by the American linguist J. Greenberg. The aim of this typology is to investigate the quantitative correlation of some features and phenomena and their identifying (dominant) role in the contrasted languages. Thus, taking into account the small quantity of inflexions and the great role of analytical means as prepositional connection and placement of components in English word-groups and sentences, this language can be identified by its syntactic structure as predominantly analytical. Apart from these there are distinguished some other equally important for typological or Contrastive typological investigation branches of this linguistic subject, the most well-known among them being the following:
Semasiological typology which investigates the ways of expressing meaning (the inner content) of language units in the contrasted languages.
Onomasiological typology is a part of semasiological typology. Its object of investigation is isomorphic and allomorphic ways of giving family names and nicknames to people in different contrasted languages. For example, in English: Love, Hope, Lem, Ivy; Mr. Crabtree (Backbite, Gradgrind, Knowall); in Italian: Cane (family name "Dog"), Marchellino (little Mark), Colombo (Pigeon), etc. And in Ukrainian: Люба (Love),
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Надя/Надія (Hope), Лепестина (petel-like, petel), Любомир (Peace Loving), Горох (Pea), Часник (Garlic), Клен (Maple), Береза (Birch), Неїжмак (Don't-eat-poppy seeds), Сороксобак (Forty dogs) and the like Ukrainian Cossacks nicknames which became family names.
13. Synchronic and diachronic typologies investigate language units or phenomena of a definite level with the aim of establishing isomorphisms and allomorphisms in their form and meaning during a definite historical period (or periods) in the contrasted languages.
Practical Aims and Tasks of Contrastive Typology
The results obtained in any branch of typological investigation can be usefully employed both in theoretical linguistics and in teaching practices. Thus, the all-embracing final results of universal and general typologies could help to successfully perform a scientifically substantiated general classification of languages. The results of structural and sublevel/aspect typologies could usefully help in creating scientifically well-grounded theoretical as well as practical phonetics/phonologies, grammars, lexicologies, stylistics and dictionaries of various languages. The study of charactereological and partial (aspects) typology would acquaint the student with the fundamentals of this modern branch of linguistics in general and with some of its principal methods of analysis in particular. A contrastive typological treatment of the main phonetical/phonological, lexical and grammatical features/phenomena, available or unavailable in the corresponding systems of the foreign language/languages and in the native tongue, will provide the students not only with the linguistic results necessary for their successful methodological work at school, but also with the understanding of a systemic organisation of all languages.
Contrastive typology as a branch of linguistics employs some terms and notions of its own. The principal and the most often occurrant of them are as follows:
1. Absolute universals (абсолютні/повні універсала) i.e. features or phenomena of a language level pertaining to any language of the world (cf. vowels and consonants, word stress and utterance stress, intonation sentences, parts of the sentence, parts of speech, etc.).
Near universals (неповні/часткові універсалії) i.e. features or phenomena common in many or some languages under typological investigation.
Metalanguage (метамова), as has been mentioned already, is the language in which the actual presentation/analysis of different features/phenomena of the contrasted languages is carried out.
Typologically dominant features (типологічні домінанти) are features or phenomena dominating at a language level or in the structure of one/some of the contrasted languages. Dominant in present-day English are known to be analytical means: rigid word order in word-groups and sentences, the prominent role of prepositions and placement as means of connection and expression of case relations and syntactic functions (cf. books for my friend, books to my friends, books by my friends; a nice flower-nice flowers, Peter came - Mary came), etc. The change of placement of the part of the sentence may completely change its sense. Cf. The hunter killed the hare - The hare killed the hunter. In Ukrainian the change of placement of the main parts of the sentence usually does not change the meaning of the sentence, as in this same sentence: Мисливець застрілив зайця or: Зайця застрілив мисливець. In Ukrainian everything is just on the contrary: case, gender and number categories are expressed by means of inflexions: братові книжки, братових книжок; він співав - вона співала, дитя співало; червона квітка - червоні квітки; перший крок - перші кроки, перша зміна. There is abundance of synthetic and analytical or synthetic and analytical government (кликати Марію/Петра; кликати до вечері/до столу; зроблено Петром/будь-ким (будь для кого), etc. Consequently, the dominant (and typical) features of a language predetermine its structural type as analytical, synthetic, agglutinative, etc.
5. Typologically recessive features/phenomena (типологічне рецесивні, втрачаючі колишню активну роль) are those losing their former dominant role as, for instance, case forms in English or the dual number forms of some nouns in present-day Ukrainian.
6. Isomorphic features/phenomena (ізоморфні риси/явища) as was mentioned already, are common features/phenomena in languages under Contrastive analysis. Isomorphic in English and Ukrainian is, for example,
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the existence of consonants and vowels, assimilation, and the categories of number, person, tense, as well as parts of speech, the existence of sentences, etc.
7. Allomorphic features/phenomena (аломорфні риси/явища) are observed in one language and missing in the other. For example: palatalisation of practically all consonants or the dual number in Ukrainian, the gerund or the diphthongs and analytical verb forms in English, which are missing (allomorphic) in Ukrainian.
An exhaustive list of isomorphic and allomorphic features/phenomena of a foreign language and of the native tongue can constitute a reliable basis for charactereological typology. Its main aim, as in our case, should be to teach students to identify, select and group the isomorphic and allomorphic features/phenomena in English and in Ukrainian and to use the obtained results for methodological purposes in their future teaching and as well as in their translating practices.
8. The etalon language is a hypothetic language created by typologists for the sake of contrasting any languages. This "language" is supposed to contain exhaustive quantitative and qualitative data or characteristics concerning all existing language units and phenomena. For example, the quantity and quality of sounds (vowels, consonants) and syllables, morphemes, parts of speech and their morphological categories, the correlation of the means of grammatical connection, etc.
Methods of Investigation in Contrastive Typology
Contrastive typological investigations are carried out with the help of several methods. The main one is the comparative method, which is also employed in historical and comparative linguistics. Nevertheless, the final aims of Contrastive typological linguistics and of historical and comparative linguistics differ greatly. The latter aims at establishing the parent language and the former at establishing the isomorphic (alongside of allomorphic) features, the dominant features and on their basis the establishment of structural types of languages under Contrastive investigation.
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Comparing of isomorphic features and phenomena can very often be performed both with the help of the deductive and the inductive methods. The deductive method is based on logical computation/calculation which suggests all admissive variants of realisation of a certain feature/ phenomenon in speech of one or of some contrasted languages. For example, the existence of the attributive AN and NA structure word-group patterns in English and Ukrainian is indisputable. Cf. : the green pasture — the pasture green (Byron), зелене пасовисько — пасовисько зелене. Common are also the dAN and the dDAN patterns in English and Ukrainian (eg: that nice book, that very interesting book — та гарна книжка, та дуже гарна книжка). Rarer, though quite possible, are also ANd or DANd patterns word-groups, eg: dear lady mine, very dear lady mine; дорога сестро моя, сестро дуже дорога моя.
Ukrainian word-groups of both these patterns regularly occur in speech. Cf. гарна книжка ця, дуже гарна книжка ця. The deductive computation helps find some other transforms of the ANd pattern with the post-positional pronoun determiner as in the word-group "nice young sisters of his" or "a brave deed of hers" which are impossible in Ukrainian, where a prepositional pronoun or noun displays a strong objective relation (Cf. гарна книжка ця від мене/була для дітей, добра звістка така найшла тоді його в шпиталі).
Consequently, the deductive method of analysis can be rather helpful in Contrastive typological investigations, and not only when contrasting syntactic level units or phenomena.
Much more often employed in Contrastive typology is the inductive method which needs no verification whatsoever, since the investigated feature/phenomenon was proved already by the preceding generations of researcher linguists. Due to this the reliability of the results or data provided by the inductive method is indisputable. An example of thus obtained results may be the qualitative characteristics of vowels in some European languages (Table 1). These results had been obtained by the preceding researchers long ago and are simply taken from the corresponding phonetics bona fide by everybody interested in the nature of vowel sounds in the mentioned languages.
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|Language Quality front |English |
|V+Suf=N reader, construction, runner |в'язка, знавець, читач, орач, хотіння, очистка, |
|painting, insistence, clearance, doer |вивіска, продавець, бігун, наполягання, малюнок |
|A+Suf=N freedom, hardship, clearness, |вільність, гнучкість, глухота, тупак, гостряк, |
|softness, longitude, quietness, highness |тонкість, глибина, сліпець, добрість, завзяття |
|D + Suf=N earliness, slowliness, wellness|зверхність, любощі, труднощі, виваженість |
|Q+Suf=N primacy, primaries, secondary, |першість, десятерик, п'ятірка, двієчник, п'ятак |
|fifter, fourter | |
|A+Suf=V actualise,modernise, blacken, |білити, біднішати, довшати, лівішати, зеленіти |
|darken, widen, broaden, shorten |коротшати, чорніти, старіти |
|N + Suf=A glorious, earthy, watery, |водяний, дерев'яний, земляний, славний, срібний, |
|interesting, wooden, golden |болотяний, торф'яний, піщаний, поверховий |
|A + Suf=A bluish, lonely, economical, |гарячкуватий, довгастий, синюватий, багатенький, |
|leftist |рідненький |
|N + Suf=D homeward, daily, seaward, |бігцем, (їхати) зайцем, наскоком вітряно, зимно |
|southward | |
|A + Suf=D longwise, simply, shortly, |вільно, коротко, славно, південніше, дешево, |
|quietly, calmly |сердито, весело |
|D + Suf=D onwards, outwards, inwards |гарненько, щоденно, хутенько, смачненько, |
| |холоднувато |
II. Prefixal morphemes have also their main features common in the contrasted languages. They may equally be form-building as well as word-forming. English prefixes, however, can form words of more parts of speech than the Ukrainian ones. For example, they can form statives: a+sleep>asleep; verbs: be+dew>bedew; adjectives: pre+war>prewar; adverbs: in+side>inside, etc.
The structure of prefixal morphemes in the contrasted languages is generally common, though there are more single-sign (single-letter) prefixes in Ukrainian than in English, which has only one single letter prefix
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a (asleep, alike, aloof). Their number in Ukrainian is larger. Cf. встати, внести, вдвох, зліт, угору, схід, згори, вниз).
All English and Ukrainian prefixes can be typologically subdivided into some groups. The main of them are as follows: 1. International prefixes whose lingual form and meaning are identical in the contrasted languages. Their form-building capacities are equal in the contrasted languages too, which can be seen from the following structural models:
|anti + A=A |antiglobal, anti-British антиглобальний, антивоєнний |
|anti + N=N |antimonopolist, antibody антимонополіст, антитіло |
|counter + N=N |countermeasure, countermarch контрзмова, контрзахід |
|counter + V=V |counterpoint, counter-attack, counterplot контрапунктувати, |
| |контратакувати, контрасигнувати |
|ex + N = N |ex-champion, ex-president екс-чемпіон, екс-президент |
|extra + A = A |extraordinary, extramural, extraactive, екстраактивний, |
| |екстраординарний, екстравагантний |
|sub + N = N |submarine, subordination субмарина, субординація |
|sub + A = A |subordinary, subtropical субординарний, субтропічний |
2. A large group of prefixes have in the contrasted languages only semantic identity but they are different in their lingual form since they are national prefixes:
foresee - передбачити, extra-natural - надприродний, intraarterial - внутрі/внутрішньоартеріальний; non-party -позапартійний, pre-war-до/передвоєнний, post-war, no/ післявоєнний, sub-species — підвиди/підкласи.
3. The third group present semantically alien national prefixes per taining to one of the contrasted languages and non-existent in the other. The lexical meaning of such divergent prefixes forms part of the seman tic structure of the stem, hence it is usually conveyed by other than mor phological (usually by lexico-semantic) means. Cf. decamp - виїжджати з табору/покидати табір; mis-state - робити неправдиву/фальшиву заяву; underhung - той/те, що випирає/ виступає вперед; to recurve — загинати/вигинати назад; (an) upthrow - кидок угору and others.
There are also some allomorphic Ukrainian prefixes which have no semantic equivalents in English. Their meaning is also conveyed by
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other than affixal means. Cf. по-українському/по-українськи — in Ukrainian, щонайкраще/якнайкраще in the best way possible or very well indeed; rather/extremely well; якнайповільніше — as slowly as possible/in the most slowly (or in an ever possible slow) way, etc.
A specifically Ukrainian phenomenon which is also alien not only to English but even to other Slavonic languages is the reduplicated use of the prefix no- in verbs to express an intensive and repeated or durative action. Cf. поповодити, попоблукати, поповозитися (з чимсь, з кимсь), попогребти, попоїсти, попоспати. The meaning of such duplicated prefixes is conveyed in English and other languages in a descriptive way. Cf. попоїсти to eat substantially or to eat repeatedly/again, or to eat without interruption and amply, uninterruptedly. Попоспати to sleep to one's heart's content, to sleep much longer than usually, to sleep and repose nicely after hard work/tiresome walking, etc.
Combined Prefixal and Suffixal Formation of Words
Many words in English and Ukrainian are formed by way of adding both prefixal and suffixal morphemes to the root or stem of the same word. It should be emphasised that the formation of new words with the help of prefixes and suffixes is performed in English and Ukrainian according to some common morphological/structural models. The number of these models is four and they are as follows:
one prefix+the root morpheme/stem+one suffix, forming nouns: dis-arma-ment, en-rich-ment, for-cast-er, un-suspect-ness, vice-roy- ship; b) forming adjectives: anti-cyclon-ic, anti-christ-ian, be-jewel- ling, in-ponder-able, para-phras-tic, pre-script-ive; c) forming verbs: de-colour-ise, dis-satis-fy, ex-cav-ate, over-estim-ate, re-vivi-fy, un- satis-fy and d) forming adverbs: dis-creet-ly, un-tru-ly, un-war-like;
two or more prefixes + the root morpheme/stem + one suffix as in the nouns over-sub-scrip-tion, re-im-prison-ment, re-in-carn-ation;
one prefix + the root morpheme/stem + two or more suffixes,
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as in adverbs that are formed from adjectives and participles. For example: dis-stress-ing-ly, dis-trust-ful-ly, en-harmon-ical-ly, pro-portion - ate-ly, under-hand-ed-ly.
The number of words formed according to the third combined structural model by far exceeds those given above and comprises adjectives and nouns. The most typical adjectives are as follows: counter-revolu-tion-(a)ry, de-/contemin-at(e)-ing, de-central-iz(e)-ing, pre-histor-ic-al. Examples of nouns thus formed are as follows: dis-trust- fulness, in-comprehens-ible-ness, ir-respons-ibil-ity, de-moral-iz-ation and other.
4) Fewer nouns are formed, naturally, according to the fourth and the most complicated structural model, combining two or more prefixes + root morpheme/stem + two or more suffixes as in the words in-ac-count-abil-ity, in-dis-pens-abil-ity, non-re-activ(e)-ation, non-re-presentation-al-ism. Words of this combined type are well exemplified in Ukrainian, though their quantitative distribution coincides mainly in their simplest type only. This (latter) type of word-formation model has the largest representation in both contrasted languages. Thus, the following prefixes and suffixes are both productive and non-productive in forming some types of nouns in Ukrainian: без-/-к-: безтарка, безштанько, безбатченко; від-/-ок: відрізок, відбиток, відтинок; на-/-ник: навушник, навчальник; за-/-ок: затінок, загривок, задвірок, затишок and others.
A large number of productive noun stems in Ukrainian originate from prepositional noun phrases which in the course of historical development have become prefixes and now together with the phonetically identified suffix -j- form a large number of -я/-а root nouns: без-: безладдя, безділля; за-: загір'я, заріччя; між-: міжгір'я, міжріччя; над-: надбрів'я, надпліччя; перед-: переджнив'я, передсердя: по-: подвір'я, пониззя (Побужжя, Покуття, Полісся, Подніпров'я), etc.
Relative adjectives in Ukrainian are more often formed according to the first combined morphological model than nouns. The most often used prepositional prefixes are без-, від-, до-, за-, на-, and others. The suffixes used with these prefixes are: -н-, -ов-/-ев-, -єв, -ськ-/-зьк-, -цьк-/-овськ- and others. Cf. без-/-н-: безвірний, безпарний; без-
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/-ов--: бездоказовий, безготівковий; -від-/-н-: віддієслівний, між-/-ов-: міжвидовий, на-/-ян-: навітряний, над-/-янськ-:
наддніпрянський, без-/-ев-/-єв-: безстатевий, безчуттєвий and others.
Adjectives with verbal stems have in Ukrainian the characteristic prefix не-, originating from the negative particle не. The suffixes that are used with this prefix in combined adjectives are of two kinds: 1) -н-, --анн-/-янн-/, -енн-: невтомний, незбагненний, невпізнанний, невгамовний, несказанний, незрівнянний, нескінченний; 2) -м-, -уч-/-юч-, -уш-/-ющ-/, -лив-: невловимий, невгасимий, невимовний, непосидючий, непитущий, невидющий, неквапливий.
Unlike nouns and adjectives, combined verbs are formed in Ukrainian according to the third structural model. They are formed from over 400 nominal stems, the most occurent of which are adjectival and substantival. The prefixes may be different, whereas the suffixes are for both parts of speech usually common. They are -и-/-і- and -ти-/-а-/, в-/ -у-: Cf. вдосконалити, унепокоювати, уможливити; з-/-с-/: збільшити, зменшити, спростити; о-: обіднити, оминати, очуміти; об-: облегшити, обникати, обшукати; пере-: перебільшити, перевищити; ви-: вилюдніти, видужати, з-: звузити, здужати, зсунути, etc.
Verbs from substantival stems are formed with the help of the -и-and -ти-, -ати suffixes too, i. e. according to the third structural model. For example: викоренити, закапканити, знеболити, знімечити, пересе'лити, пере'силити.
In combined derivative verbs formed from verbal stems, the main suffixes are -ува- and -ти-: вицьвохкувати, перечитувати, підкахикувати, пришкандибувати, погейкувати, покліпувати, розбалакувати, переважувати, пересилювати, etc.
English prefixal and post-fixal verbs have no parallel/equivalent to the complicated structure of the Ukrainian verbs with the post-fix -ся/-сь: не-до-роз-вин-ут-и-ся, не-до-ви-плач-уват-и-ся, пере-роз-по-діл-ит-и-ся, пере-о-снащ-уват-и-ся/-сь.
There are fewer adverbs, adjectives and nouns in Ukrainian that are formed according to the third and fourth combined structural models. Cf.
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adverbs: до-не-с-хоч-у, с-про-квол-а, що-най-кращ-е; adjectives and participles: за-в-час-н-ий, не-в-благ-анн-ий, не-су-під-ряд-н-ий, не-пере-о-снащ-ен-ий, не-до-виторг-ув-ан-ий; nouns: не-в-благ-анн-ість, пере-роз-по-діл-енн-я, не-до-ви-до-бут-ок, etc.
Consequently, combined prefixal plus suffixal, i.e. predominantly derivational word-formation belongs in both languages to productive means of building new words of new meanings. Especially active, as was testified by the examples above, is this kind of word-formation in Ukrainian.
Compounding. The formation of compound words in English and Ukrainian is characterised both by isomorphic and allomorphic features as well. Common are, first at all, two main ways of forming compounds in English and Ukrainian: 1) by the juxtaposition (placement) of the determining and the determined parts and 2) with the help of the linking/ interfixal o, e, s in English and о, е / є, у in Ukrainian.
The largest group of compounds formed through the juxtaposition of free root/stem words in English constitute nouns. For example: aircraft, bath-house, fountain-pen, godmother, inkpot, lockout, mankind, motherland, note-book; adjectives: sky-blue, pitch-dark, social-economic, far-reaching, peace-loving and verbs: blackwash, ill-treat, take-off. Less numerous are adverbs. Cf. anywhere, nowadays, outside, somehow, sideways; pronouns: everybody, everything, herself, none, and numerals: one-fifths, twenty-one, two-thirds and others.
Pertaining mostly to English are compounds (nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and some numerals) with prepositions and conjunctions used as connectors of different roots/stems often referred to as wholophrases. For example, nouns: commander-in-chief, cat-o'-nine-tails, bread-and-butter breakfast; adjectives: out-of-date, rough-and-ready; adverbs: rough-and-tumble; numerals: two and twenty, one hundred and ten.
Ukrainian has only a few compound adverbs of its own and some nouns of foreign origin of this type: де-не-де, пліч-о-пліч, хоч-не-хоч, як-не-як, Ростов-на-Дону, Франкфурт-на-Майні, Франкфурт-на-Oдepi, etc.
Compounding by juxtaposition of free words (root words or stems) is considerably less productive in Ukrainian. And yet, there are several nouns, adverbs, pronouns, a few verbs and conjunctions, as well as particles formed in this way. For example, nouns: бурят-монгол, генерал156
майор, вагон-ресторан, зернотрест, медик-хірург and pronouns: дещо, дехто, хтозна-що- казна-що, казна-хто, хто-небудь, що-небудь; adverbs: казна-де, казна-звідки, казна-як, etc.
Close to the above-mentioned compounds in Ukrainian are also some compound nouns and compound verbs of co-ordinate nature: батько-мати (i.e. батько і мати), інженер-технік (інженер і технік), хліб-сіль (хліб і сіль); verbs: думати-гадати, говорити-балакати; conjunctions and particles (немов, немовбито, нібито) and others.
Compounding with the help of the linking interfixal elements is far less productive in English than in Ukrainian, and it is generally restricted to nouns and adjectives as a rule. Cf. the nouns Anglo-Saxondom, Anglo-Saxons, electro-kinetics, electro-therapy, gasometer, tradesfolk, tradespeople, violoncellist and the abjectives like Sino-American, Afro-Asian, Israeli-American, Iraqi-Iranian (Cf. the Ukrainian compounds respectively/ китайсько-американський, афро-азійський, ізраїльсько-американський, електротерапевтичний, etc). Hence, the principal way of forming composites in Ukrainian is that by means of linking interfixes, which connect abbreviated and full words. The latter usually follow the initial abbreviated forms, as in the following nouns: боєздатність, землечерпалка, броненосець, кулеливарник, сновидець, театрознавець, білоголівка, самозбереження, полумисок; in numerals and in adjectives: кількасот, півтораста, вогнегасний, доморощений, нафтоносний, електрозварювальний; and in adverbs: карколомно, передовсім, позавуш, самочинно, etc.
Consequently, the typological difference between the composite words of the two languages lies in their much larger variety of types in Ukrainian than in English. Though there is a way of compounding in English that is practically alien to Ukrainian. This is the already mentioned way which is usually termed as wholophrasing. It represents an occasional incorporation of word-groups or sentences into non-constant compounds, such as a never-to-be-forgotten event (from: an event never to be forgotten) or a to-be-or-not-to-be question, (his) come-what-will attitude, a'do-come-please-tomorrow expression on his face, beat-me-or-pardon-me reaction, etc. Of this same wholophrasal nature are also many English and Ukrainian composite words (mostly nouns, adjectives and some adverbs) formed from word-combinations or sentences, for example: for-
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get-me-not, merry-go-round, East-end, kiss-in-the-ring (game), kiss-me-quick (beret), love-lies-bleeding (plant), loop-change-loop (in figure skating), pen-and-ink (adj.), sleeping-bag(suit), snick-a-snee, stick-in-the-mud (n, a), Sunday-go-to-meeting (a), theatre-in-the-round, three-year-old (a), toad-in-a-hole (n) the one-size-fits-all (program), run-to-the middle (strategy), can't-we-all-get-along (politics)as well as many family names and nicknames of people, geographical names. For example: Mr. Backbite (false person), Youngman, Copper/nose (drankard), Copperfield (talented person); Mr. Knowall (ironic); geographical names as Salt-Lake City, Iceland, Georgetown, Greenfield, Londesborough, Newfoundland, West brook, etc.
Ukrainian has many composite words of this kind too, though sometimes they are formed with the help of the linking elements (usually -и-, -й-), for example: горихвістка, варивода, держидерево, крутиголовка (bird), негній-дерево, люби-мене, мати-й-мачуха, крутивус, перекотиполе.
Several Ukrainian family names and geographical names have been formed from word-groups or sentences as well. Cf. Вернигора, Гниверба, Добривечір, Затуливітер, Небаба, Незовибатько, Неїжмак, Непийпиво, Нетудихата, Панібудьласка, Печиборщ, Підкушіуха, Вшигород (вищий город), Крутоярії, Рідкодуб (рідкий дуб), Погиблях (погиб лях), etc.
Apart from nouns there are some other parts of speech that are formed in Ukrainian from prepositional phrases and word-groups or sentences, as for example, adverbs: абияк, анітрохи, віднині, відтепер, досхочу, задовго, запанібрата, віч-на-віч, дотепер, відразу, пліч-о-пліч; adjectives: бавовнопрядильний, водомірний, водоплавний, переробний; and verbs: благодіяти, боготворити, зубоскалити, хліборобству вати.
Similar compounds can be observed in English as well. Cf. the nouns whole-heartedness, schoolboyishiness, warming-pan, and also adjectives/participles: absent-minded, heart-shaped, three-coloured, and several others.
Abbreviation. As a word-forming means it represents a generally common type of word-formation in the contrasted languages, though it is
158 not devoid of some national divergences either. Common and equally productive in both contrasted languages are the following types:
1. The so-called initial abbreviation, wich presents cases like USA, UNO, BBC, TGWU, AFL-CIO, CNN, TV, SOS, IMF, EC, EEC, UK, UNESCO, OPEC (oil producing and exporting countries), MP (member of parliament or military police), AIDS, SALT (Strategic Anns Limitation Talks), VAT and other acronyms. Similarly in Ukrainian: США, OOH, ЮНЕСКО, АФП-КПП, СОЇ, СНІД, МВФ, etc. Specifically English is the combined abbreviation of acronyms and complete words as A-life (artificial life in computers), H-bag (handbag), N-bomb, U-language (up per class English), V-Day (victory Day), VE-Day (victory in Europe Day), VJ-Day (victory over Japan Day), etc. Rather productive in En glish and Ukrainian is also shortening like a. for acre, end. for command er, govt. for government, dz. for dozen, ft. for foot, in. for inch, gal. for gallon, m. for mile, t. for ton, oz. for ounce, Ib. for pound, a. m. for ante meridian, and i.e. (Lat.) for id est, etc. Respectively in Ukrainian: ra, c/ r, CM, T, KM, KB, M, CM, c. (сторінка), т (тонна), etc.
Many English shortenings originate from colloquialisms and jargon-isms, as it is the case with such nouns as bike (bicycle), dub (double), bod (body, fellow), demo (demonstration), doc (doctor), envo (envoy), info (information data), op (opportunity), to up (increase), to ink (authorise, sign) fridge (refrigerator), mike (microphone), pop (popular as in pop-music), profie (a professional), prof (professor), telly (TV), trunk (tranquilizer), vac (vacuum cleaner), van (railway carriage), vet (veteran), lab (laboratory), coop (co-operation), exam, prep (preparation), ec/ ecco (economics), pro (professional), math (mathematics), trig (trigonometry) and others.
The number of thus shortened words of this kind in Ukrainian is restricted to some nursery shortenings as ма (мамо), та (тату), ба (бабо) and to colloquialisms like тра (треба), хо (хочу), зав, зам, спец.
2. Partial abbreviation of words is generally rare in English. It is observed in English in such examples as Colo (Colorado), Indi (Indi ana), Okla (Oklahoma), Canwood (Canadian Woods), Irricanal (Irri gation Canal), and some other geographical names like these. Partial abbreviation in Ukrainian, however, is rather productive, being used to
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designate a variety of notions like держстрах, Донбас, Кривбас, головбух, завгосп, ботсад, кербуд, сільбуд, комунгосп, начмед, начпостач, and several others of the kind.
3. Combined abbreviation is also less productive and less wide-spread in English than in Ukrainian. Cf. CONUS (Continental US), COSPAR (Committee on Space Research), INTERPOL (International Criminal Police Organisation), COMECON (Council of Mutual Economic Assitance/Aid). This way of partial plus/and initial abbreviation is very productive in Ukrainian, for example: міськвно (міський відділ народної освіти), облвно, райвно, облсу (обласне статистичне управління), etc.
Apart from the aforementioned, there exist some other ways (both productive and non-productive) of word-formation in English and Ukrainian. They are as follows:
1. Blending, which is a rather productive type of compounding in English. It has in recent decades become familiar in Ukrainian as well. Blends or "telescoped" words are formed by confrontation (поєднання) of two (in Ukrainian) or even more truncated (усічених) words or roots of words, for example: avia(tion) + (electr)onics > avionics, fan(tasy) + (maga)zine > fanzine, mo(torist) + (ho)tel > motel, sm(ock) + (f)og > smog, meri(t) + (aristocracy > meritocracy, fl(y) + (h)urry > flurry, etc. In recent years some more blends have appeared in English as, for instance, baggravation (from bag + aggravation) a feeling of annoyance and anger of air travellers awaiting their baggage at the baggage carousel; ginormous (from gigantic + enormous), meanderthal (meander + underthal), an annoying person moving slowly and aimlessly in front of other individuals who are in a hurry; netizen (internet + citizen), popaganda (popular/pop + propaganda), i.e. propaganda of popular music or songs, sarcastrophy (sarcasm + catastrophy), i.e. an attemptor's failure to use humorous sarcasm, wardrobe (word + wardrobe), i.e. a person's vocabulary (a web page on the internet), Modem (moderate Democrat), Clinlarry (Clinton+Hillary), brunch (breakfast+lunch), etc.
There exist some ways of making blends or types of blanding in English. The main of them are as follows:
1. Blends which are made up from the initial part of the first word or word-group and the complete second word consisting of a root morpheme or a stem only: cinem(a) + actress = cinematress, para(litic gas)
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+ bomb = parabomb, super(sonic) + jet = superjet, para (chute) + glider = paraglider, bas(ket) + cart = bascart, etc.
By combining the root morpheme/stem of the first word and the stem of the trancated initial part of the second word: hay + (si)lage - haylage (силосна яма), pay + (pa)triotism = paytriotism, sea+(heli)copter = seacopter, motor + (caval)cade = motorcade, etc.
By combining blends of the initial stem and the final part of the second word:
man + (En)glish = Manglish, radio + (elec)trician = rediotrician, cinema + (m)agnate = cinemagnate, book + (ad)vertising = bookvert-izing, etc.
All Ukrainian (like Russian) blends are generally restricted to similar contaminations in which truncated are final elements of the initial words/ word-groups and the initial/final elements of the succeeding words as in пірам(ідон) + (кофе)їн — пірамеїн, ас(пірін) + кофе(ї)н-аскофен (ходити на) витріщатик (jocular) ходити по Хрещатику, витріщивши очі, i.e. loiter aimlessly, etc.
2. Back-formation (reversion) is a rather productive type of word-formation in English, where many short words are inferred from longer words. It is in this way that verbs are derived from nouns: own < owning, beg < beggar, brag < bragging, broke < broker, edit < editor, hawk < hawker, kittle < kittling, infract < infraction, catalise < catalysis, emplace < emplacement, reminisce < reminiscence, etc.
English compound verbs are often formed by back-formation from compound nouns: to aircondition < air conditioning, to baby-sit < baby sitter, to house-clean < house-cleaner, to house-keep < housekeeping, etc.
Similarly formed are also English verbs from adjectives: luminisce < luminiscent, reminisce < reminiscent, frivol < frivolous, etc.
Also nouns are formed quite in the same way from adjectives: greed < greedy, nast < nasty, cantankar < cantankerous (уїдливий, сварливий), etc.
Back-formation in Ukrainian is restricted only to nouns which are formed from verbal (or rather from their infinitival) stems. For example: біг < бігати, брід < бродити, піт < пітніти, крик < кричати, галас < галасувати, шамкіт < шамкотіти, говір < говорити, etc.
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3. Reduplication is a common means of compounding in the con trasted languages, but it is more productive in English than in Ukrainian. Cf. .fifty-fifty, goody-goody, hush-hush (secret), pooh-pooh, so-so. Similarly in Ukrainian: де-де, ні-ні, ледве-ледве, так-так, ось-ось, от-от, тільки-тільки, тихо-тихо.
It is interesting to note, that English reduplications are often only somewhat different ablaut combinations. Cf.: bibble-babble, chit-chat, clitter-clatter (all denoting idle talk), dilly-dally (loiter), knick-knacks (small article of ornament), riff-raff (the mob), shilly-shally (hesitate), ding-dong (equivalent to the Ukrainian дзінь-дзелень), tip-top (first-rate), zigzag (зиґзаґ), etc.
Unlike Ukrainian the English language is especially rich in rhymed reduplications which are rare in our colloquial speech. Cf. boogy-woogie, fliggerty-glibberty (frivolous), helter-skelter (in disordered haste), higgledy-piggledy (disorder), hurry-scurry (great hurry), lovey-dovey (darling), willy-nilly (compulsory), pow-wow (a noisy assembly), Humpty-Dumpty (вайло), walkie-hearie (device for the reproduction of recorded speech), walky-lookie (a portable TV set), walkie-pushie (movable TV station for transmitting sports events), walkie-talkie portable two-way radio set, etc.
Note. Pertaining to English only are also compounds with post-positives like camp-out (sleep in open air, not in tent), look-in (n) a quick look, look-out (n) vigilance, observation; sit-in/sit-ins (demonstration, strike without leaving the premises); walk-on (mute, dumb performer), walkout (general strike), walk-in (a) having a separate entrance (apartment), walk-over (easy task, easy victory), walk-up (apartment without a lift).
4. Accentual word-formation. This way of word-formation is iso morphic in the morphological systems of both languages. Nevertheless, words thus formed in English generally change both their lexico-gram matical (morphological) nature and meaning. Cf. 'accent (n) — ac'cent (v),'conduct (n) — con'duct (v),'export (n) — ex'port (v),'permit (n) — per'mit (v), though 'mankind (n) (чоловіча половина людства) — man'kind (n) людство, but: 'comment (v) - 'comment (n), ex'cuse (v), ex'cuse (n), re'port (v), re'port (n), etc.
The change of accent in Ukrainian, however, usually does not effect
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the lexico-grammatical nature of the word but only its semantics. Cf. 'замок - за'мок, 'жила - жил'а, 'мука - му'ка, 'приклад -прик'лад. Though not without exceptions. Cf.: 'бігом (n),— бігом (adv), вго'рі (adv) - в'горі (n), 'слідом (п),-слід'ом (adv). Sometimes, however, there may be no differentiation of the lexico-grammatical nature of homonymous sense units through accent in Ukrainian. This can be seen from the following examples: до'низу (adv) -до 'низу (prepos, noun), до'віку (adv) - до (такого-то) 'віку (n), тим 'часом (adv) - він скористався тим 'часом (n), etc.
Substantivization, Adjectivisation, Verbalisation and Adverbialisation in English and Ukrainian
This type of word-formation is common and equally productive both in English and Ukrainian. It finds its realisation in a definite word acquiring a part of or all the lexico-grammatical features of some other part of speech. Thus, abjective may become wholly substantivised or partially substantivised. 1) Wholly substantivised adjectives acquire all properties of regular nouns. Eg: a criminal, a black, a white, a liberal/ radical, a European/African, a Ukrainian/German, a weekly (тижневик), a monthly (альманах), etc. 2) Partially substantivised adjectives have only some features of nouns (no genitive case, no plural form): the deaf and dumb, the French, the invited, the useful, in the open, in the affirmative, etc. It is often difficult, however, to distinguish between Wholly and partially substantivised adjectives in Ukrainian. Cf. поранений, молодий (з) молодою, старий (зі) старою, милий, чорнобрива, завідуючий, братова, or substantivised adjectival proper names like Ніжин, Львів, Сватове, Милове, etc. Or: гнідий/карий (horse), гаряче/холодне (dishes), прийомна, німецька/англійська (languages), давнє, минуле, старе, особисте, etc.
Partially substantivised in English may also be other parts of speech , for example, a) Verbs: that is a must with me; let's have a go: a quiet read, after supper? the haves and have-nots; b) Numerals: a sign of four, King Charles the First, page ten, to receive a one/a two: c) Pronouns: a little something, a good for nothing, the all of it; those I's_ of
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his; d) Adverbs: I don't know his whereabouts, he is on leave, etc.
On the other hand, nouns may be adjectivised. Cf. the market prices; London docks, average incomes/wages, Kyiv streets, the Dnieper_ banks, the Ukraina hotel, etc.
Nouns may also be adverbialised. Cf.: going home, to come by chance, on the outskirts of Kyiv, to come by air/ by train, in English (where?).
Similarly in Ukrainian where there are partially substantivised different parts of speech as well: a) pronouns as мій/твій іде (коханий, чоловік); моя прийшла (кохана, дружина, мати); він (чоловік, брат) у хаті? and b) numerals: Георг П'ятий, Єлизавета Друга, отримати два / п'ять (mark).
Nouns in Ukrainian can also be adjectivised, though to a smaller degree than in English, being used as appositives only. For example: джаз-оркестр, поет-воїн, місто Київ, фабрика-кухня, вагон-ресторан, дівчина-танкіст, жінка-космонавт/космонавтка, etc.
Ukrainian nouns can be adverbialised as well: зайти в гості, проситися у відпустку (куди?), бути на канікулах (де?), брати в борг, їхати зайцем (як?), домовитися по телефону (як?), підписати (щось) з переляку (як?), etc.
Specifically English Types of Word-Formation
Among the productive word-forming types completely foreign to Ukrainian is to be pointed out first of all conversion. The latter is performed according to some models of "converting" nouns into verbs or verbs into nouns, adjectives into nouns or nouns into adjectives, which can be seen from the examples below:
1. N>V
a chairman > to chairman a butcher > to butcher a boss > to boss an X-ray > to X-ray
2. V>N
to catch > the catch to look > a look to ride > a ride to know how > (the) know-how
Verbs in English can often be formed as a result of converting other parts of speech as well. Cf. down (adv.) > to down (a plane),- verb
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encore (interj.) to encore - verb, pooh-pooh (interj.) > to pooh-pooh,
- verb, etc.
Note. Ukrainian verbs can also be often formed from other parts of speech - interjections, pronouns, and particles by adding the suffixes -ка-ти. Cf. бах (intey.) - бахкати (verb), гей - гейкати, не - чекати, но - нокати, ти/ви - тикати (не тикайте на мене)/викати, цить
- цитькати, ух - ухкати, штокати (contemptuously), etc.
Likewise English adjectives can easily be converted into nouns, and vice versa, according to the following patterns:
3.A>N 4. N>A
Intellectual (a) > an intellectual (n) maiden (n) > maiden (a)
progressive (a) > a progressive (n) sidelong (n) >sidelong (a)
Ukrainian (a) > a Ukrainian (n) sluggard (n) > sluggard (a)
young (a) > a/the young (n) Zionist (n) > Zionist (a)
Among other specifically English types of word-formation the following should be first of all pointed out:
The sound interchange (i.e. short vs. long): bit - beat, cot - court, kin - keen, live - life, prove - proof, rid - read, sit - seat, etc.
Lexicalisation of some plural forms of nouns like colour — co lours (military banner), glass — glasses (eye-glasses, opera-glasses), line - lines (poetic works), etc.
The phonomorphological word-formation which is closely con nected with the abbreviation proper. Cf. Mr. for mister, Mrs. (mistress), govt. (government), Sgt. (sergeant), memo (memorandum), demo (dem onstration), D (Lady D) princess Diana, and many others.
Typology of Idiomatic and Set Expressions
The idiomatic and set expressions, i.e. lexically and often structurally stable units of lexicon present a universal phenomenon. Structurally, they may be in all languages 1) Sentence idioms (time and tide wait for no man, на козаку нема знаку); 2) Word-group idioms (Ten Commandments, to be or not to be, десять заповідей, бути чи не бути);
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3) Metaphorically generalised proper names (sometimes geographical names) as Jack Ketch (hangman), Tom Pepper(great Her), Tom Tailor (tailor), Tom Thumb (a small man, a Liliputian), Mrs. Grundy, Tom, Dick, and Harry (перший-ліпший), Nosy Parker (людина, що втручається/суне ніс не в свої справи). Similarly in Ukrainian: Макар Касян, i.e. (ненажера), Чалий (підступна, зрадлива людина); Герострат, Ксантипа (сварлива Сократова дружина), язиката Хвеська, сердешна Оксана and many others. Their transparent metaphorical meaning is indisputable in the contrasted languages.
Presumably common in all languages are also the paradigmatic classes of idioms which may be substantival (the Trojan horse, the sword of Damocles; троянський кінь, дамоклів меч); verbal (to have one's heart in one's mouth, to take the bull by the horns; брати бика за роги, пекти раків); adverbial (by and again, tit for tat; no всіх усюдах, тут і там, скрізь і всюди), etc. Idiomatic expressions in English and Ukrainian and in all other languages may perform common functions in the sentence, namely, that of a) the subject (Hobson's choice is an idiom); b) the predicate/predicative (That was a Hobson's choice for him); c) the object (He translated correctly the idiom "Hob-son's choice " into Ukrainian); d) the adverbial modifier (He will do it by hook or by crook). Similarly in Ukrainian: дамоклів меч ~ ідіома; він утре їм носа; вона не хоче пекти раків; кров з носа, а зроблю це.
Besides, idiomatic expressions exist in all languages either as 1) absolute equivalents having all components the same and absolutely identical or slightly different meaning in some languages of a historically, culturally and mostly geographically close region, as is the case with the idiomatic expressions of the European area as the heel of Achilles ахіллесова п'ята, the Trojan horse троянський кінь, the tree of knowledge дерево/древо пізнання, thirty pieces of silver тридцять срібняків, etc. 2) Idiomatic expressions may also exist as near equivalents, i.e. when having in some (usually different) languages one or more components missing or different as in other (contrasted) languages. For example: to kiss the post поцілувати замок, as pale as paper блідий як стіна', grass widow — солом'яна вдова, measure twice, cut once сім раз одміряй, а раз одріж; to know smth. as one knows
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his ten fingers знати щось, як своїх п'ять пальців. Or in Japanese: to live like dog and monkey, i.e. to live as cat and dog; 3) The third common class of idiomatic expressions and not only in the contrasted languages constitute genuine and approximate idiomatic analogies. The latter have in English and Ukrainian similar meaning but different componental structures. Cf. a fly in the ointment, make haste slowly; ложка дьогтю в бочці меду, тихіше їдеш — далі будеш.
National idioms present a separate universal feature pertained to all languages. These idioms are formed on the basis of the component parts/ images characteristic of a definite national community and its language. Thus, only in English exist such idioms as to dine with Duke Humphry, to cut off with a shilling, or to accept the Chiltern Hundreds, and only in Ukrainian such idioms as передати куті меду, впіймати облизня, ставити на карб, пекти раків,утерти носа, etc.
Typologically relevant is also the identification of the group of regular international idioms, which are common, however, only in some groups of geographically closer languages (cf. European, South-Asian, Far Eastern). Nevertheless there scarcely exist universal idioms of the same lexical meaning and the same component structure. This is the result of the historical development of languages which were exerted in different geographical/racial areas to different cultural, religious and other influences. Thus, all European nations and their languages have been influenced by Greek and Roman cultures and by Christianity. As a result, there are many not only words but also idioms borrowed from Greek, Hebrew and Latin (cf. Pandora's box, Herculean pillars, Gordian knot, between Scylla and Charybdis, to cross the Rubicon; 1 came, I saw, I conquered; the Ten Commandments, wise Solomon, prodigal son/to be in (the) seventh heaven and many others). These and the like idiomatic expressions, including several proverbs and sayings, have usually absolute or near equivalents in languages of one culturally and geographically common area. Such common historical, semantic, componental and sometimes even structural equivalents can be seen on the following few examples given below.
It must be pointed out that these and many other international idioms are alien, however, to Chinese, Japanese, Aleutian, Indonesian and other
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|Ukrainian |English |German |Italian |
|блудний син |prodical son |der verlorene Sohn |il figlio prodigo |
|куй залізо доки гаряче|strike the iron |schmiede das eisen |battere il ferro quando e|
| |while it is hot |solange es heiss ist |caldo |
|крокодилячі сльози |crocodile's tears |Krokodilstränen |le lacrime di coccodrillo|
|нема диму без вогню |no smoke without |wo Rauch ist, da ist |non ce fumo senza fuoco |
| |fire |auch Feuer | |
|гратися з вогнем |to play with fire |mit dem Feuer spielen |scherzare col fuoco |
languages whose peoples have been brought up in other historic, cultural and religious (Moslem, Buddhist, etc.) conditions. As a result, there exist no universally equivalent idioms of identical semantic, componental, picturesque or syntactic structure. And yet, because of the existence of many common vital needs of all humans the world over and to a great measure due to many common natural conditions of life, and not in a smaller measure due to common living working conditions, which people practically experience during their everyday activities in different parts of the world, there appeared some correlating/relevant idiomatic expressions of semantically similar/analogous or even common nature even in genealogically and culturally non-related languages. These idiomatic expressions comprise apart from some regular idioms also proverbs/sayings and stable/set expressions. A most fitting language for the рифове would naturally be the one standing farthest from the European languages as, for example, the Japanese language. It has undoubtedly several grammatical and other peculiarities of its own that are not available in all other European languages. Because of this it was found apt enough for contrasting some of its idiomatic expressions with the English and Ukrainian ones. The material for our contrastive analysis was found in the four languages dictionary by Taiji Takashima* containing 800 Japanese idiomatic and stable expressions and their English, German, French and in some cases even Latin semantically correspondent idiomatic and set counterparts. The result came out as was naturally expected: only some seven to eight idiomatic and set expressions
' See: Taiji Takashima. Fountain of Japanese Proverbs. The Hokuseido Press: Tokyo, 1981, 377 pages.
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out of 800 coincide in their componental structure and meaning, i.e. are complete equivalents in these four languages. This makes only about 0,01% of their total number in the dictionary. These equivalents are as follows:
|In English |In Ukrainian |In Japanese transcription |
|1 . The more the better 2. Time|Чим більше, тим краще Час - це|Tata masu-masu benzu Toki wa |
|is money 3. There is no rule |гроші Правил без винятків не |kane nari Reigai no nai |
|without exception 4. History |буває Історія повторюється І |kisoku wa nai |
|repeats itself 5. A drowning |за соломинку вхопиться, хто |Rekishi wa kurikaesu Oborum |
|man will catch at a straw 6. If|топиться Побіжиш за двома |mono wa wara ото tsukama Nito|
|you run after two hares, you |зайцями, не впіймаєш жодного |о ou-mono wa, itto ото ezu |
|will catch neither | | |
|7. Rome was not built in one |Рим був побудований не за один|Roma wa ichi-nitchi ni shite |
|day 8. Money begets money |день Гроші йдуть до грошей |nasaru Kane ga kane о umu |
Some of the above-given stable and idiomatic expressions are undoubtedly direct borrowings from the European languages. The first and most evident of them is, of course, Rome was not built in one day, time is money, if you run after two hares you will catch neither and some others. Therefore, their Japanese origin can in reality be doubted. Still more doubted can be their wide circulation in spoken/colloquial Japanese.
There exist, however, a comparatively larger number of near equivalents in the three contrasted languages. These are idiomatic expressions, proverbs or sayings containing one or more common component and having close to identical or similar meaning in English, Ukrainian and Japanese. For example, the English and Ukrainian idiom habit is a second nature has in Japanese a somewhat different semantic and componental equivalent: Habit becomes nature Narai sei to naru. Therefore, one component (the second] is missing in Japanese. Similar omissions or non-coincidences can be observed in some other near equivalents of the contrasted languages. Cf. the Japanese idiomatic expression shiro hire to in which means to call white black (as in Ukrainian називати біле чорним), whereas in English one says to talk black into white. Similar slight differences are observed in other Japanese and European idiomatic expression. Cf. in Japanese: Migi no mimi kara hideri no mimi — to go in at the right ear and out at the left or in English go in at one ear and out at the other, which is in Ukrainian в одне вухо влітає, а з другого вилітає.
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All in all, therefore, the number of absolute or nearly absolute idiomatic expressions, having in each of the contrasted languages the same or almost the same semantic and componental structure, may rise to ten or even to a few more. Nevertheless, it gives scarcely any ground for a serious assumption as to the existence of universal idiomatic expressions of the same meaning, nothing to say about their componental and structural identity.
And yet the environmental and social conditions of life and regular vital needs may define and even predetermine not only the behavior of people, but also their ways of thinking in different parts of the world. Consequently, it may be assumed that some near idiomatic equivalents and analogies may still come to being (and exist) in absolutely different languages. Moreover, one can come across some near equivalents and still more across genuine idiomatic analogies, which are sense units similar only in sense in genealogically not related languages.
As has been pointed out, near or incomplete idiomatic equivalents have usually one or more components common in the counter-opposed idioms/stable expressions in each of the three contrasted languages. One can easily ascertain this when comparing the few examples below of some closest componentally and semantically idiomatic near equivalents of the English, Ukrainian and Japanese languages.
|In English |In Ukrainian |In Japanese (as presented in |
| | |English componental |
| | |translation) |
|1 . To lead a cat and dog life |Жити як кіт із собакою По |(Live) like dog and monkey |
|2. To cut ones coat according |своєму ліжку простягай ніжки |The crab digs a hole |
|to one's cloth 3. Love and |Любов сліпа (сліпа любов) |according to his shell Love |
|reason do not go together 4. |Хто рано встає, тому Бог дає |is beyond consideration |
|The early bird catches the worm|Ясно, як Божий день |The early riser gains three |
|5. As clear as day light | |mon (money unit) Clearer than|
| | |seeing fire |
The examples above prove the existence in the Japanese language (and certainly in other languages of the world) of two main types of common near equivalents: 1) those having common component parts and 2) those being very close semantically. The former are presented in four of the above-given examples (their common components are in bold type). Cf. the English to lead a cat and dog life with the Japanese to live
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like dog and monkey and the Ukrainian жити як кіт із собакою.
The semantically close near equivalents which constitute a considerable number of idiomatic expressions in the above-mentioned Japanese and English dictionary are presented in column 2 above. They are: to cut one's coat according to one's cloth по своєму ліжку простягати ніжки and in Japanese (in English translation) The crab digs a hole according to his shell. The number of near equivalents of both types is about 80, which corresponds to ab. 10% of their total number of the above-mentioned Japanese, English, German and French dictionary. Therefore, the correlation of the universal near equivalents can certainly be supposed to be larger as compared with the scarce number of absolute idiomatic equivalents presented not only in English and Ukrainian (in comparison to the Japanese ones), but also including the corresponding German and French examples given in the above-mentioned dictionary of Taiji Takashia.
According to the typological calculation, the number of genuine and approximate idiomatic analogies in genealogically non-related languages by far exceeds the number of absolute and near equivalents in them. The three contrasted above languages are no exception of this rule. Most of semantic correspondences in English, Ukrainian and Japanese are also genuine or approximate analogies. This can be seen from the following few examples presenting the overwhelming majority of analogies as compared with the correlated number of the few near and absolute equivalents that were found in the above-named dictionary of Japanese idiomatic and stable expressions. Here are some of them:
|In English |In Ukrainian |Japanese analogies in |
| | |English translation |
|1 . To take a musket to kill |Стріляти з гармати по |Why use a meat cleaver |
|a butterfly |горобцях |to cut up a chicken? |
|2. Shut the stable-door |Замкнути конюшню, як |To see a thief and make a |
|after the horse is stolen |коня вкрали |rope |
|3. The higher the ape goes, |Далі в ліс, більше дров (що |The knight jumps too far |
|the more he his tail shows |далі в ліс, то більше дров) | |
|4. To grease somebody's |"Позолотити" руку (дати |To apply nose ointment |
|palm |хабаря) | |
|5. Let sleeping dogs lie |Не чіпай лиха, поки тихо |Gods left alone do not |
|(Wake not a sleeping lion) |(поки воно спить) |curse |
|6. All cats are grey in the |Уночі що сіре, то й вовк |At night, at a distance, |
|dark | |wearing a hat |
As could be seen from the above listed examples, genuine idiomatic
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analogies even in genealogically not akin languages are semantically more transparent than the approximate phraseological/idiomatic analogies. This can be seen from the so-called Japanese idiomatic expressions listed under number 1, 2,5 and 6. Thus, №1 Why use a meat cleaver to cut up a chicken? corresponds to the English To take a musket to kill a butterfly or to the Ukrainian стріляти з гармати по горобцях. Similarly in the Japanese No 2: to see a thief and make a rope which corresponds to the English to shut the stable-door after the horse is stolen and to the Ukrainian замкнути конюшню, як коня вкрали and others.
Approximate analogies, naturally, are still more obscure due to their componental parts/images which are mostly very different in non-related/far distant, as in case of the Japanese languages. Sometimes they are hardly recognizable for the Europeans in general. Cf. for example, the one listed under №3: The knight jumps too far that corresponds to the English Let sleeping dogs lie and to the Ukrainian idiom He чіпай лихо, доки тихо. Similarly in № 4: To apply nose ointment which corresponds to the English To grease somebody's palm and in Ukrainian "позолотити руку " (дати хабаря).
Therefore, typologically relevant universal idiomatic expressions may presumably be found only among the group/class of idiomatic near equivalents and among the so-called genuine and approximate idiomatic analogies, which are stable expressions having different componental parts/ images but a similar/analogous lexical meaning.
Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation
Point to the extralingual factors predetermining the birth and func tioning of universal lexicon.
Name and characterise all existing approaches to and principles of the systemic study and classification of lexicon.
Point out the common/isomorphic and divergent/allomorphic fea tures in the onomasiological structure of some English vs. Ukrainian no tional and functional words.
Point to the correlation of the phonetic/phonological, morphologi cal, and semantic types of motivation in the lexical units of English and Ukrainian.
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Point out the typologically isomorphic layers of lexicon in the En glish and Ukrainian languages. State the correlation between the stylisti cally neutral and stylistically evaluative units of lexicon in the contrasted languages.
Characterise the socially predetermined layers of lexicon in the contrasted languages. Expand on the international terminological, pro fessional, literary, colloquial, low colloquial etc. words and expressions in the contrasted languages.
Expand on the 1) common Indo-European stock of words in En glish and Ukrainian 2) on nationally specific English vs. Ukrainian lexis.
Define the types of derivational morphemes/affixes and the role of agglutination in English and Ukrainian word-formation.
Speak on the national and international word-forming/affixal mor phemes in English and Ukrainian.
Expand on the phenomenon of substantivisation, adjectivisation, verbalisation and adverbialisation in English and Ukrainian.
Expand on the typological isomorphism of suppletivity as a word- formating and form-building means in English and Ukrainian.
13.Point out the isomorphic and allomorphic features in the identification, classification and functioning of international, national, and universal types of idiomatic expressions.
14. Expand on the typological classification of idiomatic and stable expressions in the genealogically different languages.
Exercises for Class and Homework
Exercise I. Read carefully the А, В and C passages. Identify in each of them: a) notionals forming a layer of lexicon due to the environmental principle and b) notionals forming a layer of lexicon due to the socially predetermined principle.
A. Suleiman-din-Daoud was wise. He understood what the beasts said, what the birds said, what the fishes said and what the insects said. He understood what the rocks said deep under the earth when they bowed in towards each other and groaned: and he understood what the trees said when they rustled in the middle of the morning. (Kipling)
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В. М. Kotsyubynskyi was at the centre of civic initiatives in Chernihiv, where he collaborated with the Prosvita, a Ukrainian organisation for the promotion of education and culture. The Chernihiv period was remarkably prolific for Kotsyubynskyi, who wrote quite a few essays, sketches, novelettes and stories, in which he identified himself with the European school of psychological prose. (Ukraine, № 8)
The State Tax Administration (STA) has announced it has busted a well-developed network of bogus facilities which launder shadow funds. It was found that the Taki Dila (Such Things) publishing house was involved in legalising the latter, the STA press service says. The tax administration considers this facility an active law breaker and has inspected it out of political considerations but because is was part of a widespread money laundering network, which used for this purpose bogus firms, commercial straw men forged documents, and contracts. Moreover, the STA inspection was pursuant to a Central Electoral Commission request to check the reports that Yuliya Tymoshenko's bloc was violating Election law in producing printed matter.
It was found that a subsidiary had put to its own accounts hundreds of thousands of hryvnias it received from the Product BVO bogus firm which contracted Taki Dila to produce printed matter for the Tymoshenko's election bloc and laundered this money by having this order filled. (The Day)
Exercise II. Analyse the meaning of each noun, adjective and cardinal numeral in the English and Ukrainian passages below. State, whether their meanings are denotative only or connotative only.
A. Liquid crystals display screens, or LCD's are used in many lap top computers, calculators and other electronic devices. It may not be long before the screens of full-size personal computers and television sets are made of liquid crystals, too.
B. У контрабандистки було виявлено ікони, 4208 американських доларів, 1500 франків, 410 російських рублів, 13260 західнонімецьких марок, 1620 польських злотих, а також злитки золота вагою 112,72 грама. (З газет).
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Exercise III. Read carefully first the English and then the Ukrainian passage below and point out the animal names which have apart from their denotative meaning also a connotative meaning in one of the contrasted languages only or in both the contrasted languages.
A. The Dog was wild, and the Horse was wild, and the Cow was wild, and the Sheep was wild, and the Pig was wild. But the wildest of all the wild animals was the Cat. Now there is also the Rat up in the Moon... (Kipling) You only make an ass of yourself... (B. Shaw) "You made a monkey of me last week..." (Carter)
B. За золотими ґратами млів папуга... (Ільченко) Вирячився, як баран на нові ворота. Вовком дивиться. (Приказки) ...а капітани — справжні морські вовки. (Яновський) Як же це ти таку ґаву упіймав... (Кропивницький). Хлоп'ята стали грати у свинки. (Мирний). А соцький, він свиня пиката. (Кропивницький)
Exercise IV. Try to prove the universal nature of the socially distinct
layers/ groups of lexicon in the passages below.
A. I wad na been surpris'd to spy would not have been
You on an auld wife's flainen toy; old flannel cap
Or aiblings some bit duddie boy, maybe small ragged
On's wyliecoat; flannel vest
But Miss's fine Lunardi! fye! ballon, bonnet
How daur ye do't! (R. Burns. To a Louse) dare
В. Зблизившися до хати, він поздоровив її і станув на хвилинку. Відтак мусив іти дальше. Все (всі) гуртом погнало до керниці. Декоторі з моїх камратів похорувалися зі спеки, ...а один німець помер, сарака, таки під час маневрів. Ба сеє візьме (Михайло) в руки, ба теє. Ба йде в поле, ба вештається коло тварин, коло бджіл. (Кобилянська).
Exercise V. Read the English and Ukrainian sentences/lines carefully and state, whether the divergences in the means of expressing stylistic/genre peculiarities of speech testify to the systemic organisation of lexicon in English and Ukrainian.
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A. Ye voices, that arose After the Evening close And Whispered to my restless heart repose, Spake full well in language quaint and olden. One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine... (Longfellow) I speak not, I trace not, I breathe not thy name. (Byron) Hark! heard you not the for est, monarch's roar? Thrice sounds the clarion; Lo! the signal falls. In truth he was a noble steed. A Tartar of the Ukraine breed. Awake, bold Blight! the foe is at the gate! Without a sigh he left to cross the brine. A few short hours, and he will rise To give the morrow birth: and I shall hail the main and skies... Strange pangs would flash Along Child Harold's brow. (After Byron)
B. Так, вже знялася бранная тривога, Коні ржуть, почувши дим війни. (Кочерга) Прийдуть роки, з полону бранець верне. (Л. Українка) Двадцятий вік нову главу в історії почав. (Дорошко) Ще сідла там були... І крицеві панцири. (Ільченко) Йде вояк, закутий в зброю. Щит червлений на руці. (Олесь) Ланіти і уста марніють зримо. (Шевченк) Літа пригасили горе... (Стельмах) Ой поїхав з України козак молоденький — Оріхове сіделечко, ще й кінь вороненький. (Народна пісня)
Exercise VI. Read and translate the English (A) words into Ukrainian and the (B) words into English. Point out a) words whose onomasiological form and semasiological structure coincides and b) words whose onomasiological form and semasiological structures do not coincide in the contrasted languages.
Model: five п'ять — the onomasiological form and the semasiological structure of the word coincide; ski (v) ходити на лижвах (word-group) — the onomasiological form is different in Ukrainian; рука hand/ arm — the semasiological structure of the word is larger in English.
A. Blue, red, two-thirds, forty, handsome, akimbo, fall in love, good- for-nothing (n), merry-go-round, forget-me-not, examinee, portable (n), snow-ball, participate, teach-in, fishing-rod, ink-pot, sidewise, hairdress er, decamp, perfectible.
B. Розкохати (когось), свататися, господарювати, спатки, окріп, літепло, санітар, миттєво, самотужки, самохіть, вусики, вустонька, кулачище, кабанюга, кільканадцять, щонайкраще, якнайбільше, по-
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нашому, нога, палець, покашлювати, попоїсти, попоходити, славитися, викати, тикати, нікати/некати, штокати.
Exercise VII. Read the English and Ukrainian words and word-combinations below. Point to the existence or non-existence of isomorphism and the types of their motivation in the contrasted languages.
A. Black, blacken, large, enlarge, examinee, forget, unforgettable, good, goodish, hang, hiss, moo, cock-a-doodle-doo; foot of a mountain, school of fish, arms of a coat, arms of a chair/of a tree, to warm the viper, to make both ends meet, to have a sleepless pillow, to man ships.
B. Збір, збирач, вимога, вимогливий, товариський, кульбаба, кульбабовий, гейкати, мекати, ґелґотати, сьорбати, дзеленчати," квітень, квітневий, лютий, лютневий, підкопуватися (під когось), носити каменя в пазусі, рісочки в роті не мати, не знати ні бе, ні ме/ ні кукуріку, купатися в розкошах, липкий на руку, пастися в чужому городі, пастися в чужому зошиті.
Exercise VIII. Analyse carefully the given groups of English and Ukrainian words and word-groups/stable expressions below. Try to allot them to the corresponding layers of lexicon: internationalisms (terms), professionalisms, archaisms, neologisms, poetisms. State their typologically national or universal nature.
A. Electron, bacteria, cholera, motor, computer, theorem, triangle, grammar, physics, jurisdiction, lawyer, teacher, dentist, poem, culture, addition/summation, subtraction, pronoun, attribute, predicate, prefix, cu bic equation, outer space, specific gravity, scooling, telelecture, drug, educationalist, anarch, sire, albeit, harken.
B. Кібернетика, література, музика, поезія, академія, інститут, журнал, пекар, письменник, хлібороб, фінанси, валютний фонд, педагогіка, філософія, консенсус, імпічмент, ламбада, рекет, орендар, скрижалі, мечники, списники, осавули, земне тяжіння, питома вага, електричне поле, коротке замикання, керування, узгодження.
Exercise IX. Compare each of the 4 corresponding types of idiomatic expressions in English and Ukrainian. Give your reasons for the non-existence of absolute onomasiological equivalents and the existence of
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some semasiological variants in all languages of the world.
A. Achilles' heel, to cross the Rubicon, the apple of one's eye, be tween Scylla and Charybdis,the labour of Sisyphus, the massacre of the innocents, the Trojan horse, a prodigal son, the Ten Commandments, wise Solomon, the game is/is not worth the candles, Augean stables.
B. A crooked stick throws a crooked shadow, strike the iron while it is hot, when at Rome do as the Romans do, there is no use crying over spilled milk, scratch my back and I'll scratch yours, a good beginning is half the battle, the iron heel, when pigs fly.
C. To do harm, to make decision, to be in a hurry, to be on the alert, to keep within the law, to make money, to take part, to say the truth, to throw light, to turn smth. upside down, a war of words, what of it? to take measures, to say no/yes, strike the iron while it is hot, never say die.
D. To accept the Chiltern Hundreds, to cut off with a shilling, Hob- son's choice, to dine with Duke Humphrey, to mind one's p's and q's, to treat like a lord, time is money, when Queen Ann was alive, a pretty penny, to carry coals to Newcastle, to fight like Kilkenny cats.
A. Альфа й омега, гордіїв вузол, жереб кинуто, канути в Лету, око за око, зуб за зуб; золотий телець, бути на сьомому небі, Пандорина скринька, пригріти гадюку в пазусі, галас волаючого в пустелі, винищення немовлят, блудний син, тридцять срібняків.
Б. Кирпу гнути (дерти носа); народитися в сорочці; не знати ні бе, ні ме; що з воза впало, те пропало; скажеш гоп, як перескочиш; не спитавши броду, не лізь у воду; накивати п'ятами; що кому, а курці просо; не вчи вченого; який батько - такий син, яка хата -такий тин; нізащо в світі, загнати туди, де Макар телят не пас.
B. Водити компанію, володіти собою, волосся стає дибки, вразливе місце, грати на нервах, гучна слава, давати дорогу, давати змогу, дивитися здивовано/великими очима, морочити собі голову, поширювати чутки, верзти/молоти нісенітниці, казав пан кожух дам.
Г. Збити з пантелику, дурне сало без хліба, пекти раки, скакати в гречку, товкти воду в ступі, ложка дьогтю в бочці меду, наговорити сім кіп/мішків гречаної вовни, на козаку нема знаку; товчеться, як Марко в пеклі, (не довго) ряст топтати, не спіши поперед батька в пекло, як чугуївська верства, ти його хрести, а воно кричить "пусти".
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TYPOLOGY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF THE CONTRASTED LANGUAGES
The morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages are characterised by a considerable number of isomorphic as well as of several allomorphic features. The isomorphic features are due to the common Indo-European origin of the two languages, while allomorphisms have been acquired by English and Ukrainian in the course of their historical development and functioning as independent national languages.
The main typological constants that make the object of contrasting at the morphological level of English and Ukrainian, and not only of these but also of many other languages, are three. These are 1) the morpheme; 2) the parts of speech; 3) their morphological categories.
The principal typological constant of the morphological level is, of course, the morpheme which is endowed in both contrasted languages with some minimal meaning. As to its structure, the morpheme may be
simple (one-phoneme): a-, -s, -t (alike, says, burnt) in English and -a, -u, -у, з-, c-, etc. in Ukrainian (весна, хати, беру, з'їсти, сховати) or
compound (-ment, -hood, -ward, -ство, -ський, -цький) as in man agement, brotherhood, seaward, суспільство, сільський, ткацький. The complexity of its nature, structure and meaning makes the morpheme one of the main objects of contrastive study at the morphological level. Moreover, the morpheme in English and Ukrainian has some peculiar fea tures, which are characteristic of each of these contrasted languages.
Isomorphisms and Allomorphisms in the Morphemic Structure of English and Ukrainian Words
The morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit and it can be in the contrasted languages either free or bound. Free or root morphemes are
lexically and functionally not dependent on other morphemes. They may be regular words (cf. boy, day, he, four, день, кінь, річ, він, три) or they may constitute the lexical core of a word. Eg.: boyhood, daily, fourth, денна, нічний, тричі, etc. In other words, root morphemes in English, Ukrainian and other languages are not dependent on other morphemes in
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a word. Bound morphemes, on the other hand, can not function independently: they are bound to the root or to the stem consisting of the root morpheme and of one or more affixal morphemes. Cf.: days, spoken, fourteen, overcome, government, дивно, розумом, дні, нашим), etc. Bound morphemes like -s, -en, - teen, over-, -ment, -о, -ом, -і, ~им in either of the two languages can not exist independently, i.e. they are not free but always dependent on roots or stems of their words.
Root morphemes. Due to its historical development, English has also a much larger number of morphologically unmarked words, i.e. regular root morphemes, than Ukrainian. Consequently, the number of inflexions expressing the morphological categories is much smaller in English than in Ukrainian. Moreover, a lot of notionals in English lack even the affixes which can identify their lexico-morphological nature. Free root-morphemed words, though fewer in Ukrainian, are still represented in all lexico-morphological classes as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. of both contrasted languages. Cf. arm, pen, boy, work, do, red, he, she, it, five, this, ten, here, far, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: ніс, лоб, чуб, ти, варт, хто, три, тут, де, він, etc.
Free root morphemes in English and Ukrainian can also be functionals: but, till, on, not, through, just (a moment), мов, геть, так, певне, може, ох, дзень, гав, не, ні, від, на, під, etc.
Root morphemes in English can often form part of the stem, which is especially characteristic of present-day Ukrainian, for example: workers, friendliness, concerning, beautiful; робітництво, безмежність, переодягнутися, переробивши, тепленько, теплесенько, etc.
Affixal morphemes in the contrasted languages split into a) Derivational morphemes which are in English and Ukrainian mainly suffixes and sometimes also prefixes. The number of suffixes in the contrasted languages considerably exceeds the number of prefixes. So is, naturally, the significance of the former as word-forming means, the latter (prefixes) performing only in a few cases a word-building function in Ukrainian. The number of suffixes in English does not exceed 100, there being 60 noun-forming, 26 adjective-forming, 5 verb-forming and 3 adverb-forming suffixes [13, 159 — 160]. Among the noun-indicating/form-ing suffixes in English are -асу, -ance, -ion, -dom, -er, -ess, -hood, -ics,
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-ism, -ity, -ment, -ness, -ship, -ty and others. Cf. democracy, alliance, delegation, freedom, writer, falsehood, politics, feudalism, government, management, fitness, likeness, penmanship, friendship, loyalty, etc. The adjective-indicating suffixes are: -able, -al, -ial, -fold, -ful, -ic, -ile, -ish, -less, -ous, -some, -ward, -y and some others. Cf. capable, formal, presidential, manifold, grateful, laconic, futile, selfish, meaningless, dangerous, tiresome, eastward, happy, silly, etc. The verb-indicating suffixes are -ate, -en, -esce, -ify, -ise. Cf. negotiate, facilitate, blacken, shorten, acquiesce, beautify, purify, demobilise, organise. The adverb-indicating suffixes are -ly, -wards, -ward, -ways: quickly, slowly, southward/southwards, sideways, etc.
Ukrainian word-forming suffixes are more numerous and also more diverse by their nature, there being special suffixes to identify different genders of nouns that are practically missing in English. Thus, masculine gender suffixes of nouns in Ukrainian are: -ник, -івник, -їльник, -ч, -ік/-їк, -ець/-єць, -ар/-яр, -ир, -ист, -іст, -тель, -аль and others. Eg.: медик, господарник, рахівник, керманич, кравець, хімік, прозаїк, боєць, шахтар, муляр, бригадир, збирач, діяч, окуліст, вихователь, скрипаль, etc.
Suffixes of feminine gender in Ukrainian usually follow the masculine gender suffix in the noun stem, the most frequent of the former being -к/а/, -иц/я/, -ес/а/, -ух/а/, -ш/а/, -івн/а/, etc. Cf. виховат-ель-к-а, рад-ист-к-а, спів-ан-к-а, уч-ен-иц-я, ткач-их-а, поет-ес-а, коваль-івн-а, морг-ух-а, директ-ор-ш-а, Семенів-на. The corresponding English suffixes (-or, -ess, -me, -rix, -ine, and -ette) identify the masculine and feminine sex and not the grammatical gender. Cf. actor, emperor, actress, poetess, directrix, emperatrix, heroine, suffragette. English nouns with the so-called gender suffixes do not differ functionally from other nouns which have no such suffixes. Eg: The actor/actress sang and The bird sang. Ukrainian gender nouns, however, always require corresponding gender forms in attributes and predicates. Eg.: молодий артист співав. Гарна артистка співала. Ранкове небо сіріло. Малі пташки співали, чорний ворон сидів, сива ворона сиділа, сіре котеня нявкало.
Ukrainian suffixes can form nouns of the feminine gender denoting
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non-human beings as animals, birds, insects, as well as some class nouns, abstract and collective nouns, for example: сніг-ур-к-а, переп-іл-к-а, цвірк-ун-к-а, паруб-от-а, рід-н-я, бор-н-я, біган-ин-а, бороть-6-а, сприт-ність, свіж-ин-а, балака-ни-на.
Suffixes of the neuter gender are mostly used in Ukrainian to identify abstract and collective nouns and names of materials, babies, cubs, nurslings, as in the following nouns: жіно-цтв-о, учитель-ств-о, нероб-ств-о, бади-лл-я, заси-лл-я, збі-жж-я, кло-чч-я, смі-тт-я, горі-нн-я, велі-нн-я, терп-інн-я.
Apart from the afore-mentioned, there exist in Ukrainian large groups of evaluative diminutive and augmentative noun suffixes as in зір-оньк-а, сон-ечк-о, руч-ищ-е, голов-ешк-а, биц-юр-а, кабан-юр-а, etc. and patronimic suffixes like -енк-о, -ук, -чук, -ун, -щук, -ець, etc. (cf. Бондаренко, Головащук, Петрук, Поліщук, Чергинець, Литвинець, Лівшун, Мовчун).
The number of suffixes forming only diminutive nouns in Ukrainian is as many as 53, compared with 16 suffixes in English, only 4 of which are practically productive (cf. gooseling, girlie, booklet, daddy, granny). Neither is there identity in the formation of English and Ukrainian statives, the latter mostly having in Ukrainian the same form as adverbs or modal words (cf. прикро, душно, треба, краще, etc.). These groups of suffixes (as can be seen below) pertain to English as well, but they are much less represented. Nevertheless, despite the difference in the quantity and quality of suffixes, they perform in English and Ukrainian an isomorphic (either the word-forming or form-building) function. This can also be seen from the following few examples:
English Word-Forming Suffixes
a) noun-forming suffixes:
-er, -or, -hood, -ment, -ance: worker, sailor, falsehood, government, alliance, appearance;
b) adjective-forming suffixes: -y, -ful, -able (-ible), -less: rocky, joyful, reliable, useless;
Ukrainian Word-Forming Suffixes
a) іменникові:
-ель, -ець, -ник, -інь, -ість,-ність:
вчитель, борець, робітник, глибінь, чинник, давність, гордість;
b) дієслівні:
-ну, -ти, -ува, -юва: куснути, зимувати, днювати;
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c) verb-forming suffixes:
-ise, -en: realise, shorten, blacken; -ate, -fy: elaborate, signify;
d) adverb-forming suffixes:
-fold, -ce, -ward, -ly: twofold, thrice, nicely, homeward, etc.
c) прикметникові:
-к,-ив, -лив: близький, правдивий, міський, примхливий;
d) прислівникові:
-но, -чі, -ки, -ма: пошепки, сидьма, двічі, горілиць, сонно, вічно.
Form-building suffixes in English and Ukrainian, when added to the root (or to the stem of a word), change the form of these words, adding some new shade to their lexical meaning. The suffixes may also change the lexical meaning of the stem, for example: Ann — Anny, duck — duckling, hill — hillock, friend — friendship. Kyiv — Kyivans. London — Londoner, four — fourteen — forty, etc. In Ukrainian: дитина — дитинча, лошак — лошачок. Харків - харків'янин, плітка -пліточка, хід - ходанина - походеньки, швидко - швиденько, хутко — хутенько.
Prefixes in the contrasted languages modify the lexical meaning of the word. They may sometimes change even the lexico-grammatical nature of the derivative word. As for example:
|In English |In Ukrainian |
|Nouns: co-existence, enclosure, insight, |безмір, віддаль, зав'язь, підвид, праліс; |
|prorector. Verbs: avert, adjoin, bewrap, |вбігати, накричати, обійти, обмити, |
|subordinate. Adjectives: anomalous, eccentric, |підвести; антивоєнний, надмірний; вголос, |
|non-standard, unable. Statives: ablaze, asleep.|заміж, по-нашому, по-німецьки, поміж, понад;|
|Adverbs: together. Prepositions: below. |оскільки, позаяк, прихід, походеньки, |
|Conjunctions: because, unless, until. |розбити, переміряти, якнайкраще, |
| |щонайшвидше, etc. |
Word-forming prefixes pertain mostly to the English language where they can form different parts of speech. For example, verbs: bedew, bemadam, embed, encamp, enable, denude, disable, endear. Adjectives: anti-war, non-party, pre-war, post-war. Statives: aboard, alike, asleep. Adverbs: today, tomorrow, together. Prepositions: below,
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behind. Conjunctions: because, unless, until. In Ukrainian only some conjunctions, prepositions and adverbs can be formed by means of prefixes, for example: вдень, вночі, по-нашому, no-новому, набік, вдруге, втретє, оскільки, внаслідок, вгору, знизу, щонайменше.
Isomorphic is also the use of two (in English) and more (in Ukrainian) prefixes before the root/stem: misrepresentation, re-embankment. In Ukrainian three prefixes may be used to modify the lexical meaning of nouns, adjectives, past participles, and verbs, for example: недовимолот, недовиторг, перерозподіляти, недовимолочений, не/перерозподілений, недовиторгувати, перерозподілити, etc.
Inflexional morphemes in the contrasted languages express different morphological categories. The number of genuine English inflexions today is only 14 to 16. They are noun inflexions, for example: -s (-es), -en, -ren (boys, watches, oxen, children); inflexions of the comparative and the superlative degrees of qualitative adjectives: -er, -est (bigger, biggest); inflexions of degrees of qualitative adverbs: -er/-ier, -est/ -iest (oftener, oftenest; slowliei; slowliest); the verbal inflexions: -s/-es, -d/-ed, -t, -n/-en; he puts/he watches; she learned the rule (burnt the candle); a broken pencil. The inflexions of absolute possessive pronouns: -s, -e: (hers, ours, yours, mine, thine). There are also some genuinely English plural form inflexions of nouns with restricted use. These are the plural form inflexions of kine (poetic for cows), fane (archaic of foes), and shoen (archaic of shoes).
Apart from the genuine English inflexional morphemes there exist some foreign inflexions borrowed and used with nouns of Latin, Greek and French origin only. Among them are Latin inflexions -um - -a (datum — data, erratum — errata, etc.); -us — і (focus — foci, terminus
— termini); -a — ae (formula — formulae); -us — a (generus — genera); -is — es (axis — axes, thesis — theses); -ix — es (appendix
— appendices); -ies — ies (series — series). The few pairs of Greek inflexional oppositions in singular and plural are the following: -is --es (analysis — analyses, basis — bases); -on — a (phenomenon — phe nomena); -ion — ia (criterion — criteria).
In French borrowings only the plural forms are inflected, whereas in singular there are zero inflexions: 0 - s/x (beau — beaus/beaux);
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0 — x (bureau — bureaux); 0 — s (monsieur — messieurs); 0 — es (madam — madams).
The number of inflexions in Ukrainian by far exceeds their number in English since every notional part of speech has a variety of endings. The latter express number, case and gender of nominal parts of speech and tense, aspect, person, number, voice and mood forms of verbs. For example: Петра, Петрові, йому, всіма; червоний - червоного - червоному - червоним, двоє - двох - двом - двома; сонний - сонного
сонному - сонним; танцюючий - танцюючого - танцюючому
танцюючим; даю — даєш — дає — даємо — даєте — дають — даватимемо; читав - читала - читали, читатиму - читати меш - читатимете, etc. Because of the difference in the structural nature of the contrasted languages, their paradigms of the same notion als naturally differ, the Ukrainian paradigms being much richer than the English ones. However in Old English the noun paradigm included 9 different inflexional forms, the weak verbs paradigm had 10 forms, and the paradigm of adjectives - 13 synthetic (inflected) forms. The variety of case inflexions of Ukrainian nouns is also predetermined by the exist ence of four declensions, the first and the second of which have differ ent case and number inflexions. This depends on the nouns belonging to the hard, palatalised or to the mixed stem consonant type (cf. вода — води, учень — учні, поле — поля, лоша — лошата, миша — мишею, доня — донею, etc.).
Some morphological relations and categories in English and Ukrainian (though much rarer) are expressed with the help of analytical means — prepositions, analytical word forms, and particles; for example: to give smth. to Peter, not far from the river, written (painted) with (in)pencil. Analytically expressed are also the degrees of comparison of some adjectives and adverbs (cf. more calm, most calm; more (most) interesting/important; more (most) quickly (slowly), etc. In Ukrainian the construction is less frequently used (cf. більш/менш важливий, найбільш/найменш важливий; більш/менш важливо, найбільш/ найменш важливо, більш/найбільш економна, etc.)
The future tense in Ukrainian can also be expressed analytically though it is closely connected with the modal meaning of certainty (cf. я буду на зборах, ми будемо боротися).
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Only analytical in form is the expression of the passive voice in English, whereas in Ukrainian the present passive has generally a synthetic form, like the past and future passive which can also have a synthetic form of expression; cf. the plant is being built, the plant was being built, the plant will have been built. And in Ukrainian: завод будується (будувався), завод будуватиметься, завод буде будуватися, завод був/буде збудований, though the future form may also be збудується (коли цей завод збудується).
The totality of the synthetic and analytical paradigms of the notional parts of speech in a language reflects the structural peculiarity of the language as a whole. Hence, contrastive morphology also deals: a) with the specific traits of morphemes in languages under contrasted investigation; b) with classes of paradigms (both synthetic and analytical) pertaining to a notional part of speech and reflecting its paradigmatic variety; c) with the morphological categories and their manifestation in the contrasted languages, and d) with the parts of speech and their typological features.
It is worth emphasising that the general implicit and dependent grammatical meanings of notional parts of speech in both languages coincide which considerably facilitates their contrastive investigation. Besides, it should be emphasised that in the process of typological investigation only correlated language units and phenomena can be contrasted. That means that the units or phenomena have to be of the same status, i. e. they have to belong to a common class of units or phenomena in both the languages in question. They have to occupy the same place in both the languages' systems and consequently serve as constants for typological comparison. Common/isomorphic in the contrasted languages are also some other morphological phenomena of word-building nature. Among these are first of all to be mentioned such phenomena as agglutination and suppletivity.
Agglutination at the morphological level represents a mechanical adding of one or more affixal morphemes in pre-position, post-position or in interposition to the root morpheme. Somewhat different, however, is the quantitative representation of the parts of speech that are formed in the contrasted languages by means of preposed agglutinating morphemes.
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In present-day English, which has more zero-morphemed root words than Ukrainian, there exists a larger number of words belonging to different parts of speech and formed by agglutinating prefixes; for example, the verbs: adhere, assure, co-exist, bedim; adjectives: post-war, pre-war; statives: afraid, alike, aloof; adverbs and prepositions: be-side, inside, before, afterwards, unwell, etc.
Prepositive agglutinators apart from forming new parts of speech or creating some shades in the lexical meaning of many such words (cf. do — undo — overdo, lead — mislead; Ukr.: схід — захід — вихід — дохід — прихід, etc.) can also perform some purely grammatical functions. Thus, they can sometimes turn the intransitive verbs into transitive, for example: live — outlive, moan — bemoan, weep — beweep, vote — outvote; Ukrainian: жити — дожити — прожити — пережити, спати — проспати (переспати), плакати — оплакати. In Ukrainian pre-posed affixes can change imperfective verbs into perfective (cf. бити - збити - забити - добити - розбити; вчити - вивчити -довчити - завчити - перевчити).
Post-positive agglutination is observed in both contrasted languages, being in Ukrainian even more frequent than in English. All Ukrainian infinitives without exception are formed by mechanical adding to the root the post-positive morphemes -ти/-ть, -ся, -ки, -оньки, -тусі/-туні (diminutive forms), eg: набити, пролити, змити, опрацювать, злитися, спатки, їстки, питоньки, купці, спатусі/спатуні, etc. In English most of the indefinite form infinitives are pure root-morphemed words (cf. come, live, love, fly, sit, read, swim, warm). There are only some five verbal morphemes that are agglutinated post-positively. These are -ate, -en, -esce, -ify, -ise, eg: create, blacken, acquiesce, purify, civilise, etc. A notable difference in Ukrainian exists, however, in the larger amount (up to four) of affixal preposed agglutinators added to the root morpheme, eg: вхід, вихід, схід, ухил, недосвіт, недовиторг, вздовж, навкруг, навздогін, недоперерозподілити.
Post-positive agglutination is often used to form nouns in both contrasted languages as well. For example, in English: attendance, diary, freedom, employee, hostess, boyhood, pumpkin, highness, friend-
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ship, attitude, politics, mighty, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: чужак, бідняк, дудaр, гуляр, багач, борець, дудик, дудник, нудота, колій, сонливість, холодок, ясність, etc.
Among other parts of speech formed by means of postpositive agglutinators are English relative adjectives (economic, Polish, political. etc.), adverbs of both languages (nicely, sideways, westwards: гарно, швидко, вище)', Ukrainian statives (треба, можна, жалко, прикро, краще); numerals (fifty, sixty, fifteen, eighteen), in Ukrainian: одинадцять, дванадцять, двадцять, сімдесят, etc. Single post-positive affixal morphemes are also agglutinated in the contrasted languages with compound stems of verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, as in the following words: backbiting, cockfighting, trustworthy, grasshopper, skyscraper, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: народоволець, односелець. косоокість, однобічність, мимохідь, загальновизнано, малопереконливо, односторонньо, etc.
Isomorphic is also the post-posed agglutination of two affixal morphemes to a stem. The stems thus formed can be of different lexico-grammatical nature: nouns (capableness, equalizer, responsibility: adjectives (communicable, meaningful, motionless): numerals (thirteenth, twentieth); adverbs (foolishly, nationally, needlessly, powerfully, down-wards, Southwards.
Note. Pre-posed agglutinating affixes lose their grammatical relevance in Ukrainian when accent is employed to identify the imperfective aspect of verbs (cf. забити - забивати, набити - набивати, позичити - позичати, etc.). There are many words in Ukrainian with two post-posed affixal morphemes added to the root as in the reflexive and aspect verbs (with the suffixes знатися, вітатися, мазонути, рубонути. стуконути), and also in such nouns as болючість, будиночок, відповідальність, людськість; in adverbs: тихесенько, ранесенько; in dyjepryslivnyks: борючись, опинившись, тримаючись and others.
Root morphemes in the contrasted languages can be agglutinated pre-posed and post-posed simultaneously as in the English words disagreeableness. incorruptibility, indisputableness, irresponsibility. incommunicableness. unrealistically. Or in Ukrainian: безвідповідальність, заробітчанин, нереалістично, некомунікабельність, перешіптуватися, запобігливість, etc.
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Agglutination is also a productive means of compounding (especially in English) where different parts of speech may be formed in this way — nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, eg: chimney-sweep, money-order, long-away, knee-deep, present-day, short-sighted, broad-minded, long-range, hi-jack, to April-fool, goose-step, cross-examine, plate-rack, sideways, etc. Or in Ukrainian: бурят-монгол, дизель-генератор, двійка-байдарка, шафа-холодильник, кахи-кахи, тиць-миць, човг-човг, сяк-так, хоч-не-хоч, etc. Highly productive in English is also the agglutination with the help of prepositions, eg: stick-ш-the-mud, commander-in-chief, matter-of-fact, up-to-date, etc.
Agglutination of predicative units is observed in both languages though more common it is still in the English language, eg: pick-me-up, forget-me-not, merry-go-round, push-me-pull-me, Gradgrind, Mr. Know-All, etc. (cf. Ukrainian family names as Куйбіда, Неїжмак, Незовибатько, Непийвода, Підкуймуха, Убийвовк, etc.). Only in English, however, there is observed agglutination of abbreviated parts with root nouns like A-bomb, H-bag (handbag), Xmas, X-ray, etc.
Inflexional morphemes in the contrasted languages are also mostly agglutinated to the root or to the stem like other affixal morphemes. Cf. in English nouns: arms, armies, children; in adjectives: longer, longest; in pronouns: hers, mine; in numerals: fifth, second, first; in verbs: does., puts, crept, working; in participles: reading, listening, known, taken. Similarly in Ukrainian: брати/косарі дерева, дівчата; зелений (зелена, зелене, зелені), батьків, батьковим; п'ята (п'ятий, п'яте, п'яті), п'ятого; ваша (вашій, ваше, ваші), вашого; маю, матиму, матимемо; шитий (шита, шите, шиті), шитого... Sometimes, as has already been shown, a word may consist of a regular chain of preposed and post-posed affixal (including inflexional) morphemes (cf. redistributions, недовимолочування).
Apart from outer morphemes that are agglutinated, i.e. mechanically added to the root or stem, both languages have internal interchanges or alterations. The latter are regular correlations which may involve, as has been shown above, vowel alterations, eg: bring - brought, know -knew, take - took, shake - shook; рости - ріс; нести - ношу -ніс; вести - відвів - водив; гребти - гріб.
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Exclusively Ukrainian are the sound alterations which appear as a result of declension. Cf. ти-тебе-тобі-тобою; ви-вас-вам-вами, etc; Львів~у Львові, ніч-ночі, річ-речі, etc.
Suppletivity. As a means of grammatical expression suppletivity is observed in words, word-forms and morphemes of all Indo-European languages [20,170]. At the lexical level it helps express, both in English and Ukrainian, sex distinctions, eg: boy -- girl, bull - cow, man - woman, cock — hen, хлопець — дівчина, чоловік — жінка, півень — курка, etc. Of suppletive nature are most of nouns forming the LSG denoting kinship. Cf. father - mother, brother - sister, son - daughter, aunt -uncle; батько - мати, брат - сестра, син - дочка, дядько -тітка, зять - невістка, дід - баба, etc.
In the system of lexico-grammatical classes of words suppletivity can express in English and Ukrainian different categorial meanings of notionals at the lexical level as in the pairs of verbs cany — bring, say — tell, take - give; брати - взяти, ловити ~ піймати. Suppletive forms of a verb paradigm can be used in English and Ukrainian to express some morphological categories. The most striking in this respect is the verb "to be" which has more forms to express different categorial meanings in English than in Ukrainian. Thus, in English "am, is, are — was, were" which are respectively the corresponding forms for tense (the Present and Past Indefinite), for number (singular or plural) and for person am. was for the first person singular, is/was for the third person singular and are/were for plural forms respectively.
The Ukrainian verb "бути" possesses only one suppletive form in present tense — "є", which is used for all persons in singular and plural (cf. я є, ти є, ми є, всі є, кожен є). But: Я був, ти була, ви буди, etc.
As to the suppletive forms of other notionals, they are of form-building, i. e. of categorial nature expressing in the contrasted languages degrees of comparison in some qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Cf. good — better — best, bad — worse — worst and little — less — least. In Ukrainian: добрий — кращий — найкращий, добрий - ліпший -найліпший, поганий — гірший — найгірший. In Ukrainian two more adjectives have suppletive forms in the comparative and suppletive degrees: гарний — кращий — найкращий; великий — більший — найбільший.
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Common in English and Ukrainian are also almost all qualitative adverbs with the suppletive forms in the comparative and superlative degrees: well — better — best; badly — worse — worst; little — less — least; добре — краще — найкраще; погано — гірше — найгірше; зле — гірше — найгірше; гарно — краще — найкраще.
Suppletivity of pronouns finds its expression and realisation in English and Ukrainian at different levels: a) at the level of the lexico-grammatical class of words as a whole (pronouns are regular signs of signs, i. e. representation nouns): Pete, lion, tiger-he, fox, ship-she; дім, лис, хліб-він; життя, поле-воно; люди-вони; b) at the level of paradigmatic word forms: I — me, he — him, she — her, we — us; я — мене, воно — його, він — його, ми — нас, вони — їх, etc. c) at the level of different case forms of pronouns (cf. the objective and possessive case forms: me, him, her, us, them; his, hers, ours, yours). These forms are more numerous in Ukrainian where all pronouns are declinable: я — мене, мені, мною; він — його, йому, ним, на ньому, вона — її -нею; ми — нам — нами; що — чого — чому — чим, ніщо — нічого — нічим, etc.
Some common systemic relations can be observed in the suppletive forms of the possessive pronouns in the contrasted languages as well. In Ukrainian the pronouns' paradigm is much richer, since there exist separate forms to express different numbers and genders. Cf. я, мене, мій, моя, моє, мої; вона, нею, її, воно, його, ним; ми, наш, наша, нашої, нашій; вони, їхній, їхня, їхнє, їхнього, etc. In English, however, there exist possessive absolute suppletive forms of pronouns, which are absolutely unknown in Ukrainian (mine, hers, yours, ours, theirs). Ukrainian, on the other hand, has fully and partly and suppletive forms of some interrogative and indefinite pronouns, which are not available in English хто — кого, кому, килі; що — чого, чому, чим; хтось — когось, комусь, кимсь. They also retain their suppletive forms in compound pronouns used in different case forms: хто-небудь — кого-небудь, кому-небудь, ким-небудь; що-небудь, чого-небудь, чому-небудь, чим-небудь. Least represented at the word form/morphological level in both languages are suppletive forms of numerals, there being only two ordinal numerals of the kind in English (one — the first, two — the second) and only one in Ukrainian (один — перший), whereas all simple
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numerals (digits) are suppletive in both languages. Cf. one — two, three — four, five — six, seven — eight, nine — ten. Similarly in Ukrainian: один — два, три — чотири, п'ять — шість, сім — вісім, etc.
Typology of the Parts of Speech in the Contrasted Languages
The identification of the parts of speech in the contrasted languages is not always an easy matter though the main subdivision of words into notionals and functionals seems to be indisputable. The ambiguity of form and meaning of many English notional words, however, brought some grammarians to the assumption that there exist no proper grounds and justification for singling out some notional parts of speech in present-day English. C. Fries [41, 94 — 100], for example, suggested a purely functional approach to the classification of English words. He singled out class 1 words (those performing the function of the subject), class 2 words (those performing the function of the predicate), class 3. words (adjectivals), i. e. attributives, and class 4 are were in Fries' classification adverbial function words or word-groups. C. Fries tried to avoid even mentioning the usual term of "parts of speech". The term is also avoided by this grammarian in his classification of "function words", which are allotted to 15 different groups and include also some pronouns, adverbs and verbs.
A typologically more relevant classification has been suggested for English notionals by C. T. Hockett who distinguishes in English "parts of speech" and "classes of words". Among the notionals three pure "classes of words" (or regular parts of speech) are distinguished: "class N words", "class V words" and "class A words". [43, 226 — 227] These "classes" are mainly singled out with regard to the morphological (or rather paradigmatic) properties of these notionals which, having the structure of mere roots or stems, can "show more than one pattern of usage", as C. T. Hockett puts it. In other words, they may follow either the noun or the verb and an adjective pattern. Hence, the grammarian singled out apart from the N, A, V classes of words some double and triple word
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stem classes. These are, for example, the NA class, represented by many words, such as American, human, innocent, private, savage, sweet, which may function both as nouns and adjectives (cf. American scientists, an American). The NV class are words which can respectively have the meaning and perform the function of the noun and verb (cf. a book, to book smth.). The AV class represents words which can show the adjective and the verb pattern (cf. clean hands, to clean the room). The NAV class represents words which can follow the noun, the adjective and the verb pattern respectively (cf. the fat of meat, fat meat, to fat (up) fowls). Thus, "classes of words" clearly reflect the amorphous grammatical nature of many English nouns, verbs, adjectives and sometimes adverbs which in the course of their historical development have been reduced, as a rale, to regular roots or stems. As a result, their true lexico-grammatical nature, i. e. their proper lexical meaning, and consequently their formal and functional characteristics can not be discriminated when taken out of a word-group or sentence. The word "export", for example, may be noun or verb (when indicated by stress or determined by the particle "to"). "Negro" may also be noun (a Negro) or adjective (Negro and white schools); "blue" may be noun (the blue of the sky), adjective (the blue sky), or verb (to blue smth.).
In Ukrainian, on the other hand, the lexical meaning and "formal" (morphological) characteristics of such notional words as експорт, негр, синь, синій, синіти, синіючий, синіючи, etc. are always explicitly displayed already at language level, i.e. when taken separately, out of context (as in dictionaries). Therefore, many notionals in English, unlike their lexico-grammatical equivalents in Ukrainian, are variable, i. e. they may change their nature depending on the contextual environment and their functional significance which they acquire in a syntaxeme.
The variability of some English notionals, which can often shift from one part of speech to another without any morphological changes in their form/structure is certainly the main typological (allomorphic) difference pertaining to the nature of some notional words as compared to the corresponding classes of words in Ukrainian. It becomes especially evident when dealing with the conglomerates like NV, AN, ND, NVA and the like, which are in reality no regular parts of speech but one-lexeme units
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able to realise different functional meanings depending on their functionally relevant place occupied in a syntaxeme (word-group or sentence).
Nevertheless, the existence of the kind of morphologically indistinct notionals in present-day English does not deprive the language of the regular system of notional parts of speech in general and those of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in particular.
These same parts of speech, though considered to be "words in their dictionary form", functioning "as constituents of phrases", are also identified in English by R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik, [54,25 — 27] Along with the four notionals, these grammarians also point out "a set of parts of speech", having a "closed system" in English. The "set" includes "article, demonstrative (that, this) pronouns, preposition, conjunction and interjection." [Ibid.]
There is no doubt whatsoever concerning the status and the set to which, for example, different proper nouns like Ann, Peter, Sam, etc. should be allotted. Neither can there be any doubt in the substantival nature of words denoting specific national notions (Miss, sir, hopak) or internationalisms (actress, emperor, computer, phoneme) and many regular class nouns (boy, girl, tree). Neither can there be any denying the fact that words like "do, hear, listen, read, write", etc. can be allotted at first sight by every English language speaker to verbs, since they express action, whereas words like "happy, new, older/younger" are recognised as qualifiers of nouns, i. e. adjectives, and words like "slowly, quickly, unanimously" will be unerringly taken for qualifiers of actions, i. e. adverbs. Easily enough, already at language level, are identified pronouns (he, she, we, they, who), numerals (ten, the first, the tenth), conjunctions (and, or, if, because) and many other words having the same lexico-grammatical nature in English, Ukrainian, and in many other languages.
Consequently, apart from the semantically and morphologically indistinct conglomerates / "word classes"/ like AN, NVA,VN, etc. having no definite differentiation at language level, there also exist in English a bulk of words whose lexico-grammatical nature as a part of speech is quite evident and indisputable. These words clearly disclose their lexico-grammatical identity already at language level (when taken separately, i.e. when singled out as in dictionary).
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There is much common ground for a typological contrasting of the functional parts of speech as well, which in English and Ukrainian have often their lexico-grammatical nature quite explicit already at language level. This is observed, for example, in case of conjunctions (and, but, or, if, either - or, neither - nor, etc.), prepositions (at, in, on, under), interjections (ah, oh, alas, humph), and some particles (not, to). Most of these functionals, except for the articles, have absolute semantic and functional equivalents in Ukrainian. For example: and - i, but - але, проте, or чи, if-якщо/якби, either-or, чи-чи, in - в/у, on - на, under - під, ah/oh-ax/ox, not-ні/не, etc. As a result, these and a number of other functionals in English and Ukrainian are typologically relevant, i. e. isomorphic, in other words common.
It must be pointed out, however, that some parts of speech both among the notionals and among the semi-notionals/functionals are still disputable in the contrasted languages. Far from unanimously recognised as a separate part of speech by most Western and some Ukrainian and Russian linguists (A. Hryshchenko and co-authors, L.S. Barkhudarov, M.Y. Blokh) is, for example, the stative (alike, asleep), which is considered by these grammarians to be a "predicative adjective". Still other Western grammarians are not quite sure about the numerals which they are inclined to identify as nouns (cardinals) or as relative adjectives (ordinals). Among these grammarians are also R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik. Up to now there is no unanimity yet among some grammarians concerning the status of the modal words ("perhaps, sure, certainly," etc.), or particles and even articles, which are not always recognised in English as a separate functional part of speech. [16, 49] This idea might have come to life because of the common in both languages phenomenon of "migration" of some parts of speech from one to another. For example: a just man (adj.), he has just come (adv.), just a moment, please (particle). Similarly in Ukrainian: хто там? (adv.), де там? (particle); а там ще люди (conjunctive element). Надворі холодно (adv.); мені холодно (stative), etc.
On the ground of identical or similar semantic, morphological/formal and syntactic/functional properties pertaining to common lexico-grammatical classes of words, the number of notional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian may be considered (from the typological point of
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view) all in all the same - seven. Namely: noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb, stative - іменник, прикметник, займенник, числівник, дієслово, прислівник, слова категорії стану.
As to the functionals (semi-notional words, as they are still sometimes called) their number in the contrasted languages is not identical, because present-day English has the article which is missing in Ukrainian. The rest of functionals are all common: conjunctions, prepositions, modal words and modal expressions, particles, exclamations, articles (in English), сполучники, прийменники, модальні слова та вирази, частки, вигуки.
Typological Features of the Noun as a Part of Speech
The noun as a part of speech is characterised in English and Ukrainian by a common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or "thingness". This meaning (thingness) finds its realisation not only in concrete nouns (book, boy, house, tree, fish, meat, etc.) but also in abstract nouns (love, hatefulness, business, information, etc.). Hence, typologically isomorphic are also the main paradigmatic classes of nouns, which are two: 1) common nouns and 2) proper names.
Each of these two main classes of nouns is sub-categorised in English and Ukrainian into several minor groups which can be found below (Table 10,11).
Common Nouns split in the contrasted languages into the following subclasses:
[pic]
Table 10
|Concrete nouns |Abstract nouns |Collective nouns |Names of materials|Class nouns |
|arrow, cap, carp, |fear, hatred, |cattle, crew, |air, flour, iron, |bird, desk, |
|doll, tree, house,|knowledge, news;|family, militia, |salt, snow; |book, cat, |
|book; стріла, |страх, |government, |повітря, цукор, |flower, glove, |
|дерево, кашкет, |ненависть, |poultry; худоба, |борошно, |kite; птах, |
| | | | |стіл, |
|короп, лялька, |знання, вість, |екіпаж, сім'я, |залізо, сіль, |квітка, книжка, |
|дім, хата. |сум, радість. |міліція, гроші. |сніг, пісок. |змій, кіт. |
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Proper names in their turn split in English and Ukrainian into some common subclasses as well. The main of them are as follows:
Table 11 The Main Classes of Proper Names
|Names/Nicknames of |Family names |Geographical names |Names of companies, |
|people(s), nationals | | |newspapers, journals, |
| | | |etc. |
|Ann, Yankeys, English, |Adams, Byron, McDonald, |Alaska, Chicago, |Ford, Standard Oil, |
|Michael, the Dutch, |Newton, Smith, |Leeds, Ottawa, the |Rolls-Royce, |
|Nelly, Ukrainians, |Shakespeare -Аврамчук, |Black Sea, the North |Volkswagen, The Daily |
|Oscar — англійці, |Лукаш, Сміт, Довженко, |Sea, the Buh, Аляска,|Telegraph — "Світоч", |
|Ганна, Данило, Михайло,|Винник, Кизима, Шумило, |Вінниця, Київ, |фірма "Світанок", |
|Леся, українці, Надія, |Петлюра, Коновалець, |Моринці, Чорне море, |"Форд", "Прогрес", |
|Ярослав Мудрий |Мельник, Каденюк. |Північне море, Буг. |"Всесвіт", "Дзвін", |
| | | |"Дніпро". |
Isomorphism is equally observed in the existence of some other grammatically and typologically relevant groups of nouns in English and Ukrainian. Among these are, first of all, life nouns (boy, girl, cat, cock, goat, wolf — хлопець, дівчина, кіт, півень, цап, вовк); inanimate nouns (atom, bell, door, stone — атом, дзвін, двері, шлях); count nouns (pen, star, tree, wall — ручка, зірка, дерево, стіна), and noncount nouns (air, honesty, slavery — повітря, чесність, рабство), etc. There is some allomorphism, however, in the realisation of the meaning (and category) of number and quantity in some groups of nouns in the contrasted languages.
Among these are some collective nouns, which may be used in English both in singular and in plural (when the constituent members of these collective nouns are meant). Cf: My family is small — My family are early risers. The crew has prepared the aircraft for the take off — The crew are all young. Hence, in plural these collective nouns become nouns of multitude, as militia, police, cattle, having always, however, a singular meaning in Ukrainian (cf. вся родина зійшлася, поліція/міліція слідкує за порядком, etc.).
The most characteristic divergent feature of English nouns as com-
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pared with the Ukrainian ones is their usually indistinct lexico-grammatical nature at language level. As a result, determiners (usually the definite or the indefinite article or demonstrative pronouns) are used to identify these nouns: the bear, the round of talks, that round of talks. Besides, English nouns are often determined by the -'s/-s- element (cf. today's weather, London's population, etc.).
From the morphological side, the noun is characterised in the contrasted languages by the existence of a system of suffixes and prefixes performing, as a rule, isomorphic functions in both contrasted languages. These suffixes fall into several common in English and Ukrainian subgroups. Among them are traditionally distinguished productive and unproductive suffixes, native and borrowed (or international) suffixes, as well as different semantic groups of suffixes which, when added to various roots or stems, may form agent nouns. These common classes in the contrasted languages are as follows:
|English Agent Nouns Suffixes |Ukrainian Agent Nouns Suffixes |
|-ant: servant, irritant; -ent: dependent, |-ник: завойовник, обвідник; -яч-ач: |
|solvent, student -ar: beggar, scholar; -er: |глядач, перекладач, копач, наймач; -ець: |
|weaver, teacher, interpreter, farmer; -ier: |їздець, кравець, співець; -тель: |
|cashier; -or: sailor, translator, tailor. |вихователь, учитель; -щик/ -чик: гонщик, |
| |пайщик, датчик. |
Apart from these there are some more productive and unproductive agent suffixes in both languages. Cf. in English -yer: lawyer; -eer: auctioneer, profiteer; -ard/-art: sluggard, braggart; -ster: rhymester, youngster; in Ukrainians -тай/-тяй: глитай, шахрай, гультяй; -аль: коваль, стригаль, -ень: в'язень, лежень, учень; -ух: пастух, питух; -ар/-яр: лікар, голяр; -ак/-а: забіяка, рубака (augmentative); -ун: бігун, свистун; -ак/-як: жебрак, пияк, etc.
Completely missing in English but available in Ukrainian are augmentative suffixes, eg: -ил-: вітрило, барило; -ищ-: вовчище, дубище, вітрище; -ук-/-юк-: каменюка, зміюка; -уг-/-юг-:
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дідуга, злодюга; -ур-/-юр-: ціпура, басюра; -ан, -ань: дідуган, головань, здоровань; -ер- бабера; -яр- мисяра, носяра;-яг-/ -як-: чолов'яга, гуляка, Мусіяка, and some others.
Diminutive suffixes of nouns, as was already mentioned, are 53 in Ukrainian and only 14 or 16 in English nouns. Cf. -y (-ie, -ye), -ling (-ing, -ock, -let, -et, -ette, -ee, -een, -erel/-rel, -kin, -ule, -cole, -el/-le, some four of these being productive as in the nouns daddy, grannie; booklet, kitchenette, launderette, gooseling, kingling; ladykin, mouskin, etc. Diminutive nouns are much more numerous in Ukrainian: -оньк-: голівонька, дівонька, кізонька; -очок: горбочок, садочок; -унь: братунь, Лідунь (diminutive from Ліда); -к-: лапка, ніжка; -очк-: Ліночка, різочка; -еньк: ненька, рученька, etc.
Isomorphic in both languages are also other groups of suffixes, the main of which being as follows:
1. International suffixes which also form nouns denoting doctrine, action, act or fact of doing, manner of action, state, condition, etc. For example: -ism: feudalism, materialism, realism, hypnotism, barbarism, despotism, colloquialism; in Ukrainian: -ізм/изм: дарвінізм, колоквіалізм, реалізм, гіпнотизм, деспотизм, ідіотизм, варваризм.
This group of affixes presents a typologically common subclass not only in English and Ukrainian but in other European languages as well, with the most frequently occurring: -ade: cavalcade, blocade; -age: fuselage, tonnage; -ist: utopist, therapeutist; -or: rector, protector; -tion: protection, selection; -ssion: emission, session; -ate: diplomate, protectorate; -ess/-ness: actress, baroness; -ics: athletics; -y: agony, irony. All these suffixes have naturally their equivalents in Ukrainian: -ізм-, -іст/-ист: активіст, шовініст, артист; -op: автор, оратор; -ці-я/-сі-я, -ція: асиміляція, сесія, протекція; -ад-а: блокада, бравада; -аж: тоннаж; -ик-а: атлетика; -к-,-ес/-ис-а: поетка, поетеса, директриса; -і-я: економія, іронія.
2) Suffixes forming nouns designating abstract notions of state, act, art, skill, quality, condition, etc. These suffixes in both languages are mostly national by nature. Cf. -dom: freedom, serfdom; -hood: brotherhood, falsehood, -ess; easiness, loneliness; -ing: being,
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meaning: -ion, -sion: creation, tension, etc. Or in Ukrainian: -ність: вільність, рівність; -ство: братство, рабство; -ивість: вродливість, мінливість; -ість: легкість, самотність; -тт-я: буття, вороття; -нн-я: творіння, напруження; -енн-я: вдоволення, захоплення, прикріплення, etc.
An exception makes one suffix which is pertained only to English and denoting the recipient of action, namely the suffix -ee (evacuee, examinee, employee, refugee).
Prefixal morphemes in both languages have many typological features in common as well. Thus, they may be national, foreign or international by origin. Genuinely national Germanic prefixes in English are: mis- (misunderstanding), out- (outcome), with- (withdrawal), over- (overflow), in- (insight), un- (untruth), under- (undergo), and some others. In Ukrainian genuinely Slavonic by origin are the following prefixes: па- (пасинок), пра- (прадід), без- (безмежжя), від- (віддаль), за- (завулок), пере- (перенапруга), при-(прибудова), над- (надбудова), пра- (праліс), під- (підгрупа), спів- (співвиконавець), не- (небилиця) and some others.
Foreign by origin (usually international) nouns-and-adjectives-forming prefixes are mostly identical in the contrasted languages. The most common of them are the following: ante-/anti-: antethesis, antibody; ex-: ex-champion, ex-chairman; extra-: extraordinariness, extraterritoriality; hyper- hyperbolism, hypersonic; un-, in-, il-, ir-: unbalance, unblock, indelicate, illogical, innovation, illiteracy, impressionistic, impossibility, irregularity, irresolute; super-, ultra-, vice-, etc.: superprofit, superrealism, ultramarine, ultraliberal, viceconsul, vicegerent, vice-governor etc. These prefixes have the same lingual form in Ukrainian where they are used in almost the same international words: антитеза, екс-чемпіон, екстравагантність, гіпертрофічний, гіпостиль, інновація, інокуляція, інтервенція, інконгруентний, суперсегментний, сюрреалізм, ультраправий, ультрафіолетовий, віце-королівський, віце-президент, etc.
English and Ukrainian derivative nouns when in their extended form have the same structure: prefix + root + suffix + inflexion (if any).
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Sometimes, as has been pointed out, a derivative noun may consist of more than one suffix and more than one prefix. English and Ukrainian nouns may also be compound (cf. airbus, headache, waterway) or composite (take-off, go-between, sister-in-law, plant мати-й-мачуха, хліб-сіль). Some Ukrainian compound nouns have a similar structure: root/stem + inflexion: лісостепом, льонтрести, Засядьвовк, Неїжмак, Панібудьласка — Засядьвовка, Панібудьласків, Неїжмака/Неїжмакові/Неїжмакам, Печиборщ — Печиборща, Печиборщеві, Печиборщам and naturally Клички - Кличкам, etc.
Morphological Categories of the Noun
The only morphological category of the noun which is almost always marked in present-day English is that of number. Like in Ukrainian, it is mostly realised synthetically, i.e. through zero and marked inflexions respectively. Eg: child — children, ox — oxen, and correspondingly baths, cargos, jubilees, bushes, watches, countries, heroes/ vetoes, etc. An irregularity can be observed in the position of the English inflexion -s in various compounds, eg: take-off = take-offs, sit-in = sit-ins, forget-me-not = forget-me-nots, merry-go-round = merry-go-rounds, Commander-in-chief = Commanders-in chief; passer-by = passers-by.
Completely allomorphic, i.e. pertained only to the English language is the formation of plural number by way of sound interchange (ablaut) as in the following seven English nouns: foot — feet, tooth — teeth, goose — geese; man — men, woman — women; louse — lice, mouse — mice.
A few simple life nouns have in English one and the same form for singular and plural (cf. grouse, sheep, deer, swine, plaice). Usually, these nouns also have the zero marked plural form: carp, pike, trout, deer, salmon. Apart from the genuinely English there are some borrowed noun inflexions. These are Latin: -a- -ae: alga — algae, larva — larvae; -us- -i: stimulus — stimuli, terminus — termini; -um- -a: curriculum — curricula, erratum — errata, etc. Several Greek bor-
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rowings preserve their singular and plural inflexions as well: -is es
(analysis — analyses, basis — bases, ellipsis — ellipses) and -on a
(criterion — criteria, phenomenon — phenomena), though some nouns often take regular English plural forms (cf. memorandums, ganglions, solos, tempos, metropolises, etc.). Unlike English, Ukrainian number inflexions are partly predetermined by the declension groups to which the nouns are allotted, and partly by the gender of nouns and final consonant or vowel, which can respectively be hard, soft or mixed (sibilant). Moreover, many Ukrainian nouns have both number oppositions marked. Thus, masculine, neuter and feminine gender nouns of the first and second declensions have the following endings (Table 12):
Table 12
|Declension |Inflexion |
|1. Nouns denoting parts of the world: the North,|1. Північ, південь, захід, схід, північний |
|the South, the East, the West, the North-West, |схід, північний захід, південний схід, |
|the North-East, the South-East, the South-West. |південний захід. |
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|ENGLISH |UKRAINIAN |
|2. Names of materials: gold, silver, iron, |2. Золото, срібло, залізо, алюміній, мідь, |
|copper, milk, butter, snow, dirt, sand, water,|молоко, масло, бруд, сніг, пісок, вода, хліб, |
|hay, straw, bread, coffee, sugar, wood, etc. |деревина, сіно, солома, цукор, etc. |
|3. Collective nouns: brushwood, foliage, |3. Білизна, збрід, крам, віниччя, гарбузиння, |
|leafage, furniture, shrubbery, rubbish, |капустиння, паліччя, збіжжя, птаство, волосся,|
|peasantry, hair, professorate, womankind, etc.|професура, селянство, жіноцтво, etc. |
|4. Abstract notions as: courage, knowledge, |4. Відвага, знання, буття, кохання, любов, |
|advice, recognition, friendship, kindness, |мир, патріотизм, погода, прогрес, визнання, |
|news, information, business, love, peace, |гамір, сумління, буття, виховання, ненависть, |
|patriotism, weather, etc. |каяття, etc. |
Therefore the main classes of singularia tantum nouns are of isomorphic nature, though their representation is not always equal in the contrasted languages. Thus, there exists no identity between the Ukrainian collective nouns ярина (spring crops), озимина (winter crops), зілля (herbs), бадилля (potato leaves) which are pluralia tantum in English. Neither are there corresponding singularia tantum equivalents in English to the Ukrainian nouns formed with the help of the suffixes -н-я (офіцерня, комарня), -ник, -няк (сливник, вишняк) and -в-а (братва, дітва) whose corresponding equivalents in English are nouns in plural (officers, mice, kids/ children) or in singular - cherry/plum trees orchard, lime-trees grove, etc.
No complete coincidence can be observed in the semantic classes of the pluralia tantum nouns in English and Ukrainian where common lexico-semantic classes are not completely the same either. Completely coincide only nouns belonging to the so-called summation plurals (scissors, tongs, skates, shorts, trousers: ножиці, обценьки, терези, шорти, штани, окуляри, etc. Besides, common are also the pluralia tantum nouns belonging to the semantic group of geographic names: Athens, the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Andes; Афіни/Атени, Нідерланди, Карпати, Анди, Бровари, Лубни, Суми, etc. 3) Nouns denoting remnants are only partly common too. They are: scraps, leavings, remains (of food), siftings, sweepings; висівки, недопитки, перебірки, одвійки, помиї, вишкрібки,недоїдки, etc.
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Not always coinciding, however, are nouns denoting in English and Ukrainian some abstract notions (contents, goings-on, means, manners, savings; злидні, манери, надра, заощадження) and names of some games which are not always the same in the contrasted languages either, eg: cards, billiards, drafts, darts, skittles (карти, шахи, шашки, кеш). Among these are the nouns більярд and барак which belong to common class nouns in Ukrainian. Consequently, a number of nouns may have plural meaning in English and singular meaning in Ukrainian or vice versa as: barracks, goods, customs, works, suds, police/ militia, arms, gymnastics, etc., their Ukrainian equivalents being казарма, товар/майно/добро, мито, поліція/міліція, зброя, фізкультура, etc. Ukrainian plurals вершки, дріжджі, дрова, гроші, on the other hand, have singularia tantum equivalents in English (cream, yeast, firewood, money, etc.).
Hence, the common/fully or partly corresponding table of these semantic classes of nouns has the following counteropposed representation:
Table 14 Isomorphic Semantic Groups of Pluralia Tantum Nouns
|ENGLISH |UKRAINIAN |
|1. Summations nouns: trousers, shorts, tongs, |1 . Штани, шорти, обценьки, ножиці, терези, |
|scissors, scales, spectacles, eyeglasses, |окуляри, сани, ночви, в'язи, баки, граблі, |
|opera-glasses, leggings, strachies, pincers, |ворота, цимбали, стречі, леґґінси, etc. |
|etc. | |
|2. Names of remnants (залишки): scraps, slops, |2. Покидьки, помиї, висівки, недоїдки, |
|sweepings, siftings, leavings, remnants, etc. |недопитки, зметини, вишкрібки, etc. |
|3. Names of some games: drafts, cards, darts, |3. Шахи, шашки, карти, дротики, кеглі, |
|skittles, billiards, etc. |городки, гилки, etc. |
|4. Some abstract and concrete notions: |4. Будні, злидні, іменини, родини, заручини, |
|outskirts, tigins, (inverted) commas, goings-on,|хрестини, лапки, посиденьки, витребеньки, |
|contents, means (кошти), etc. |жмурки, etc. |
|5. Some geographical names like Athens, the |5. Атени, Нідерланди, Альпи, Карпати, Азори, |
|Netherlands, the Alps, the Urals, the |Бермуди, Філіппіни, Бровари, Суми, Лубни, |
|Carpathians, the Azores, the Bermudas, the |Жуляни, Черкаси, etc. |
|Philippines, etc. | |
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Some semantic classes of pluralia tantum nouns are more numerous in Ukrainian, than in English. Among them are, for example, nouns denoting such actions as проводи (seeing-off), вхідчини (house-warming) or monetary notions as фінанси (finance), ресурси, кошти (means); no pluralia tantum equivalents have such Ukrainian notions as дрова (firewood), вершки (cream), одвійки, дріжджі (yeast). Neither has present-day English pluralia tantum equivalents to such notions as посиденьки, походеньки, вечірниці, витребеньки, побігеньки, (пі)жмурки, пересміхи, хвастощі, пустощі, гульбощі, ласощі, прикрощі, мудрощі, ревнощі, скупощі and others. Consequently, present-day Ukrainian seems to have a larger number of both the singularia and pluralia tantum nouns in some semantic classes of this part of speech, than the English language has.
The Category of Case and its Realisation in English and Ukrainian
Unlike the category of number, the category of case in present-day English has always been disputable. So was for some time the question of expressing case relations which has also remained for a longer time disputable. Some grammarians found in present-day English two cases (O. Jespersen, V. Yartseva, B. Rohovska, B. Khaimovich), others found in English four cases (G. Curme, M. Deutschbein), and still other grammarians were inclined to see in English five, six and more cases (J. Nesfield, F. Sonnenschein). The Russian grammarian G. N. Vorontsova recognised no cases in English at all, since the -'s sign she treated as a postpositive particle expressing possession. R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum and co-authors speak of common and genitive cases (-'s genitive and of-genitive). As to Ukrainian nouns they may have 6 or 7 marked singular and plural oppositions in the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative case, eg: хмара, хмари, хмарі, хмару, хмарою, (на) хмарі, хмаро (first decl.), vocative case; or in plural: степи, степів, степам, степи, степам, степами, (у) степах, степи (second decl., vocative case).
No identity exists in the contrasted languages in the expression of the
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category of gender either and many languages make these distinctions different and unequal. Thus, in Ukrainian, Russian, German and other languages there are three grammatical genders — masculine, feminine, and neuter. In Italian, Spanish, French, Danish — two genders (masculine and feminine), in Estonian, Finnish, Japanese and Turkic languages no gender distinctions are made, but in the Bantu language, as E. Sapir points out, there are about 42 genders realised with the help various inflexions.
The morphological category of gender in Ukrainian is identified either through separate inflexions of the adjunct/attribute or through the inflexion of the finite form of the verb that conjugates with a noun. For example:
|Masculine gender |Feminine gender |Neuter gender |
|каштан цвів/ріс ведмідь |яблуня цвіла/росла вода |жито цвіло/росло лоша |
|ходив/спав обід |замерзла Відвага перемогла |ходило/бігало жито зійшло |
|захолов/замерз життя |лисиця ходила/бігла дівчина |сонечко пригрівало дитя |
|проходило хлопець сміявся/був|сміялася/була |сміялося/було |
In present-day English no gender distinctions of the kind are possible, as can be seen from the following sentences:
|the actor plays the |the actress plays the |the child plays/smiles the child |
|actor played the actor |actress played the actress |played/smiled, etc. the child is/has |
|is/has the actor was |is/has seen the actress was |seen the child was seen/heard, etc. |
|seen |seen | |
The form of the verbal predicate, therefore, does not reflect or in any way testify to the existence of any gender distinction in the three above-given nouns. This is not so in Ukrainian. Cf. актор грав/був, актриса грала/була, дитя грало/було, дитя грає/буває, etc.
Absence of the morphological category of gender in English, as could be already noticed, is also easy to be proved by the unchanged attributive adjuncts to nouns which have this category in Ukrainian, eg:
the great emperor lived long — великий імператор жив довго the great heroine lived long — велика героїня жила довго the great desire lived long — велике бажання жило довго The adjective "great" does not reflect any sex or gender distinction of the English head nouns "emperor", "heroine" or "desire" as it is in
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Ukrainian ("великий імператор", "велика героїня", "велике бажання"). Unlike English, the categorial meaning of the gender category and the objective/extralingual category of sex are distinctly indicated by the verbal predicate in Ukrainian: "імператор жив", "героїня жила", "бажання жило".
The morphological category of gender and the objective (natural) category of sex may also be indicated in Ukrainian by the following means: a) by a marked inflexion in the nominative case (книжка, село, яйце, батько, мати, сестра); b) by the zero inflexion (дуб, час, ніч, річ, вість); с) by suffixes only or by the root suffixes + endings (робітник, вівчар, стрілець, орач, вчительк-а, робітниц-я, поетес-а, поетик-а); d) by means of a modifying word: наше київське метро (кашне, кіно), цей кабальєро, такий великий ґну, гарний поні, ця молода леді/дама, пані, etc.
The possessive conjoint or possessive absolute pronouns, however, may sometime be used in English to indicate the extralingual category of sex, eg: the bear and his life, that actress and her voice, his child and its toys, the directrix and her school; the desire of mine/hers, those friends of hers, etc.
A testimony to there being no grammatical gender in English nouns is the use of appositional pronouns and nouns to indicate the sex of living beings as in boy-friend - girl-friend, man-servant — maid-servant, woman/female novelist — man/male novelist, jack-ass — jenny-ass, billy-goat — nanny-goat, tom cat — pussy cat, he-bear — she-bear, male elephant — female elephant, (bull elephant - cow elephant), cock-sparrow — hen-sparrow, cock-pheasant — hen-pheasant. Neither can the English suffixes -ist, -er/-or, -ess, -o, -ine express the morphological gender (but only sex) as in emperor, widower, actress, goddess, heroine, hobo, and many other living beings.
All lifeless things in English, unlike Ukrainian and some other languages, are generally associated with the pronoun it (the neuter gender). Cf. The tree and its leaves; the desire and its realisation; the stone and its age; the tulip and its colour; the pond and its inhabitants; the carbonic acid and its use, etc.
In Ukrainian, on the contrary, each noun irrespective of its being a life
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or lifeless thing, belongs to a concrete gender. Thus, the stone (камінь) like the wolf or bull is masculine (he він), the carbonic acid or the star, the river, the cow have feminine gender (річка, зірка, думка, корова). Similarly with many life and lifeless nouns having neuter gender distinctions (cf. життя, сміття, курча, дитя, небо, жито, мито, etc.).
When personified, English life and lifeless nouns may be referred to different (sometimes quite unexpected genders). Thus, the Reed in the Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde became feminine and the Swallow who fell in love with it became (was personified by the author) masculine (he). In spoken English all strong or fearful animals, birds and natural phenomena or celestial objects are usually referred to masculine gender. Thus, the wolf, the dog, the buffelo like the tiger, the lion, the elephant or the eagle are referred to masculine gender. Consequently, the wolf or the bear, or death is always he. All weaker, timid or sly animals and birds are referred to the feminine gender. Hence, the cat, the fox or the hare, the nightingale, or tomtit are each referred to feminine gender (she). Though not without exceptions. The daisy, for example, is he in O. Wilde's fairy tale The Nightingale and the Rose-tree as well as the timid little lizard that is also referred by the author to masculine gender. So is the timid rabbit in American folk-tales (The Rabbit, his Friends and Animals) and the monkey like the parrot who are usually masculine.
The names of vessels (boat, ship, steamer, cruiser) and vehicles (coach, car, carriage) are usually associated with famine gender. So are the names of hotels and inns. The names of celestial bodies may be feminine, masculine and neuter. The sun which is strong and powerful is, naturally, he, whereas the moon, the Paradise and the Earth are associated with the pronoun she (feminine gender). The countries are also mostly of famine gender. Hence, Ukraine, the USA, France, Italy, Russia, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, the Argentine or the Philippines, China, etc. are all feminine. Mythical, mythological and various abstract notions are treated accordingly (depending on their corresponding meaning). Consequently, the notions like devil, dickens or genius (pl. genii, злий дух) are referred to masculine gender, but the nymph is naturally she. So are pleasant abstract notions like love or peace, whereas fearful and dangerous notions like war or death, etc. are masculine.
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The Category of Definiteness and Indefiniteness
The noun in English and Ukrainian, as in other languages, possesses the semantic category of definiteness and indefiniteness. In other words, when a noun (even a proper name) or family/geographical name is taken out of its context to which it belonged, its meaning may not be definitely understood, i.e. identified. Thus, the proper names Mykola, Petro or Anatoliy when used for the first time (eg. I met Petro/Mykola yesterday evening) may not be definite enough for the listener or collocutor who may inquire: which Petro/Mykola? Your friend/cousin Petro/Mykolal You mean your co-student Petro/Mykola? etc. Even when one uses the geographical name like Beskyd the real meaning of this proper noun may not be clear to the listener who has not enough preliminary information about the used name. This is because "Beskyd" may be the name of a mountain in the Carpathians as well as a tourist camp or a hotel there. Similarly identified must also be many other nouns in Ukrainian despite its being a predominantly synthetic by structure language. Thus, it may be sometimes far from easy to unanimously identify the real meaning, for example, of such a seemingly transparent for every Ukrainian listener name as Київ. Even in the sentence as Він мешкав деякий час у Києві (when used in oral speech) and when the listener does not see this noun written, it may mean the city named Київ or the "Київ" hotel (then it is in inverted commas in Ukrainian). Similarly when one hears the English king's name Charles, one would naturally inquire which king Charles? The first, the third or the fifth? Only when the substantivised numeral is added (Charles the First or Charles the Third, etc.), will the King's name become definite (clearly and finally identified).
The category of definiteness and indenfiniteness may be identified in English and Ukrainian both at language level (when the noun is out of a concrete context) and at speech level, i.e. in oral presentation or in a written microtext. The main means of making the noun definite in English is to use the definite or indefinite (zero) article or any other determining or identifying adjunct. For example: Bristol (zero article)
means the town of Bristol, whereas the Bristol is the name of a hotel or an inn, ship, etc. Similarly even with such a proper noun as Україна which, when used without the definite article, means the country of Ukraine, but when presented in inverted commas it will mean anything: готель "Україна", концертний зал "Україна" or an agricultural enterprise/joint venture "Україна". The definite article may also determine, i.e. make definite some other groups (or single) nouns as, for example, those denoting generic nouns or unique objects on the globe, or even in the universe as in the following sentences: The lion is a wild animal. The sun is a bright celestial body. The Bible is a holy book of all Christians.
The category of definiteness may be also indicated by syntactic, i.e. lexico-syntactic means. Namely, by an appositive noun or a substantivised numeral, an adjective or any other adjunct: Cf.: the Tory government, King Henry V, the first Summit meeting, уряд торі, король Генріх П'ятий, готель "Колос", дівчина-парашутистка, перша зустріч у верхах, четвертий універсал уряду УНР, etc. Hence, the categories of definiteness and indefiniteness may be expressed both by preposed and postposed identifiers simultaneously (as in the last example четвертий > універсал < уряду УНР). Or such an example: the noun congress or its Ukrainian variant з'їзд when used out of a context remains absolutely non-related to any concretely identified event. Even when preceded by a numeral (the first or the second congress) it remains far from semantically identified. Only when explicated by one more identifier - the first congress of ecologists, the noun congress becomes more or less exhaustively identified. Similarly in Ukrainian where the noun з'їзд becomes definite (or indefinite) when it is explicitly identified: з'їзд екологів, з'їзд екологів України, черговий/ позачерговий з'їзд екологів України, etc.
The category of indefiniteness apart from being indicated in English by the indefinite article a/an, may also be made explicit by the indefinite pronouns any, some, etc., and by the numeral one as well as by the indefinite article plus an adjectival, participial or any other adjunct. Eg: There is some boy wants to see you. (King) "Was there a
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Mr Palgrave?" (H.E. Bates) — "there's a marvellously good restaurant called L'Ocean about six or seven miles down the coast". (Ibid.) Cf. in Ukrainian: Там ніякого містера Палґрейва не було?
The expression of indefiniteness in Ukrainian is likewise realised with the help of the indefinite pronouns якийсь (якась, якесь), through the indefinite numeral один (одна, одне) or via the indefinite pronouns якийсь/ якась, якесь plus the adjuncts expressing the characteristic features of the person or object. Eg: Якийсь Петренко там чекає на вас. Був собі один чоловік і мав він два сини. Навіть один страшний день війни запам'ятався кожному навіки.
Unlike English where indefiniteness is expressed via the corresponding markers, in Ukrainian it may sometimes be expressed also through grammatical shifting of the indefinite noun into the final position of the sentence. For example:
The door opened and the teacher entered the classroom
Двері відчинилися і вчитель увійшов до класу.
То express indefiniteness, the noun will be shifted to the final position:
The door opened and a teacher entered the classroom.
Двері відчинилися і до класу ввійшов учитель.
Therefore, the category of definitess and indefiniteness is equally pertained to both contrasted languages.
Typology of the Adjective
The adjective as a part of speech is characterised in English and Ukrainian by its common implicit lexico-grammatical nature and common functions in the sentence. It expresses the quality of things or substances (a nice flower, urgent measures) and can serve as a predicative complement after the copula-verb (the child was small, she grew nervous; дитя було маленьке, вона стала нервовою), etc.
According to their typological characteristics, adjectives split into some isomorphic and allomorphic classes presented in the table below.
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Table 15 Typological Classes of English vs. Ukrainian Adjectives
|Isomorphic Classes of Adjectives |Allomorphic Class |
|Qualita- |Relative |Possessive and |Suppletive |Possessive |
|tive |Відносні |relative |Суплетивні |Присвійні |
|Якісні | |Присвійно- | | |
| | |відносні | |(only in Ukrainian) |
|cold, big, |golden, |Byronian, |good, better, |мамин/материн, |
|small, red, |wooden, |Shakespearian, |best; bad, |батьків/татів, |
|green, high, |English, |Shevchenkinian, |worse, worst; |сестрин, |
|yellow, |золотий, |Lermontovian, |little, less, |братів/братова, |
|холодний, |дерев'яний, |байронівський, |least; добрий, |братові (книги), |
|великий, |англійський, |Шекспірівський, |гарний, |котиків/вовків |
|малий, |полив'яний, |Шевченківський, |кращий, |(хвіст), лисиччина |
|червоний, |святковий, |Тичинівський, |найкращий, |(хатка), сомові |
|вартий, |вечірній, |Малишківський, |поганий, |(вуса), |
|жовтий, |осінній |Лермонтовський, |гірший, |соловейкові співи/ |
|великий | |Дніпровський |найгірший |гніздечка, etc. |
Qualitative adjectives in both contrasted languages undergo grading, whereas relative adjectives express qualities characterising objects and phenomena through their relation to other objects and phenomena (Cf. economic progress, private property, urban population; економічний розвиток, приватна власність, міське населення).
Relative adjectives in the contrasted languages, as was shown above, fall into two subgroups: a) possessive and relative (присвійно-відносні), which are formed in English from nouns denoting family names or names of countries by adding the suffixes -ic, -ian (Aesopian, Shakespearian, Shevchenkinian, Tolstovian, Lermontovian); b) genuinely relative adjectives which have some inherent possessive meaning (Cuban, Brazilian, Portugese, western, eastern) or: Kyiv parks, London docks, Taras Shevchenko Prise winners etc.
Note. Many English relative adjectives are also regular root words, i. e. base adjectives: gold ring, the Iron Curtain, Boston harbour, York cathedral, Paris papers, etc.
Ukrainian possessive and relative adjectives are formed by adding the suffixes -евк/-івськ-/-цьк-, -зьк- to the noun stem: батьківський, учнівський, Шевченківський, Малишківський, вояцький, козаць-
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кий, запорізький, or only by adding the suffixes -ин/-ін, -ач/-яч- to the root: журавлиний, качиний, зміїний, солов'їний, гусячий, жаб'ячий, телячий, волячий.
Pertaining only to Ukrainian (and to some other Slavonic languages), however, are possessive adjectives, which are formed from common and proper nouns denoting living beings by adding to their roots/stems the suffixes -ів/-їв, -ин/-їн, -ов-а, -ов-е, -ев-а, -ач/-яч: батьків, Сергіїв, Миколин, сестрин, Маріїн, лікарів, водіїв, командирів, лисячий, комарів, цвіркунів, жабин, равликів/равликова. Their corresponding forms in English are genitive case forms of nouns: father's, Nick's, lion's (hunger), her brother-in-laws (book), frog's (leg), (my) sister's dress, fox's tail, etc.
As to the structure of adjectives they fall in English and Ukrainian into three far from equal by their number groups:
1. Base (simple) adjectives, which are regular root words (cf. big, bold, clean, high, old, red, thin, wet, young, small, tall, etc.
Such base adjectives are few though structurally regular stems in Ukrainian. Cf. винен, годен/згоден, давен, дивен, зелен, певен, ладен. Regular base adjectives, like those in English, are rather rare a few in Ukrainian. They are: варт, рад, жив (і здоров).
2. Derivative adjectives which are in English regular stems: boy ish, capable, despotic, grammatical, tedious, rural, urban, English, Germanic, beautiful, etc.
The Ukrainian language has many derivative adjectives though almost all of them are structurally non-stem adjectives. They are formed with the help of different suffixes, the main of which are as follows: -н-, -езн-, -ськ-/-зьк, -цьк- (товариський, паризький, бузький, козацький); -ан-/-ян-, -ов-/-ев, -ев (гречаний, кропив'яний, березовий, грушевий, баєвий); -льн- (доїльний, поїльник); -ч-(виборчий, вірчий), -езн-, -ач-,- яч-, -ущ-, -ющ-, -уват-, -еньк-, -есеньк-, etc. as: величезний, добрячий, багатющий, синюватий, білястий, дрібнесенький, гарнесенький, etc.
Derivative adjectives are formed in English with the help of the following suffixes: -al/-ial (annual, bacterial); -able/-ible (capable, sensible); -ary/-ory (contrary, advisory); -an/-ian: (urban, Ukrainian); -ant/-ent (defiant, divergent); - ern (eastern, western); -ful
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(tactful, useful); -ic/-ical (basic, political); -ish (bookish, womanish); - ive (active, conclusive), -less (careless, hopeless); -ous (tedious, poisonous); -ow (narrow, yellow); -ward (westward, backward)', -y (milky, tidy) and some others.
Many of these suffixes can form qualitative adjectives as well (cf. beautiful, foolish, dangerous, happy, etc.).
A considerable number of suffixes, some of which have already been mentioned above, form Ukrainian possessive adjectives from nouns. They are -ів, -їв/-ев-а, -єв-е, -єв-і/: Антонів, Петрів, водіїв, водієва, водієве, водієве;-ин-/-ин-а, -ин-е, -ин-і: Галин, Галина, Галине, Галині; -їн/-їн-а, -їн-е, -їн-і: Надіїн, Надіта, Надіте, Надіті; -ач-/-яч-: мишачий, дитячий: -ськ-/-цьк-: синівський, читацький.
3. Compound adjectives unlike basic and derivative ones are characterised in the contrasted languages by some structural or lexical allomorphisms. Thus, they may sometimes not correlate in English and Ukranian semantically. For example, the English compound adjective breast-high can have in Ukrainian only a phrase equivalent занурений до грудей/що дістає до грудей; ice-cold is холодний як лід/ крига. The English compound adjective upright on the other hand corresponds to the Ukrainian simple derivative adjective чесний or прямий, вертикальний, which are structurally non-equivalent (they are not compound in Ukrainian). Of course, there exist also many equivalent compound adjectives like four-storied, all-national, all-steel, all-powerful, many-sided, and others which have corresponding semantic and structural equivalents in Ukrainian: чотириповерховий, загальнонародний, суцільносталевий, всемогутній, багатосторонній and others.
Absolutely allomorphic (for English) is the formation of Ukrainian adjectives with the help of diminutive and augmentative suffixes, the most often used being -еньк-, -есеньк-, -ісіньк-, -юсіньк-(гарненький, малесенький, чистісінький, тонюсінький), and -езн-, -енн-, -ач-/-яч-, -ущ-/-ющ- for augmentatives (величезний, здоровенний, добрячий, багатющий, клятющий), etc.
Absolute isomorphism is observed, however, in the existence of derivative prefixal and suffixal (префіксально-суфіксальних) adjectives in English and Ukrainian. For example: abnormal/subnormal -
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анормальний/субнормальний, anti-national - антинародний, archbischopic - архієпископський, counteractive - протидіючий, ultra-leftist - ультралівацький, indisputable - незаперечний/ безперечний, etc.
Very productive in Ukrainian are prepositional by origin prefixes, that partly correspond to English adverbial postpositions, which may also become prefixes (cf. to mention above — above-mentioned, to grow over — overgrown, etc.). These prefixes in Ukrainian are as follows: без- (без думки — бездумний), до- (до центру — доцентровий), від- (від центру — відцентровий), на- (на стіл — настільний), під- (під горою — підгірний), перед- (перед святом — передсвятковий); зя-(за Дніпром — задніпровський), etc.
Of allomorphic nature in both contrasted languages are also compound adjectives consisting of the initial adjectival, substantival, numerical, pronominal, or adverbial component and a concluding substantival, verbal or some other root/stem. These adjectives in Ukrainian have always, naturally, their endings for gender, case and number, whereas in English they are mostly marked by the participial -ing or -ed endings (sometimes by the -ty suffix or without any markers at all), eg: black-maned — чорногривий (чорногрива, чорногриве/-і), easy-going — добродушний (-а: добродушна, -е: добродушне, -і: добродушні), well-known — добре відомий (добре відома, добре відоме, добре відомі), silk-like — шовковидний (-а: шовковидна, -е: шовковидне, -і: шовковидні), etc.
Grading of Adjectives in English and Ukrainian
Most qualitative adjectives in English and Ukrainian are gradable. Gradibility in both contrasted languages is achieved by means of the positive (звичайний), the comparative (вищий), and the superlative (найвищий) degrees markers. The way of grading in the contrasted languages may be synthetic or analytical. The employment of the synthetic way of grading is restricted in English mostly to base adjectives, eg: big, bigger, biggest; long, longer, longest; young, younger, youngest, etc. This way of grading have also English adjectives in -able, -er, -ow, -y (narrow, narrower, narrowest; happy, happier, happiest; clever,
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cleverer, cleverest, etc.) and the two-syllable adjectives with the concluding stressed syllable (eg: concise, conciser, concisest; complete, completer, completest; polite, politer, politest, etc.). In colloquial emphatic speech base and disyllabic adjectives may be graded in the analytical way too: The roar grew more loud; the passengers more numerous, the shops more busy... (Dickens). It appeared to me that he was more clever and cold than they were... (Ibid.)
The analytical forms of grading are more often employed in English than in Ukrainian, eg: important, more/less important, the most/the least important; interesting, more/less interesting, the most/the least interesting, etc. But: більш/менш, найбільш/найменш придатний, більш/менш економний; більш/менш дозрілий.
In Ukrainian the synthetic way of grading is more often used. It is formed by means of the suffixes -іш-/-ш - and the prefixes най-, щонай-or якнай-, eg: добрий, добріший, найдобріший / якнайдобріший; сміливий, сміливіший, найсміливіший; молодий, молодший, щонаймолодший; добрий, добріший, щонайдобріший, etc.
Ukrainian adjectives that form their comparative and superlative degrees by means of the suffix -ш- undergo some transformations in their stems which is allomorphic for English adjectives. These are as follows: a) the suffixes -к-, -ок-, -ек- fall out: глибокий, глибший, найглибший; далекий, дальший, найдальший); b) the suffix -ш -changes -ш- into -жч- (дорогий, дорожчий, найдорожчий; близький, ближчий, найближчий; дужий, дужчий, найдужчий); and c) the final consonant Id before /т/ changes as the result of dissimilation/assimilation processes into /щ/, i. e. /c -» щ, ст -» щ/: високий, вищий, найвищий; товстий, товщий, найтовщий.
The comparative or the superlative (or both) degrees of some Ukrainian adjectives, as was already shown above, may be formed by analytical means, most of which are intensifying adverbs: більш/мети, найбільше, багато/набагато, значно, куди; eg: більш/менш важливий, багато/набагато важливіший, значно сильніший; багато/набагато більш індустріальний, куди більший/куди кращий, набагато ліпший.
Of isomorphic nature in the contrasted languages, as was pointed out
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in the table above, is the existence of suppletivity (in actually the same English and Ukrainian adjectives), eg: good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; добрий, кращий, найкращий; поганий, гірший, найгірший; гарний, кращий, найкращий.
Some groups of adjectives in the contrasted languages have no grading. They are a) adjectives denoting a constant feature of the noun referent (blind — сліпий, deaf — глухий, barefooted — босий, nude — голий); b) adjectives expressing the similarity of colour (lilac — бузковий, lemon — лимонний, cream — кремовий, ruby — яскраво-червоний, chestnut — темно-коричневий; с) adjectives denoting colour of hair or eyes (dun — буланий, raven-black — вороний, bay — карий); d) adjectives expressing the intensive property with the help of suffixes or prefixes (bluish, reddish, yellowish; синявий, синюватий, жовтуватий, жовтісінький, здоровенний, злющий, прегарний, супермодний).
Isomorphic is the process of adjectivation of some parts of speech, eg: prince charming (чарівний принц), beaten track (битий шлях), the accurst enemy (клятий ворог), biting frost (пекучий мороз), folding-chair (складаний стілець). In English some infinitives and adverbs can also become adjectivised which is an allomorphic feature unknown in Ukrainian. Eg: the president elect (новообраний президент), clasp-knife (складаний ніж), the only chance (єдина можлива нагода), the well-to-do people (заможні люди), the then trainer (тодішній тренер).
Isomorphic is also the process of substantivisation of adjectives in English and Ukrainian, there being distinguished a) wholly substantivised adjectives (a native, a relative, a black/white, a monthly/weekly, the pink, the orange, Italian, Ukrainian, Brown/the Browns, Black, Long, White). Similarly in Ukrainian: диспетчерська, прийомна, слідчий, черговий (-а, -і), їздовий; family names like Береговий, Вороний, Глухенький, Степовий, Сліпий, Тихий; b) partially substantivised adjectives in both languages have no plural or singular and gender or case distinctions (in English); eg: the poor, the rich, the young; the English/French (nation); the beautiful, the useful, the unemployed; (for) the best, (in) the open, (in) the negative, (in) the affirmative. Partially substantivised adjectives in Ukrainian are usually of neuter gen-
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der, eg: головне, важливе/найважливіше, основне/в основному, в найголовнішому, (ходити в) теплому/шовковому, бути в літньому/ в зимовому, etc.
The functions of adjectives in the sentence are common in the contrasted languages.
The Numeral as a Part of Speech in English and Ukrainian
The Numeral in the contrasted languages has a common implicit lexico-grammatical meaning expressing quantity (two, ten, twenty-one, два, десять, двадцять один). It may denote a part of an object (one-third, two-fifths, одна третя, дві п'ятих) or order of some objects (the first, the tenth - перший, десятий). The syntagmatic properties of numerals are characterised in the contrasted languages by the identical combinability of numerals a) with nouns (four days, the first step; чотири дні, перший крок); b) with pronouns (all three, some five or so; всі три, якихось п'ятеро з них); с) with numerals (two from ten, one of the first, the second of the ten; два від п'яти, один із перших, другий з-поміж п'яти); d) with adverbs (the two below/ahead, двоє спереду); е) with the infinitive (the first to соте/to read; перша співати, другий відповідати), etc.
In the sentence the numeral performs the same function as the noun (cardinal numerals) and adjective (the ordinal numerals), i.e. it can be subject (Four are present), object (I like the second), attribute (It is my second trip), a simple nominal predicate (cf. the two there; їх десять там) and the adverbial modifier (they marched three and three; вони йшли по три).
All numerals in the contrasted languages fall into some common and divergent subclasses. Common are 1) cardinal; 2) ordinal and 3) fractionals (common fractions and decimal fractions). Cardinal numerals in both languages denote number: three, five, ten, twenty-one, etc. три, п'ять, десять, двадцять один. Ordinal numerals denote order of persons or objects and are used in English speech with the definite article: the third, the fifth, the tenth, the twenty-first, the one hundred and twenty-third, etc. Ukrainian ordinal numerals are semantically of isomorphic nature: перший, третій, п'ятий, двадцять п'ятий, сто
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двадцять п'ятий. The main allomorphic feature of numerals (like other nominals) find their expression in the existence of morphological/categorial endings pertained to most numerals that are declinable in Ukrainian. They have number, case and partly gender distinctions. For example, the category of case: десять, десяти, десятьом, десятьма; другий, другого, другому, другим; дві треті, двох третіх, двом третім; дві цілих і три десятих, двом цілим і трьом десятим, etc.
An exception makes the category of gender of the cardinal numerals один and два which have three gender distinctions (один, одна, одне; два, дві, двоє). All other cardinal numerals have a common form for masculine and feminine genders and a separate form for the neuter gender, eg: три жінки, три чоловіки, but троє дітей; п'ять дубів/ лип and п'ятеро курчат, even п'ятеро хлопців/дівчат (not only when they are small. Cf.: Там було з п'ятеро хлопців). The category of number have only ordinal numerals in Ukrainian. Cf. перші (вони були першими), другі (прийшли другими); Ніхто не хотів бути тринадцятим, etc.
Common and decimal fractionals have an identical expression in both languages: 1 3/4 one and three fourths, 3 1/5 three and one fifths; or 0.5 zero point five (or naught point five); 14.33 fourteen point thirty-three, etc. Ukrainian fractionals are, naturally, declinable. They have case forms. Eg: 0,1 нуль цілих і одна десята, нуль цілих і однієї десятої, нуль цілих і одній десятій/однією десятою; 3'/2 три цілих і одна друга (однієї другої, одній другій, однією другою), etc.
Apart from the above-given subclasses, the Ukrainian language has two more subclasses of numerals unknown in English. Namely: 1) The indefinite cardinal numerals which express a) common homogeneous objects (декілька/кілька голубів/риб, квіток); кільканадцять книжок (гривень/риб); кількадесят/кількасот чоловіків, жінок) or b) an indefinite quantity of objects: багато/небагато книжок (цукру, добра, користі). 2) Ukrainian has also collective numerals which denote a quantity of objects in their totality (сукупність) or indivisible unity, eg: двоє, троє, семеро, п'ятнадцятеро, тридцятеро (дітей, вікон, чоловіків). Collective numerals have parallel diminutive forms: двоє - двійко/двієчко, п'ятеро/п'ятірко, п'ятірочко (діток, хлопчиків, каченят/каченяток). Collective numerals are also used in
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dual number (обоє, обидва, обидві: обоє дітей, обидва чоловіки, обидві руки/руці). These numerals may often be used, as was already illustrated, with nouns irrespective of their gender (n'ятеро чоловіків, п'ятеро жінок, п'ятеро дітей, семеро немовлят, десятеро поросят). Consequently, the classes of numerals in the contrasted languages are partly different. This can be seen from the given table below.
Table 16 Classes of Numerals in English vs. Ukrainian
|Isomorphic/Common Classes |Allomorphic Classes |
| |Pertained only to Ukrainian |
|Cardinal |Ordinal Порядкові |Fractional |Indefinite Cardinal|Collective Збірні |
|Кількісні | |common/decimal |Неозначені | |
| | |Дробові | | |
|one, ten, |the first, the |one-third, |кілька, декілька, |двоє, двієчко, |
|fifteen, |tenth, the |three-fifths, five |кількадесят, |обоє, четверо, |
|thirty, |fifteenth, the |and two-thirds, |кільканадцять, |обидва/обидві, |
|fifty-one, one |thirty-first, the |zero point one, |кільканадцятеро, |четверо, |
|hundred and |one hundred and |three point twenty,|кількасот, багато, |двадцятеро, |
|twenty-two; |fifty-third; |etc. одна третя, |багатьом, багатьма,|двадцять п'ятеро, |
|один, десять, |перший, п'ятий, |три п'ятих, один |небагато, |сто двадцять двоє, |
|п'ятдесят, |десятий, |цілий і дві третіх,|багатенько, немало,|двісті десятеро, |
|тридцять, |п'ятнадцятий, |нуль цілих і п'ять |чимало, скільки, |кільканадцятеро, |
|п'ятдесят один,|п'ятдесятий, сто |сотих, п'ять |стільки, etc. |etc. |
|сто двадцять |двадцять перший, |десятих, etc. | | |
|два, etc. |etc. | | | |
Numerals in English and Ukrainian may be of isomorphic and allomorphic structure. Namely: 1) Simple (one, two, ten, eleven; один, п'ять, десять, десятеро, двійко, мало, багато, etc). 2) Derivative numerals, pertaining to English only (cf. thirteen, fourteen... nineteen, twenty, thirty, fifty... ninety). 3) Compound numerals in English are all from twenty-one (twenty-two, etc.) to ninety-nine. In Ukrainian compound are numerals in -надцять (from одинадцять to дев'ятнадцять), and in tens (from двадцять to дев'яносто), except сто. Compound are also fractionals півтора, півтораста; the indefinite cardinals кількадесят, кільканадцять, кількасот, стонадцять, and all ordinals derived from compound cardinals (одинадцятий, дванадцятий, дев'яностий,
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двохсотий). 4) Composite in the contrasted languages are numerals consisting of compound/composite + simple numerals or vice versa, eg: one hundred and twenty, twenty-two thousand, five hundred and thirty-one; сто два, триста один, дві тисячі п'ятсот тридцять два, сімдесят тисяч сімсот дев'ятнадцять, etc. Composite are also fractional numerals, such as one-fifth, three-ninths, one and two-fourths; одна третя, п'ять шостих, три цілих і одна четверта, etc.
All classes of numerals are declinable in Ukrainian, which makes this morphological feature allomorphic for the English language. Cf. десять, десятьох, десятьма; перший (перша, перше, перші); першого, першому, першим, першими, etc.
Similarly with fractional numerals: дві третіх, двом третім, двома третіми; одній цілій і двом п'ятим, двох цілих і однієї п'ятої; двома цілими і трьома п'ятими, etc.
Some Ukrainian numerals may have different forms in the same case as can be seen from the following table of their declension:
|Nomin. |п'ять |N. |одинадцять/ п'ятдесят |
|Genit. |п'яти, п'ятьох |G. |одинадцяти, одинадцятьох |
|Dative |п'яти, п'ятьом |D. |одинадцяти, одинадцятьом |
|Accus. |п'ять, п'ятьох |Ас. |одинадцять, одинадцятьох |
|Instrum. |п'ятьма, п'ятьома |Ins. |одинадцятьма, одинадцятьома |
|Locative |(на) п'яти/ на п'ятьох |Loc. |(на) одинадцяти, (на) одинадцятьох |
Parallel forms of declension have also numerals denoting tens: Cf. N. п'ятдесят, G. п'ятдесяти, D. п'ятдесяти/п'ятдесятьом; А. п'ятдесят, п'ятдесятьох, Ins. п'ятдесятьма, п'ятдесятьома, Loc. (на) п'ятдесяти, (на) п'ятдесятьох.
Ukrainian numerals denoting hundreds have similar forms of declension: N. сімсот, G. семисот, D. семистам, Ac. сімсот, Ins. сьомастами, L. (на) семистах.
Apart from case forms Ukrainian numerals have also gender and number categories. Cf. два, дві, двоє; перший, перша, перше, перші; двадцять один, двадцять дві, двадцять двоє, etc.
Isomorphic are the syntactic functions of numerals which may be in the sentence 1) as subject: The first/ten have arrived. Перші/десять вже прибули. 2) Compound nominal predicate: He was first; They
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were twenty. Він був першим, їх було двадцятеро. 3) As an attribute: This was his first visit to London; She saw twenty swans. Це були його перші відвідини Лондона. Вона бачила двадцять лебедів. 4) As an adverbial modifier (manner): They ran four and four. Вони бігли по чотири (в шерензі).
Typological Characteristics of the Pronoun
The Pronoun as a part of speech correlates in English and Ukrainian with the following parts of speech as their deictic substitutes: a) with nouns: he/Pete, she/Ann, etc.; b) Some classes of pronouns may also correlate (attributive function) with adjectives (his, her, your, etc. book); the first/ second, etc. look; c) Several pronouns also correlate in English and Ukrainian with numerals when they denote generalising quantity: кілька, декілька (some, much, few/a few). Their Ukrainian equivalents кілька, декілька, кільканадцять, however, belong to indefinite cardinal numerals. Hence, these words correlate lexically and functionally, performing in both languages the attributive function. Eg: some/few friends, much snow/water, кілька/декілька друзів. Багато снігу/води, etc.
Most Ukrainian pronouns have the following morphological categories: 1) that of number (мій — мої, наш — наші); 2) case (мого, моєму, моїм) and 3) gender (мій брат, моя сестра, моє завдання). English pronouns have nominative case (somebody), genitive case (somebody's, my, his, her, your, their), and objective case (me, him, her, us, them, whom). [54; 96]
There exists generally almost complete isomorphism in the classes of pronouns though some of them are not yet finally identified and unanimously accepted by many grammarians, at least by the majority of West European grammarians. To these belongs (for a longer time disputed already in English and Ukrainian) the whole group of indefinite pronouns. Some grammarians and researchers restrict this class of pronouns quantitatively by singling out of the class some semantically distinct subclasses of them. Thus, the authors of the Ukrainian scientific Morphology (Морфологія 32: 283-284) allot to this class only the following undoubtedly indefinite pronouns: дехто, будь-хто, будь-що, хто-небудь, нічий, ніякий, котрийсь, and some others. The Kharkiv grammarians
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Khaimovych B. and Rohovska В. (47: 111-116) subdivide the English indefinite pronouns into some subclasses. Namely, into: negative pronouns (nobody, nothing, etc.), generalising pronouns (all, both, every, each), quantitative pronouns (little, many, much, few) and contrasting pronouns (another, other, otherwise, one, ones). The Petersburg grammarian I. Ivanova and her co-authors (15) completely agree on the point with B. Strang, V. Zhihadlo and other grammarians. They also restrict the class of indefinite pronouns to some, any, every, no and to their derivatives (somebody, anybody, nothing, nobody, etc.). There also exist some quite different nomenclatures within the group of indefinite pronouns in other English and Ukrainian grammars. Despite all this the class of indefinite pronouns can not be questionable or discarded altogether since it is in the typological system of this subclass of pronouns in at least all European languages. The matrix of English and Ukrainian pronouns can be presented in the following classes of them:
Table 17
|Personal/Особові: |Possessive/Присвійні: |Reflexive/Зворотні: |Demonstrative/Bка- |
|I, he, she, it, we, |my, his, her, its, our, |myself, itself, |зівні: this (these), |
|you, they; я, ти, |your, their, mine, hers,|himself, yourself, |that (those), such a, |
|він, вона, воно, ми,|yours, ours; мій, твій, |yourselves, ourselves;|(the) same; цей, той, |
|ви, вони. |її, наше, ваше, ваш, |себе, собі, собою, |ті, той самий, та |
| |їхня, їхній, їхнє. |(на) собі |сама, такий само. |
[pic]
|Relative/Відносні: who, | |PRONOUNS ЗАЙМЕННИКИ | |Interrogative\Питальні: |
|what, which, whose, хто, | | | | |
|що, який, котрий, чий/чия, | | | | |
|чиє, чийого, чиї, чиїх. | | | | |
| | | | |who, whose, what, which, how |
| | | | |much; хто, що, який, котрий, |
| | | | |які саме, хто саме. |
| | | | | |
[pic]
Indefinite and Negative: any, anybody, somebody, something, nobody, none,
nothing; дехто, декого, декому, будь-що, будь-хто, нічий, який-небудь, котрийсь, котрий/котра-небудь.
Reciprocal/Взаємні:
each other, one another;
один одного, одна одну,
одне одного, одні одних.
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Each of the eight classes of pronouns in the contrasted languages is endowed with some isomorphic and allomorphic features of its own. This can be seen from their short characteristics that follows.
1. Personal Pronouns (seven in English: /, he, she, it, we, you, they) and eight in Ukrainian (because of the existence of mu — thou which was substituted in English by you). All personal pronouns in Ukrai nian are declinable: я, мене, мені, мною, на мені. They have person and gender distinctions (мій олівець, моя ручка, моє завдання). All English personal pronouns, except it and you take their explicit objective case forms (me, him, her, us, them). Of peculiar nature and meaning is the it pronoun in English which may be used a) anaphorically (cf. the book is on the table — it is on the table); b) as an anticipatory element (It is necessary that...); c) as an impersonal pronoun (It is cold); d) as a demonstrative element (it was he who said that); e) as a formal element (to foot it — іти пішки, to catch it — "зловити" прочухана).
The Ukrainian impersonal pronoun воно is also endowed with some characterising meanings. It is often used to express sympathy, compassion on the one hand or contempt on the other, eg: Воно й училось, нівроку йому. (А. Тесленко) Що воно тямить / з себе корчить; чого воно так кирпу гне? (contempt). Воно ніби так і треба (impersonal meaning).
The pronouns we, you, they may form in English indefinite personal sentences, eg: We must not allow children do what they like (не треба дозволяти дітям робити, що їм заманеться). You don't say so. He може бути! Невже? They say. Кажуть.
There is an absolute identity, however, in both languages in the use of the pronoun "we" by speakers or authors instead of the personal pronoun "I" (cf. We hold the view that... Ми вважаємо, що...).
2. English possessive pronouns, unlike their counterparts in Ukrai nian, may be of two types: a) possessive conjoint (my, his, her, etc.) and b) possessive absolute (mine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs.). The latter are used as attributes (the friend of mine) or as predicatives (that book is mine). English possessive conjoint pronouns very often function as determiners, eg: He has his hands in his pockets. Allomorphism is ob served in Ukrainian possessive pronouns which have gender (мій, моя,
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моє), case (мого, моєму,моїм, etc.) and number categories (мої, твої, наш - наші) lacking in English. Besides, they are often substantivised in colloquial speech (cf. Твоя прийшла). Вона (сестра, дружина) вдома? Чий (хлопець, чоловік) то приходив? Наша взяла.
3. Reflexive pronouns (self-pronouns) in English have singular and plural forms (myself, himself, ourselves, themselves, etc.). They cor respond to the Ukrainian себе pronoun which has no nominative case form but only genitive and other case-forms (ceбe, собі, себе, собою на собі) and no number distinctions (я питаю себе, ти вигороджуєш себе, вони знають себе). In some Western Ukrainian dialects the old short forms си/ся are used (ми си/ся зустріли). The short reflexive ся pronoun is also used in literary Ukrainian expressions as: Як ся маєш? Як ся маєте? whereas the dative case form собі may acquire in some context the meaning and function of a particle, eg: ...одно вона вчиться собі. (Тесленко) Деякі сиділи собі на диванчику... (Ibid).
Reflexive pronouns in English are used to form reflexive verbs (to wash oneself, to restrain herself, to show themselves, etc.).
4. English demonstrative pronouns have virtually the same equiv alents in Ukrainian with their common (attributive) function in speech. These pronouns are this/that, these/those, this same/that same, such a, such; цей/той, ці/ті, такий/такі, цей самий/той самий, стільки. These English demonstrative pronouns agree in number with the head noun: this day — these days, such a book — such books, this same book — these same books/those same books. They form in En glish the only synthetic by structure substantival word-groups.
Apart from the category of number Ukrainian demonstrative pronouns, which are more numerous than in English, have also case and gender distinctions, eg: цей самий студент — ця сама студентка -це саме число. Declinable are also other demonstrative pronouns: цього/цієї, цьому/цій, цим/цією, etc. They agree with their headwords in number, case and gender.
There exists a semantic and syntactic correlation between the English such a — such pronouns and their Ukrainian equivalents такий (-а, -е), такі (cf. such a boy — such boys, такий сон — такі сни). But
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Ukrainian demonstrative pronouns are always declinable not only with count nouns, but also rarer with uncountable nouns, eg.: скільки грошей, стільки снігу, скільки часу, стільки людей, стількох людей, стільком людям; цього хлопця, цьому хлопцеві, цим хлопцем, таким/цим снігом, etc.
Note. The demonstrative pronouns цей, той, такий, той самий, такий самий are equally declinable with Ukrainian and foreign nouns, cf. Цей чай, цього чаю, цим чаєм у цьому чаї. Or: у такому сарі/кімоно, у тім галіфе, до такого галіфе/сарі, скільком галіфе, etc.
Besides, Ukrainian demonstrative pronouns may often have some parallel case forms as in the following examples: на цьому - на цім, на тому - на тім, цієї-цеї, тієї-тої-на тій,на ньому-на нім, etc.
5. Interrogative pronouns in the contrasted languages are used as noun-pronouns (who, what, how many/how much; хто, що, скільки) and as adjective pronouns (which, whose; який, котрий, чий). They may correlate with numerals (how much/how many? — скільки?). In contrast to Ukrainian, English interrogative pronouns have no number, case or gender distinctions (except "whom" and "whose") expressing respectively the objective and genitive case form as most of their Ukraini an equivalents do, eg: чий, чия, чиє, чиї/чийому, чиїй, чиїх, etc. The pronoun стільки, as has been illustrated already, does not express gender or number category but only quantity (cf. скільки снігу, скільки людей) as its English equivalents (how many books? how much sugar?).
Interrogative pronouns are characterised in both languages by the identity of their functional meanings in the sentence (those of the noun and those of the adjective respectively). Very often, however, Ukrainian interrogative pronouns perform the function of the simple nominal predicate, eg: От вам що. Ось нас стільки/скільки.
6. Relative pronouns in English and Ukrainian coincide in their form (structure) with the interrogative pronouns. They perform the function of connectors (cf. I know what to do. He asked who did it. Я знаю, що робити. Він запитував, хто це зробив/ скільки це коштуватиме).
Ukrainian relative pronouns, however, are declinable (cf. Він знав, кому завдячувати це. Він запитував, кого запросити на збори. Вона
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не цікавилася, скількох це стосувалося, бо знала, чого це все коштувало). The only exception makes, of course, the pronoun скільки (referring to uncountables). Eg. Вони не знали, скільки часу це ще триватиме. But: Ми знали, скільком (countable) мільйонам українців національна ідея коштувала життя.
Reciprocal pronouns (взаємні займенники) are two in English (each other and one another) and one in Ukrainian, where it exists in three gender forms used in singular and plural as noun pronouns: один одного, одна одну, одне одного, одні одних.. Very often, however, the neuter gender form may be used in Ukrainian for any gender and number (singular or plural) nouns. Eg: The two younger people looked at one another. (Huxley) — Обоє молодят поглядали одне на одного. They looked into each other's eyes for a silent moment. (M. Wilson) - Вони якусь мить мовчки дивились у вічі одне одному. Or: Хлопці й дівчата були варті одні одних.
Indefinite pronouns (неозначені займенники) constitute, as was already pointed out, a rather controversial class. Some grammarians (R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik) speak of "universal pronouns" (each, all, every, the very) and of 'partitive pronouns' (some thing, anything, nothing, either, neither, any, no, none, etc.). Hence, as indefinite in both languages can be identified such pronouns as some, any, somebody, anybody/ anybody's, someone/someone's, something, anything. They have for their Ukrainian equivalents дехто, дещо, хтось, щось, хто-небудь, що-небудь, який-небудь, будь-хто, будь-що, казна-хто, казна-що. Equivalents of some English pronouns (cf. much, little, few) are allotted in Ukrainian to indefinite numerals (небагато/кілька). В. S. Khaimovich and B. I. Rohovska, as has been mentioned already, subdivided the English indefinite pronouns into three subclasses: 1) "genuine indefinite pronouns" (some, any and their com pounds); 2) "generalising pronouns" (all, both, each, and their com pounds); 3) "quantitative pronouns" (many, much, few, little), and 4) "con trasting pronouns" (another, other, one).
Note. Ukrainian grammarians single out one more subclass within the class of indefinite pronouns - this is the so-called "identifying (означальні) pronouns. They are: весь, всякий, жодний, кожний,
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інший, сам (the last one is a reflexive pronoun in English). The functions of indefinite ("identifying") pronouns in the sentence coincide respectively with those of the noun or adjective, for example: some are wise and some are otherwise (Saying). That is all. I saw nobody there. We shall go another way. Хто розумний, а хто навпаки. Це. було все. Я нікого не бачив. Ми знаємо інший вихід.
Many grammarians treat negative pronouns (заперечні займенники) as a separate class of pronouns. The latter are generally common in English and Ukrainian, cf.: no, nobody, none, nothing, neither — ніхто, ніщо, ніякий/нікотрий, нічий, ніскільки. Ukrainian negative pronouns are naturally declinable and are used as noun pronouns. Isomorphic in the contrasted languages are the structural forms of negative pronouns, which may be simple (no), compound, or composite, eg: none (no one), nobody, nothing, nothing else, nothing more - ніхто, ніщо, ніякий, нікотрий, ніхто інший, жоден інший, ні один (із них), більш нічого.
Allomorphism is observed in the wide use of English negative pronouns to form negative word-groups and sentences, eg: no pains, no gains (під лежачий камінь вода не тече); nobody home-клепки не вистачає. Both smiled but neither spoke. (Heyer) Nobody ever knows anything. (Hemingway) Ukrainian equivalent sentences have the negative pronouns + the negative particle не: Обоє посміхались, але «ніхтo/жоден з них не озвався. Ніхто взагалі нічого не знає. Some Ukrainian negative pronouns have diminutive forms which are completely unknown in English pronouns (cf. нічогісінько, аніскілечки, ніякісінький).
As to their structure, both English and Ukrainian pronouns are characterised by isomorphism. They may be 1) simple (/, he, she, you, some, which, what; я, ти, він, хто, що, ваш, той, цей, наш, etc.); 2) compound (myself, ourselves, someone, somebody, nobody, nothing; абихто, абищо, будь-що, хто-небудь, що-небудь); 3) Composite (І myself, this same, somebody else, neither he nor she; що таке, той самий, хто інший, я сам, кожен і всякий, ніхто й ніщо, etc.).
Syntactic functions of pronouns in the sentence in both contrasted languages are practically isomorphic. An exception make only English
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reflexive pronouns which are also used to form reflexive verbs, eg: to wash oneself, to shave themselves/to shave himself, shave yourself/ yourselves, etc. A similar function performs the Ukrainian -ся(-си) pronoun in a Western Ukrainian dialect. Cf. Вони си зустріли і си поцілували. Hence, one can speak of the existence of a typological isomorphism, going back to the Indo-European linguistic prehistory.
Typological Characteristics of the English and Ukrainian Verb
This part of speech in English and Ukrainian has the largest number of features in common. They include first of all the general implicit meaning (the lexico-grammatical nature) of the verb which serves to convey verbiality, i. e. different kinds of activity (go, read, skate), various processes (boil, grow, obtain), the inner state of a person (feel, bother, worry), possession (have, possess), etc. Due to these lexico-grammatical properties the verb generally functions in the sentence as predicate going into some combinations a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the object) of the sentence, for example: The sun shines. The trees grow. The student passed his examinations. Сонце світить. Дерева ростуть. Студент склав іспити; b) The verb goes into combination with verbs (to want to know, to want to read; хотіти вчитися/знати) or with adverbs (to read well гарно читати); с) with prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. залежати від когось) and also with conjunctions (neither read nor write, to work and rest ні читали, ні писати, працювати і відпочивати).
Allomorphic is the combinability of English verbs with postpositional particles (cf. sit down, stand up, put off, read through) which need not be confused or in any way compared to their ability of being identified with the Ukrainian subjunctive mood particles б or би (as in піти б, хотів би, знав би).
As was already mentioned in the foregoing chapter, the verb in the contrasted languages has its characteristic stem building suffixes or postfixes. In English these suffixes are: -ate (antiquate, liquidate), -fy (beautify, defy, exemplify); -en (blacken, darken, deepen); -ise (antagon-
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ise, colonise, emphasise): -esce (acquiesce, coalesce, phosphoresce). In Ukrainian these distinguishing suffixes are: -ти/-ть (брати, брать); -тися (братися, знатися); -ться (вчиться, молиться), -сь (вчитись, молитись, обмитись, etc.,).
Ukrainian verbs, unlike the English ones, may also be formed with the help of diminutive suffixes -ки, -оньк-и, -ці (спатки, їстки, їстоньки, спатоньки, питоньки, купці - люпці) and some others..
Among the many prefixes that form the verb stem in English, the following are the most often used: ex- (exclaim, excavate); in-/il-,ir-(introduce, illustrate, irrigate, irritate); contra- (contradict); con-(contribute); counter- (counteract); re- (restore, reduce); over- (overflow, overlap); under- (undertake, understand); out- (outfit, outflow); super- (superadd, supervise); sub- (subdue, submit); mis-(mislead, mistrust); un- (unbind, uncover). The most productive verbs forming prefixes in Ukrainian are: в-/у- (вбігти/убігти, внести/ унести); ви- (вибігти/вибігати, вискочити); від-/од- (відбити/ відбивати, оддати/оддавати); до- (довести/доводити); за-(завести/заводити, зайти); з-/с-, зі- (злетіти, з'їхати, сплести, зіпхнути); на- (набрати, нанести).
A number of English verbs are formed with the help of suffixes and prefixes at the same time: ex-, -ate: excommunicate, exculpate; ex-, -ise: exsursionise; hyper-, -ise: hypercriticise; in-, -ate: incapacitate; mis-, -ate: misappropriate, miscalculate; over-, -ise: overemphasise, overspecialise; over-, -ate: overestimate; over-, -fy: over-beautify; re-, -fy reputify; sub-, -fy: subclassify; in-, -ate: indeterminate; under-, -ate: underestimate, underpopulate.
In Ukrainian the suffixes are mostly -ти/-ть, -ТИСЯ/-ТИСБ and prefixes are various: над-/наді-: надбити/надбитися, надібрати; о-(об-)-ати/-ути: оглядати/оглянути; оббити, обводити; пере-, -ти: перебігти, пере-, під-/піді-, підо-, -ти: підбігти, підібрати, підозрювати; по-/попо-, -ти: понабігати, попоходити; про-, -ти: пройти, пробити; роз-/розі-: -ти, -тися, -ати, -тися: розвести/розвестися, розігнати/розігнатися.
Many Ukrainian verbs are formed from other parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals) by adding suffixes to their stems. The suffixes are:
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-а-: обід-а-ти, сідл/о/-а-ти, дужч-а-ти, кращ-а-ти, коса - кос-и-ти, барабан-и-ти, білий - біл--и-ти; -і-: розум-і-ти, звір-і-ти; білий - біл-і-ти, двоє — дво-ї-ти; -ува-: зима - зим-у-вати, агітація - агіт-ува-ти, пильний - пиль-н-ува-ти, четвертий - четверт-ува-ти, etc. The suffix - ну-/-ні- is added to adjectival roots: блідий - блід-ну-ти; густий - гус-ну-ти, міцний - міц-ні-ти.
Some suffixes in Ukrainian form aspective (durative, perfective) meanings of verbs. The suffixes are added to prefixal verbs, eg: ува-/-юва-: прочитати - прочит-ува-ти; загоїти - заго-юва-ти; -в-/-ува-: перевиховати - перевихов-ува-ти, etc.
То express a sudden action the suffix -ну- is used in Ukrainian: колоти - коль-ну-ти, штовхати - штовх-ну-ти, копати - коп-ну-ти, нявкати - нявк-ну-ти, мек-ну-ти, etc.
The number of Ukrainian verbs formed by means of suffixes and prefixes is less numerous than their number in English. When formed from verbs, the following prefixes and suffixes are used: під-+-ува-: підсвіч-ува-ти. підтак-ува-ти: по-+-ува-/-юва: посвист-ува-ти. почит-ува-ти. за-+-ти-ся/-сь- засидітись, забаритися', з-/с-, зі+-ся зійтись, змовитися; роз-+-ся: розлетітись, роз'їхатися: над-+-и-: надкусити, надломити, по-надломлюв-а-ти.
Similarly formed are also verbs from noun stems/roots: земля -заземлити: from adverbial stems: інакіие - переінакшити: from adjectival stems: швидкий - пришвидчити: from pronominal stems (never used in English to form verbs): свій - присвоювати: from the stems of numerals: троє - потроювати: двоє - подвоїти.
Classes of Verbs in English vs. Ukrainian
The main classes of verbs as to their functional significance are common in the contrasted languages. These are a) notional verbs (go, ask, write; іти, запитувати, писати) and b) auxiliary verbs. The latter split into primary (be, do, have; бути, мати), modal (can, may, must, could, should, need; могти, мусити, сміти, мати, etc.) and linking verbs (appear, look, become turn grow; ставати, здаватися).
English lexical/nominal verbs split into two subclasses which are not
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available in Ukrainian. These are 1) regular verbs forming their past stem and the past participle with the help of the ending, -ed, -d or -t (dressed/worked, paid/said, learnt/sent); 2) irregular verbs having their past stems and the past participle formed by way of alteration of their base vowel (bind - bound - bound, take - took - taken, begin -began - begun). Some irregular verbs also have vowel mutation + the past indefinite/past participle -d or -t ending (tell - told - told, keep -kept - kept, think - thought - thought). There are also some mixed-type verbs in English (show — showed - shown, crow — crew — crowed). A separate subclass of irregular verbs form the so-called invariables, which have the same form for the present and past stem/past participle, eg: cast - cast - cast, cost - cost - cost, let - let - let, put - put - put, etc. They are not available in Ukrainian, thought suppletive verbs are common, however, (cf. be - was - were, go - went; бути - є, іти -пішов, пішла, брати - взяв, узяли).
The subdivision of verbs into classes is based in Ukrainian on the correlation between the infinitival stem of the verb on the one hand and its present or simple future stem on the other. On this morphological basis thirteen classes of verbs are distinguished in Ukrainian (Table 18). In the first class of verbs the infinitival stem has the suffixes -ува-/-юва, and the present tense stem the suffix -yj-/-ioj, -j-: куп-ува-ти - куп-yj-ють; танц-юва-ти - танц-уj-уть; лупц-юва-ти - лупц-yj-ymb.
The verbs of the second class have the suffix -ва- in the infinitival stem and the suffix ва- in the present tense/simple future stem: бувати -/по/бу-ваj-уть. The verbs of the third class have the suffix -а-/-я- in the infinitival stem and the suffix -aj- in the present/simple future stem: баж-a-mu - баж-aj-ymь, стріл-я-ти - стріл-я/-уть. In the fourth class are verbs with the -i- suffix in the infinitival stem and the -i- suffix in the present/simple future stem: чорн-і-ти - чор-ну-уть; шал-і-ти - шал-ij-уть. In the fifth class the verbs have the -а-/-я- suffix in the infinitival stem, the zero suffix in the present/simple future tense stem and the -уть/-ють ending in the third person plural: бра-ти - бер-уть, сл-а-mu - шл-ють, смі-я-тися - сміj-уться. In the sixth class are verbs with the -i- suffix in the infinitival stem and the zero suffix in the present stem: рев-і-ти — рев-уть, хот-і-ти — хоч-уть (Table 18).
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Table 18
Morphological Classes of Ukrainian Verbs
|Class |Suffixes |Verbs Representing the Class |Dec lens|
| |Infinitiva|Present |Infinitive |Present Tense | |
| |l Stem |Stem | | | |
|I |-ува- |-yj- |буд-ува-ти |буд-yj-y /-еш, -уть/ |І |
| |/-ЮВЗ-/ |-Юj- |прац-юва-ти |прац-ку-у /-еш, -уть/ | |
| |-ва- |-j- |да-ва-ти |да-j-y /еш, -уть/ | |
|II |-ва- |-вaj- |бу-ва-ти |бу-вaj-y /-еш, -уть/ |І |
|III |-3-/-Я-/ |-aj- |пуск-а-ти |пуск-aj-y /-еш, -уть/ |І |
| | |/-аj-/ |рівн-я-ти |рівн-яj-у /-еш, -уть/ | |
|IV |- і - |/-ij-/ |сив-і-ти |сив-ij-y /-еш, -уть/ |І |
| | | |біл-і-ти |біл-ij-y /-еш, -уть/ | |
|V |-а-/-я-/ |0 |каз-а-ти |каж-у /-еш,-уть/ |І |
| | | |смі-я-тися |сму-уся /-ешся, -уться/ | |
|VI |-і- |0 |рев-і-ти |рев-у /-еш, -уть/ |І |
| | | |ХОТ-1-ТИ |хоч-у /-еш, -уть/ | |
|VII |-ну- |-H- |крик-ну-ти |крик-н-у /-еш, -уть/ |І |
| |-ону- |-он- |трус-ону-ти |трус-он-у /-еш, -уть/ | |
|VIII |0 |0 |нес-ти, вес-ти |нес-у /вед-у /-еш, -уть/ |І |
| | | |мести, плив-ти |мет-у /плив-у /-еш, -уть/ | |
|IX |0 |-j- |ри-ти, кри-ти |ри-j-y /кри-j-y/ -еш, -уть/ |І |
| | | |ви-ти, пи-ти |ви-j-y /n-j-y/ -еш, -уть/ | |
|X |-и- /-і-/ |0 |вод-и-ти |водж-у/вод-иш, вод-ять/ |II |
| | | |поj-и-ти |noj-y /-іш, -ать/ | |
|XI |-а- |0 |крич-а-ти, |крич-у /-иш, -ать/ |II |
| | | |мовч-а-ти |мовч-у /-иш, -ать/ | |
|XII |-і- |0 |гор-і-ти, |гор-ю/-иш, -ять |II |
| | | |лет-і-ти |леч-у лет-иш, лет-ять/ | |
|XIII |0 |0 |біг-ти |біж-у /біж-иш, біж-ать/ |II |
Verbs of the seventh class have the -ну- (-ону-) suffix in the infinitival stem and the -н- (-ну-) suffix in the simple future tense stem: гукну-ти, гук-н-уть, крик-ну-ти, крик-н-уть. Verbs of the eighth class have a zero suffix in each of the two stems and the ending -уть- in the
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third person plural: нес-ти - нес-уть, вез-ти - вез-уть. Verbs of the ninth class have a zero suffix in the infinitival stem, a -j- suffix in the present tense stem and the ending -уть- in the third person plural: pu-mu - pu-j-уть, кри-ти - кри-j-ymb. Verbs of the tenth class have the -и-(-І-) suffix in the infinitival stem, a zero suffix in the present tense stem and the -ать- ending in the third person plural: вод-ити - еодж-у, вод-j-a-ть, no-j-imu — no-j-y, no-j-ать.
Verbs of the eleventh class have an -a- suffix in the infinitival stem, a zero suffix in the present tense stem and the -ать- ending in the third person plural: крич-у - крич-ать, мовч-у - мовч-ать.
Verbs of the twelfth class have an -i- suffix in the infinitival stem and a zero suffix in the present stem: гор-і-ти - гор-ю, лет-і-ти -леч-у. Verbs of the thirteenth class have a 0 suffix in both the stems and the ending -ать- in the third person plural: біг-ти - біж-ать. According to their paradigmatic features, verbs of classes I — IX belong to the first declension group, and the rest (classes X — XIII) are of the second declension group. These structural classes of verbs differ from each other by their productivity. The most productive are the first, the third, the fourth, the fifth and the ninth classes. All remaining classes (the second, the sixth, the seventh, the eighth, the tenth, the eleventh, the twelfth, and the thirteenth) are either semantically closed or poorly represented as it is the case with the last two of them.
Note. The personal endings of verbs of the first and of the second declensions do not coincide in Ukrainian as can be seen from the examples below:
Declension I Declension II
я буваю ми буваємо я ходжу ми ходимо
ти буваєш ви буваєте ти ходиш ви ходите
він буває вони бувають він ходить вони ходять
As regards their role in expressing predicativity, verbs in the contrasted languages may be a) of complete predication or b) of incomplete predication. Verbs of complete predication split into some common groups singled out on the basis of their implicit dependent grammatical meanings. These groups are:
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1. Subjective verbs (always intransitive) like to act, to go, to sleep, to glisten (діяти, йти, спати, блищати and others). 2. Objective verbs (only transitive): to give, to take, to envy (брати, давати, заздрити and others). 3. Terminative verbs, expressing action having final aims (to close, to open, to come, to find; зачиняти, приходити, заходити). 4. Durative verbs, expressing action with no final aim: to like, to love, to hate, to hope, to work (подобатись, любити, ненавидіти). 5. Mixed- type verbs, which can have both terminative and durative meaning: to sit, to stand, to know, to remember (сидіти, стояти, знати, пам'ятати, etc).
6. Reflexive verbs, which are formed in English with the help of reflexive pronouns: oneself, myself, himself, ourselves: to wash oneself, to shave himself; to see herself in the mirror, etc.
Reflexive verbs in Ukrainian have some peculiar allomorphic features. Regular equivalents to English verbs can be observed only in the group of the so-called reflexive verbs proper (to wash oneself, to dress oneself, to shave oneself, to powder oneself, etc.), which have also corresponding forms in Ukrainian (вмиватися, голитися, одягатися, пудритися, купатися, etc.).
Other groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English" and form an allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages. These verbs are identified as follows:
1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотні: зустрічатися, змагатися, вітатися, листуватись, цілуватись. 2. Indirectly re-flexive/непрямо-зворотні: радитися, збиратися (в похід), лаштуватися (в дорогу). 3. Generally reflexive/загально-зворотні: милуватися, дивуватися, злитися, журитися, мучитися and others. 4. Active-objectless/reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні) кусатися (собака кусається), хвицатися (корова хвицається), дряпатися (кішка дряпається), жалитися (кропива жалиться), колотися (стерня колеться). 5. Passively-qualitative/reflexive пасивно-якісні: гнутися, битися, ламатися, м'ятися, колотися (дерево гарно колеться), кривитися (залізо гнеться, скло б'ється, дитина кривиться). 6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні: не спиться, не їсться, погано/гарно живеться, не лежиться (Cf. the Ukrainian folk-song: I не спиться й не лежиться, І сон мене не бере...).
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Note. Closely connected with impersonal and reflexive verbs in Ukrainian are a number of impersonal verbs used to form impersonal sentences. These verbs constituting semantically different groups are as follows: вечоріє, дніє, сіріє, розвидняється, примерзає, нудить, хочеться, віриться; не було, не стало, таланить; бракує, вистачає and others.
Verbs of incomplete predication are of isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian in four common groups, which are as follows:
1. Auxiliary verbs (to be, to do, to have, shall/will), which are used in English in the corresponding person and tense form to express the following categorial meanings of the verb: a) the continuous aspect, i. e. the present, the past and future continuous/progressive tenses (/ am/ was, shall be reading); the interrogative and negative or future tense forms of the Indefinite group of tenses (Does he speak English? He did not know me. Will he come soon?); the imperative mood/imperative and incentive meanings: Do it now! Do come, please! The perfect aspect forms of the verb: I have done it. He had had his dinner by then already. We shall have translated the text by then. To express the so-called subjunctive form of the verb: He ordered that everybody be present. Whoever you be you have no right to offend him.
To express other subjunctive mood forms: His aunt would not give the photograph. (Hardy) I suggest we should meet here. (Snow) I wish / were fifteen. (Maugham) "If they could be answered, surely they'd have been answered by now." (Ibid). Auxiliary verbs in Ukrainian are restricted only to one verb бути, which is polyfunctional and is used to form some categorial meanings: a) the passive voice (текст був перекладений); b) the analytical future tense form (текст буде перекладений); с) some subjunctive mood forms (якби я був знав, я був би прийшов); d) the pluperfect tense form, which fully corresponds to the English past perfect. (Cf. Ніби й задрімав був зразу, але щось приверзлося, то й проснувся. (Головко) Я заходив був до вас якось улітку, але вас не застав тоді вдома).
2. Close to the auxiliary by their function (and often by their lexical meaning, too) are English and Ukrainian modal verbs. Their number and nomenclature is larger in English (allomorphism) than in Ukrainian. Cf.:
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English: can, may, must, should, Ukrainian: вміти, могти, мусити, would, ought (to), have/be, shall, слід/треба, мати (маєш знати, він will, dare, daresay, need. має бути), сміти, потребувати.
Linking verbs (дієслова-зв'язки) in both contrasted languages form a verbal, nominal or mixed-type compound predicate. They fall into three main groups:
Linking verbs of being, which do not always have direct equiv alents in English and Ukrainian. Cf. to be, to feel, to look, to seem, to taste, to smell — бути, виявлятися, зватися, вважатися, доводитися (Не looks young/tired) or in Ukrainian: Це зветься роботою. Це здається правдою).
Linking verbs of becoming (not all of which have equiva lents in Ukrainian): to become, to get, to grow, to turn — ставати, робитися (They grew stronger/Вони стали міцнішими. Ліс зробився рудим.). Не became a teacher — Він став учителем. But: He turned gray/ Він посивів. Вона постаріла. She grew older.
Linking verbs of remaining (to remain, to keep, to stay, to continue): He remained silent/satisfied. Він зостався задоволений. The winter continued damp and wet. (Cronin) The weather kept obstinately hot and dry. (Wells) Погода вперто стояла жаркою і сухою.
Ways of Expressing Morphological Categories of the English and Ukrainian Verb
The finite verb in the contrasted languages has six common morphological categories which are realised partly with the help of synthetic means (inflexions) and partly through different analytical means. Thus, the categories of person and number are realised in both contrasted languages synthetically, whereas the category of tense is realised both synthetically and analytically; the category of aspect is realised in English synthetically or analytically (continuous) but only synthetically in Ukrainian; the category of voice is realised only analytically in English but it may be realised synthetically and analytically in Ukrainian. Similarly with the category of mood, which is realised in both languages synthetically and analytically.
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An illustrative presentation of these ways of realisation of all above-named morphological categories is given in Table 19 below.
Table 19
|Morphological |Means of Realisation in the Contrasted Languages |
|category | |
| |In English |In Ukrainian |
|Person |I know. He knows. She is. We are. |Я знаю. Він/вона знає. Воно знає. Ми |
| | |знаємо. Ви знаєте. Вони знають. |
|Number |He reads. They read good books. |Він читає. Вони читають книжки. |
|Tenses (present, |I work. He works. I worked. He will |Я працюю. Я працював. Він читає. Він |
|past, future) 1. |work. He said she had been seen in |читав. Він читатиме. Він буде читати |
|Absolute use of |London. They asked if 1 could translate |весь свій вік. Він прокинувся був, а |
|tenses |that passage into Japanese. |потім знову заснув. |
|2. Relative use |/ when he comes she will ask — when he |/ Де він мешкає тепер я запитаю — Де |
|of tenses [47, |came/had come \ when he will come |він мешкав \ Де він мешкатиме потім |
|144 — 146 | | |
|Aspect (common, |He works. He is working (common/ |Він читав. Він прочитав це. Вона зараз|
|continuous, |continuous). He will work. He will be |тренується. Дощ пройшов. (недоконаний |
|perfect) |working (future). He has worked |— доконаний вид) |
| |(perfect). | |
|Voice (active |He reads much. The house is/was built. |Хату ставлять. Хата збудована/ була, |
|-passive) |The house is being built. It will |буде збудована. Хід зроблено. Школу |
| |be/will have been built. |відкрито/ буде відкрито. |
|Mood |Indicative: We love our parents. Will he|Ми любимо своїх батьків. Чи прийдете |
| |come? He has taken the exam. Imperative:|ви взавтра? Він склав іспит. Не |
| |Don't speak so loud! Let me sing you. |розмовляйте так голосно! Сядьте. Нум я|
| |Let us sing you smth. Subjunctive: Come |вам заспіваю! Будь, що буде! Було б |
| |what may! If she had come, he would have|краще мабуть піти. Якби він був |
| |met her. Had 1 been there, I would have |прийшов, він був би зустрівся з нею. |
| |helped him. | |
The tabulated examples above testify to the existence of both isomorphic and allomorphic features in the nomenclature and means of expressing some morphological categories of the verb in the contrasted languages.
Generally common, with the exception of the continuous aspect, which is not available in Ukrainian, is the nomenclature and nature of the exist-
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ing morphological categories of the verb. Absolute isomorphism is also observed in the means of realisation of the following morphological categories in the contrasted languages:
Person and number (with the help of synthetic means, i. e. forms of words and their inflexions. Cf. He is - they are, I was - they were. She works - the works. Я пишу - ви пишете. Я писав — ми писали.
The imperative mood forms with no reference to a definite person, as in the following sentences: Stop talking! Sit still! Let us sing. He розмовляти! Сидіти тихо! Нумо заспіваємо. Нум я вам розповім.
The affirmative and some interrogative forms of the Indefinite group of tenses and of the pluperfect (давноминулий) tense: I work. I worked. I shall work. He had left before I arrived. Я працюю. Я працював. Я буду працювати. Він якось заходив був, але мене тоді не застав на роботі.
Isomorphism also exists a) in the correlation of the time of action in the matrix close with the time of the expressed action in the subordi nate clause: He says she lives in Kyiv. He said she lived in Kyiv. He will say she will live in Kyiv. Or: she will say that she lived in Kyiv or she thought that she came/would come. Or: 1 thought she had come. Similarly in Ukrainian: Він каже, що вона прийшла; він скаже, що вона прийде/що вона вже приходила; він казав, що вона приходила/ приходила була; b) Isomorphism is also observed in the existence of tenses not correlating with the time of actions expressed in the matrix/ main clause, eg: He -will say that he knows/ knew, had known it. Він скаже, що вона пришила (приходила) приходила була; с) Iso morphism is likewise observed in the existence of some identical forms expressing those same subjunctive mood meanings referring to present or future or to some past action/event. For example:
In English
If I knew that before, I would
come.
If I had known that before, I
would have come.
Were she at home then, she
would come.
Had I known that before, I would
have come.
In Ukrainian Якби я знав це раніше, я б прийшов.
Якби я був знав це раніше, я був би
прийшов.
Була б вона в той час удома, вона
прийшла б.
Знав би я був це раніше, я був би
прийшов.
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d) Isomorphism is also observed in both languages in the existence of analytical passive voice forms in the past and Future Indefinite tense: He was invited. She will/will not be invited. Він був запрошений. Вона буде/не буде запрошена.
Besides, allomorphic features find their expression in the ways of realisation of some morphological categories in English and Ukrainian. These allomorphic ways are observed in the following:
In the use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense, aspect and voice forms, as well as in negative/interrogative forms like: He is read ing now. Is he reading now? Does/did he speak English? The passage is being translated The article will have been translated by then, etc.
In the absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose durative meaning can be expressed by the transitive verb stems with the suffixes - сь, -ся and a corresponding adverb/adverbial phrase identifying the mo ment/period of action. Cf. Петренко зараз/ще, вже, давно/будується. Школа ще (тоді) будувалась/будуватиметься.
Allomorphism exists in the expression of the category of person in Ukrainian imperative mood forms which is alien to English. For example: Пиши! (Ти пиши!) Пишіть! (Ви пишіть!) Іди! Будьмо/ будьте здорові! Встань! Встаньте! Не вір! Не вірте!
Analytical imperative mood forms may have corresponding personal pronouns in English with the verb let (Let me say. Let him/us say. Let them come/say it). The corresponding Ukrainian forms have the particles нум or нумо (for singular or plural forms respectively) and also person and number inflexions of the notional verb. Cf. Нум я запитаю. Нумо заспівайте! Нумо до праці, брати! (Б. Грінченко)
4. Isomorphism and allomorphism is observed in the expression of the passive voice in English and Ukrainian. 1) Isomorphic is the analytical way of expression of this morphological category, i.e. with the help of the aux iliary verb to be + past participle: Лист був написаний. Лист буде написаний. Alongside of this participial predicative forms in -но, -то are used: Лист буде написано. Все, зрештою, було забуто. Питання про ліквідацію боргів заводом з порядку денного не було знято. 2) Allomorphic are forms of expressing the passive voice synthetically that are observed in Ukrainian. These forms are realised a) by means of inflex ions of the past participle: Стаття написана. Текст перекладений. Жито
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скошене. Фрески відновлені. b) With the help of the postfixes -сь, -ся added to the non-perfective verbs in the indicative mood: Хата будується/ будувалась. Місток зводиться. Проект тільки готувавсь, с) With the help of the mentioned predicative participles in -но, -то: Музей зачинено. Питання розв'язано. Ворога розбито. Нічого не забуто. A peculiar feature of passive constructions in English is their much more frequent use than in Ukrainian. This is accounted for a) the use of some English irregular verbs as regular: The office is run by Mr. Brown. The dog was walked by Ann; b) the use of any of the two direct objects as subjects of the sentence in the passive voice: Mother forgave Dora her drawbacks; Dora was forgiven her drawbacks... Dora's drawbacks were forgiven by her mother; c) the use of prepositional objects as subjects in the passive voice: He was taken care of, d) the use of the past participle as a nominal part of the predicate: He was seated, pen in hand, at the table... (Cronin). "Is he generally liked?" (Bronte).
Typology of the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb (Verbals)
The nomenclature of verbals in the contrasted languages includes some common/isomorphic and some divergent/allomorphic forms. Common are the infinitive and the two participles; divergent are the gerund in English and the diyepryslivnyk in Ukrainian. Far from identical are the morphological categories pertaining to these non-finite forms of the verb. Thus, verbals from transitive verbs have the following categorial distinctions in these two contrasted languages (Table 20).
Table 20 English versus Ukrainian Verbals
|Verbal |English |Ukrainian |
|Infinitive |active: to ask; to understand passive: to|активний: запитувати пасивний: бути |
| |be asked; to be understood |запитаним |
|Non-progress|active: to ask somebody perfect: to have |недоконаного виду: лить, цвісти, їсти; |
|ive |asked somebody passive: to have been |доконаного виду: збити, зацвісти, |
| |asked by smb. |відцвісти, поспати, попоїсти |
|Progressive |active: to be asking somebody perfect: to|not available not available |
|infinitive |have been asking somebody | |
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Продовження табл. 19
|Verbal |English |Ukrainian |
|Gerund |active: asking passive: being asked |Gerund - not available Дієприслівник |
| |active perfect: having asked passive |активний теперішнього часу: йдучи, маючи,|
| |perfect: having been asked |знаючи, очікуючи активніш минулого часу: |
| | |йшовши, мавши, знавши, за/почекавши |
|Participle |Present active: asking passive: being |Дієприкметник активний теперішнього часу:|
|I |asked Perfect active: having asked |читаючий, читаюча, читаюче, мигаючий, |
| |Perfect passive: having been asked |мигаюча, мигаюче активний минулого часу: |
| | |перемігший, здолавший, усміхнений |
|Participle |Passive (only past): asked, made, |пасивний минулого часу: запрошений, |
|II |decided, seen, purchased, etc. |пройдений, здійснений |
The tabulated forms of verbals in both languages above testify to the existence of allomorphisms both in their structural forms and in their categorical meanings. Thus, the English infinitive is always distinguished by its identifier "to" (to come, to be asked, to be doing), whereas the Ukrainian infinitive is characterised by the suffixes -ти, -ть, -тись, -тися. The suffix -ти is always added to the stem ending in a consonant (бігти, везти, сісти), and the suffix -ть, like the suffix -тися/ -тись, may be added to a stem ending either in a vowel or in a consonant (носити/ носить, носитися/носитись; їхати/їхать, сіяти/сіять).
Specifically Ukrainian, as was pointed out, is the diminutive infinitive formed by combined suffixes: спатки, спатоньки, спатусі, спатусеньки, купці, купоньки, сістоньки, їстоньки.
Allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the infinitive and the participle. The infinitive in Ukrainian has no perfect (perfective) passive form, no continuous aspect form, no perfect active and perfect passive forms of the Participle that are pertained to present-day English. Cf. to have slept, to be sleeping, to have been seen; having been asked/having asked, etc.
The gerund and the diyepryslivnyk present allomorphic verbals in English and Ukrainian respectively. As a result, they can not be contrasted in any way. The gerund has both verbal and noun characteristics, the former being those of tense and voice (asking — being asked, having
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asked — having been asked) and the ability of taking an objective complement: I like reading books, as well as the ability of being modified by an adverb: Going quickly never tiers him. The noun characteristics of the gerund find their expression in its functions in the sentence as subject, object, the predicative part, the attribute, and as an adverbial modifier of manner. For example, as subject and predicative: Deciding is acting. (Saying). As object: He won't stand beating. As an attribute: She found an opportunity of taking him away. As adverbial modifiers: The Mouse shook its head impatiently without opening its eyes. (L. Carroll) The rain poured down without ceasing. (Maugham) On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the view. (Galsworthy) The gerund can also be a complex subject, a complex object and other parts of the sentence (cf. His being ill is unknown to me. That was his being ill that spoiled everything. I know nothing of his being ill), etc.
The Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk, whether active or passive or non-perfective present and perfective past, remains an indeclinable verbal form. The diyepryslivnyk may be formed, respectively, from the present stem of the verb or from the infinitive of both the transitive and intransitive verbs. The imperfective (present) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the present stem of the verb belonging to the first verbal declension by adding the suffix -учи/-ючи. Cf. нес/уть + -учи: несучи; працю/ють + -ючи — працюючи. Cf. Слухаючи їх жартівливу розмову, уверне слівце й од себе. (Нечуй-Левицький)
Perfective (past) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the infinitival stems with the help of the suffix -ши, added to the stem that ends in a consonant, or the suffix -вши that is added to the stem of perfective and non-perfective verbs which end in a consonant: донес/ти + -ши — донісши; привез/ти/ + -ши — привізши and similarlу~знавши, пивши, ївши, etc. When the infinitival stem ends in a vowel, the suffix -вши is added: здола/ти/ + -вши — здолавши; побачи/ти/ + -вши — побачивши. Cf. Устромивши люльку в рот і закривши очі, він ще потроху пахкав. (Панас Мирний)
Perfective and imperfective diyepryslivnyks may also be formed from verbs having the postfix [Грищенко 2002:387] -ся/-сь: Хвилюючись, все ще не опам'ятавшись, солдат розповідав про себе. (Гончар) Similarly in турбуючись, милуючись, дивуючись, etc.
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The semantic and functional equivalents to the imperfective (present) and perfective (past) diyepryslivnyks in English are indefinite or perfect participles (both active and passive) performing the functions of the adverbial modifiers of time: "...while working so hard he needed sea air" (Galsworthy); or attending circumstances: Clara sat in the cool parlour reading. (Lawrence); the adverbial modifiers of cause: "Being tired he thought of sleep." (J. K. Jerome); and that of result: ...having seen all that was to be seen he came out. (Galsworthy), etc.
The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence generally coincide in both languages, though Ukrainian participles have gender, number and case distinctions, which are lost by their English corresponding equivalent verbals. Cf. gender and number categories: працюючий, працююча, працююче (колесо); number and case: працюючого, працюючому, працюючим; працююча, працюючої; працюючі, працюючих, працюючим, працюючими, etc.
Allomorphic for the Ukrainian language are some syntactic functions pertained to English participles and infinitives which may form with some classes of verbs (for example, those of the physical and mental perceptions) complex parts of the sentence. These parts of the sentence are completely alien to Ukrainian, cf: He was seen to go/going home. We heard him sing/singing. He wants me to be reading. The lesson (being) over, the students went to the reading-hall. Each of these secondary predication complexes, with the only exception of the for-to-infinitive construction, has a subordinate clause for its equivalent in Ukrainian: Бачили, як він ішов/коли він ішов додому. Ми чули, як він співає/ співав. Після того/оскільки заняття закінчилося, студенти пішли до читальної зали.
Other Peculiar Features of English and Ukrainian Verbs
Not only verbals with their nomenclature, forms, meanings and functions have in each contrasted language some peculiarities of their own. Allomorphisms are also observed in the formation of Ukrainian perfective verbs for which various prefixes are used. The main of them are as follows: з-, е-, за-, на-, по-, пра-, про-: казати - сказати, родити -
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зародити, сидіти - засидіти, жити - нажити, їсти - поїсти, ходити -приходити, грати - програти/виграти, etc.
There also exist correlating pairs of perfective verbs formed on the basis of the counteropposition of non-perfective vs. (versus) perfective aspect. Cf. жити - зжити/зажити, пхатись - впхатись, гнати -пригнати/загнати. Ukrainian suffixes may also be used to form imperfective verbs from perfective ones. These suffixes are: -ува-, -юва-, -овува, -ва, -а: відшукати - відшукувати, скупити - скуповувати, зігріти - зігрівати, оббити - оббивати, оцінити - оцінювати, etc.
Similarly formed in Ukrainian are some imperfective verbs from perfective ones with the help of the correlating suffixes -и- vs. -a-, -i- vs. -a-, -e-vs. -й-. For example: кінчити - кінчати, лишити - лишати, пустити -пускати. These suffixes can also express some other aspective meanings in Ukrainian. Cf. летіти - літати, котити - качати, нести - носити.
Allomorphism in Ukrainian expression of aspective meanings can be observed also in conveying some tinges of meaning via perfective verbs. For example, to express momentous action which is conveyed by the suffixes -ну- and -ону-: гукати - гукнути, стукати - стукнути, смикати - смикнути, кусати - куснути, рубати - рубнути and рубонути, цмокати - цмокнути, махати - махнути and махонути.
Present-day Ukrainian has also a small group of preffixless verbs which express both perfective as well as non-perfective meanings that can be formed within the microtext. Cf: веліти, вітати, атакувати, женити, наслідувати, телеграфувати, телефонувати. For example: Викладач велів перекласти текст (perfective aspect). Живи, як велить тобі Біблія (non-perfective aspect).
Similar verbs are observed in English as well. Thus, durative and terminative (corresponding to Ukrainian perfective) verbs in English are the following: to kneel, to know, to sit, to stand, to remember. Cf: He always sits in the armchair. But: he went to the table and sat close to her. Or: He stood at the table (non-perfective) and: He went and stood (termin.) at the table.
Non-perfective (i.e. durative action) express the following English verbs: to admire, to esteem, to detest, to hate, to hope, to love, to lie, to smoke, to sleep, to work, to watch, to possess, to want, to move, etc.
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Constantly non-perfective in Ukrainian are also some a) prefixless verbs as гидувати, гордувати, гребувати, вимагати, мислити, чекати, ворогувати, ледарювати, працювати, говорити, стежити, and others; b) prefixal verbs formed from verbs denoting unrestricted (non-terminative in English) meanings which denote thinking, perception of some action and are used with the prefix no-: погукувати, поспівувати, почитувати, пописувати, потріскувати, посвистувати, etc.
Note. Only perfective, i.e. corresponding to English terminative verbs are the following Ukrainian verbs formed with the help of the prefixes від-, за-, на-, по-, про-, раз-: відправляти, відбути, відпрацювати, запрацювати, замирити/замиритися, надуматися, нажитися, натерпітися, навчитися, повчитися, по/пробідкуватися, поплавати, поплакати, провчитися, походити, and some others.
Both English and Ukrainian have also transitive and intransitive verbs which are of the same semantic class, as the following transitive or objective verbs: take - брати, think - думати, read - читати, build -будувати, construct - конструювати, find - знаходити, etc. Intransitive or subjective verbs: to sleep ~ спати, to walk - xodumu,to go - йти, to come - приходити, to sit - сидіти, to lie - лежати, to rise — вставати, etc. The English language, however, has more transitive verbs as several intransitive verbs may become in some contexts transitive. Cf. to run the office, to walk the dog, to fell (trees), etc.
Typological Characteristics of the Adverb
The adverb in English and Ukrainian is an indeclinable notional word expressing the quality or state of an action, the circumstances in which the action proceeds, or a degree of some other quality. Adverbs in English and Ukrainian have some common, as well as some divergent features in their morphological structure and partly in their syntactic functions. Thus, English adverbs are mostly formed with the help of the suffixes -ly (greatly, slowly), -ward/-wards (seaward, eastwards), -ways (sideways), -fold (twofold) and partly with the help of the prefixes -a- (aback, aside; astride) and be- (before, besides).
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Adverbs in Ukrainian may be formed by means of suffixes, eg: -o (гарно, надійно), -е (добре, зле), -а (дарма, лежма), -и (полюдськи, по-французьки), -ому (по-їхньому), -ему (по-моєму, по-своєму) and by means of prefixes and suffixes (combined), eg: no- (no-людськи, по-свинськи), най- (найкраще, найзручніше), щонай-(щонайбільше); якнай- (якнайшвидше).
Several prefixes in Ukrainian and some in English (cf. ahead, across, beside, outside, etc.) form adverbs from other parts of speech. Thus, the prefix в-/у- in Ukrainian may form adverbs from nouns in direct and indirect cases or from numerals, eg: в + гору — вгору, в + день — удень/вдень, в + друге — вдруге, в-/у-+ третє — втретє/утретє. A characteristic feature of Ukrainian adverbs is their correlation with indirect case forms of prepositional nouns, for example: 1) adverbs correlating with the genitive case forms of nouns and the prepositions без, від/од, до, з/с, за: безвісти, безперестанку, відразу/одразу, догори, додому, зранку, зрання, скраю, спочатку, etc.; 2) adverbs correlating with the accusative case forms of nouns and the prepositions в/у, на, за, над, під, по, через: вдень/удень, вмить/умить, надвечір, навіки, заміж, надвір, підряд, повік, через силу, etc; 3) adverbs correlating in Ukrainian with nouns in the instrumental case and the lexicalisation of different phrases: водночас, насамперед, напівдорозі, віч-на-віч, всього-на-всього, пліч-о-пліч, день у день, нога в ногу, рік у рік, etc. Consequently, they correspond to the following English compound adverbs and adverbial phrases: day-long, henceforward, upside-down, moreover, therefore, within, by chance, by heart, by turns, one by one, day in day out, etc.
Equally common in both languages is the formation of adverbs by way of reduplication, eg: so-so, willy-nilly, fifty-fifty; ось-ось, ледве-ледве, скоро-скоро, тихо-тихо, etc.
A morphologically common group present pronominal adverbs (simple and compound) which are of the same roots as their corresponding pronouns. These adverbs indicate in a relative way time, place, direction or manner in which the action/state proceeds. Some of these English adverbs do not always have their Ukrainian equivalents that are tabulated below (Table 21).
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Table 21
Lexico-Syntactic Classes of Adverbs
|Language Meaning|Time |Place |Direction |Manner |
|English |now, then, when, |here, there, |hence, thence, |hence, now, how,|
| |today, soon |where, nowhere |whence, inside, |so |
| | | |inwards | |
|Ukrainian |доти, іноді, тоді, |всюди, куди, туди,|туди, сюди, звідти, |так, сяк, як |
| |коли, скоро, |де, ніде, там, тут|вліво, вправо, назад|відтак, отак, |
| |сьогодні | | |сяк-так |
In accordance with their lexico-syntactic meaning, adverbs in the contrasted languages fall under the following three main divisions: 1) qualifying adverbs denoting the quality or state of an action; 2) adverbs expressing the manner in which the action is performed, and 3) adverbs giving a quantitative characteristics of an action/quality. These adverbs modify the verb, the adjective, or the adverb (cf. to pronounce sounds distinctly вимовляти звуки виразно).
Qualifying adverbs in both languages may be qualitative (badly, fast, slowly, well — погано, добре, швидко, повільно) or those denoting manner of action (unawares, upside-down, topsy-turvy, by chance — нехотячи, догори дном, випадково, несвідомо, спроквола).
Qualitative adverbs also include adverbs of degree (denoting the degree of a quantity: almost, entirely, too, rather, enough, almost — майже, цілком, дуже, досить, досить-таки). These adverbs in English and Ukrainian express the intensity of an action, eg: "She scarcely knew her neighbours yet." (Lawrence) "1 was completely happy". (Galsworthy) or quantity: almost nine, almost two-thirds. Вона майже не знала ще своїх сусідів. Я був цілком щасливий. Десь було біля десяти. Майже дві третіх.
Qualitative adverbs in both contrasted languages may be used in the comparative and superlative degrees. They are formed with the help of synthetic or analytical means. Synthetic means are suffixes -er, -est in English and -ше, -іше, -ній in Ukrainian. Unlike English, however, in Ukrainian prefixes are also used to form the superlative degree of qualitative adverbs (най-, щонай-, якнай-): найшвидше, найцікавіше,
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якнайшвидше, щонайменше, щонайбільше.
The analytical means include auxiliary words (adverbs, particles): more, most, still more, less, least, still less in English and their equivalent adverbs and particles in Ukrainian, eg: often, oftener/more often, of-tenest/most often, less often, still more/less often, more slowly, less/ least slowly, ясно, ясніше, найясніше, більш/менш ясно, найбільш/ найменш ясно; ясно — ще ясніше/трохи ясніше, набагато ясніше.
The suffix -ій/-чій is used to form the comparative degree of the adverbs хутко — хутчій, мерщій. Eg: А йди хутчій. (Л. Українка). Біжи мерщій додому.
A separate group in both languages constitute suppletive adverbs, whose grading is generally achieved by synthetic means, eg: well, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; far, further, furthest, etc. There are fewer of such adverbs in Ukrainian: добре, краще, найкраще; погано, гірше, найгірше; гарно, краще, найкраще.
A particular (allomorphic for English) feature of many Ukrainian qualitative adverbs is their ability to take diminutive suffixes (-еньк-, -есеньк-, -юсіньк-, -очк-, -ечк-) and become diminutive: гарно — гарненько — гарнесенько — гарнюсінько — гарнюньо; тоненько — тонюсінько; трохи — трішечки; рядочком, шнурочком, etc.
Note. Ukrainian adverbs are often characterised by a shifting stress that differs from that in the word the adverb is derived from. Cf. важний - валено, глибокий - глибоко, тонкий - тоненько, важкий -важко, смішний — смішно. But: завзятий — завзято, пихатий -пихато, день - вдень, etc.
Qualitative adverbs in both languages include large groups of adverbs of manner, quantity or degree, which have corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian, eg: aloud, how, aloof, upside down, by heart, in turn, one by one, almost, enough, entirely, rather, sufficiently, very — вголос, напам'ять, скоса, спросоння, догори дном, дуже, також, багато, більше, менше, ледве, надто, майже, etc. These adverbs express the degree of a quality of an adjective or adverb, or the intensity of an action expressed by a verb. Cf. less timid, very foggy, rather well; to read aloud, to read in turn менш боязкий, дуже туманна,
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читати вголос/по черзі, вчити напам'ять, добре знати.
The second large common group present adverbs denoting circumstances. They are :
1) adverbs of time: now, always, then, today, tomorrow, just, so far, sooner or later - зараз, тоді, завжди, сьогодні, взавтра, щойно, рано чи пізно. Here also belongs the negative adverb never that has other similar negative derivatives within adverbs of place (nowhere ніде) and adverbs of direction (nowhence нізвідки, nowhere/ nowhither нікуди); 2) adverbs of frequency/repetition of an action: always, daily, frequently, twice, usually - завжди, щоденно, часто, двічі, звичайно; 3) adverbs and adverbial phrases of place or direction of an action: here, there, inside, inwards, outside, somewhere, nowhere, to and fro, etc. тут, там, надворі, десь, ніде, туди й сюди, etc.; 4) a small group of adverbs in both contrasted languages is presented by those expressing cause and purpose. Eg.: rashly згарячу (Марків партнер палахнув ізгарячу в його з обріза. С. Васильченко); headlong спрожогу/прожогом: Петро спрожогу вибіг. (П. Мирний) Very few adverbs express also purpose, as for instance: purposely/intentionally, deliberately навмисне. Дерева, здавалось, навмисно заступають дорогу. (О. Донченко); ostentationally напоказ: Дами охали та пищали, кривлячи вуста та виставляючи напоказ які-то вони чулі та м'якого серця. (І. Франко).
An isomorphic feature is the existence in both languages of a large group of pronominal adverbs some of which are not available in English. Among these are: 1) interrogative and relative adverbs: where, when, why, how - де, куди, коли, звідки, чому, як, поки, доки; 2) demonstrative adverbs: there, here, then, so — там, тут, сюди, туди, тоді, так; 3) complementing adverbs: always, everywhere, sometimes, otherwise — завжди, всюди, інколи, по-всякому, по-іншому; 4) negative adverbs (more numerous in Ukrainian): nowhere, never - ніде, нізвідки, нікуди, ніяк, нізащо; 5) indefinite adverbs which are more numerous in Ukrainian as well: ever, somehow, somewhere, erewhile - десь, де-небудь, колись, коли-небудь, кудись, чомусь, казна-звідки, казна-коли, хтозна-де, казна-куди, etc.
Note. Completely allomorphic for English is the group of the so-called
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"personal pronouns" adverbs available only in Ukrainian. They are as follows: по-моєму, по-твоєму, по-нашому, по-вашому, по-наськи and the reflexive adverb по-своєму. Their lexical equivalents in English are adverbial phrases like "in my opinion/ in my judgement, in your opinion, etc."
Also not available in English are some adverbs of comparison and likening (означально-уподіблювальні) as соколом, стрілою, зозулею, по-батьківському, no-новому, no-осінньому, etc. These and other adverbs of the kind have in English for their equivalents adverbial phrases like in a fatherly way (по-батьковськи), like a falcon (соколом), in a new fashion (по-новому), etc.
Syntactic Functions of Adverbs in English and Ukrainian
Adverbs in English and Ukrainian perform three main functions in the sentence serving as 1) Identifying complements (cf. very tall, rather better today, дуже високий, значно краще сьогодні); 2) As attributive adjuncts (quite a man, the voice inside, майже озеро, внутрішній голос, голос ізнадвору); 3) As different adverbial complements: of place (to live here/there, everywhere мешкати тут/там, скрізь)', of time (to arrive today/soon приїжджати сьогодні/невдовзі); of cause and purpose (Why do you think so? Чому ти так гадаєш?).
Note. Pertaining to Ukrainian (allomorphic for English) is the use of adverbials in the function of a simple nominal predicate. Eg: Сонце вгорі. Стежка справа. Городи скрізь. І ні душі ніде.
According to their lexical meaning, adverbs in both contrasted languages can perform the following common functions in the sentence: 1. The adverbial modifier of manner or quality:
|"He began to work very deliberately and |Він став працювати дуже обдумливо й уважно. |
|carefully". (London) | |
|2. The adverbial modifier of time: |
|"Your advice has helped me today". (Meredith) |Твоя порада допомогла мені вже сьогодні. |
| |Увечері посумую, а вранці заплачу. (Т. |
| |Шевченко) |
|3. The adverbial modifier of place and direction: |
|"Tell them I'll be right there". A frantic |"Скажи їм, що я буду там". -Якийсь |
|policeman rode alongside. (F.C. Fitzgerald) |несамовитий полісмен їхав поруч. |
|4. The adverbial modifier of degree and quality: |
|"Almost instantly we were shut up in a fog". |Нас майже вмить окутало туманом. Ледве чутно|
|(Mark Twain) |повіяв вітер. |
|5. The attribute: |
|"The light outside had chilled...". |Світло надворі охололо... він бачив, що вони|
|(Galsworthy), "...he could see them talking |розмовляли у куценькому подвір'ячку внизу. |
|together in the little court below". (Ibid.) | |
|6. As the above-mentioned already function of the predicative (in English) and simple nominal|
|predicate in Ukrainian: |
|"The sun was up". (Stevenson) |Я ж іще при здоров'ї. (Гуцало) |
|7. The adverbial modifier of cause and purpose: |
|'Why do you say that?". (Maugham) 'Why don't you|Чому ти це кажеш? Пилипко боявся, щоб |
|like those cousins, Father". (Galsworthy) |згарячу не наткнутися на що-небудь... (Панас|
| |Мирний) |
Isomorphic is also the expression of different adverbial meanings in both languages through adverbial (often prepositional) phrases. For example, time: I haven't made use of it all summer. (P.C. Fitzgerald). "You'll hear about it this morning." (Ibid.) Я не користувався (машиною) всеньке це літо. "Ти почуєш про це ще сьогодні вранці"; place: "That's the one from Montenegro." (Ibid.) "Ось ще один (орден) із Чорногорії." Attending circumstances: He saw me looking with admiration at his car. (Ibid.) Він помітив, що я дивлюся із захопленням на його автомашину.
Statives and their Typological Characteristics
Statives in English and Ukrainian are invariable notional words whose logico-grammatical function is to denote the physical state of persons,
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things or phenomena, the psychological state of persons, state in motion, etc. English statives have a characteristic prefix a- formerly added to the roots of nouns, adjectives or verbs (cf. afire, aflame, alike, afloat, atremble, astride, ashudder, etc.). "The lamps were still alight...". (Galsworthy) "Her little resolute face... was suspiciously eager and aglow ". (Ibid.) "1 woke at six the next morning and found George awake". (J. K. Jerome) "He had been ashamed and afraid". (P. Abrahams)
Ukrainian statives, on the contrary, are formed with the help of some suffixes, which are the following: -о: Романові стало і прикро і якось соромно (Минко); -а: Треба хазяїну на хутір... Шкода журитись, молодичко! (М. Вовчок); -е: Добре Чіпці у діда підпасичем. (Мирний) Так мені зробилось жалко і досадно. (А. Тесленко)
The category of state may be expressed in the contrasted languages by means of nouns (in English by prepositional nouns only). Cf. "She seemed on fire". (Galsworthy) "You keep me in the know". (Ibid.) Сором слів, що ллються від безсилля. (Л. Українка) Не раз він був у відчаї. (Стельмах) Страх бере, їх охоплював жах.
Statives in the contrasted languages rarely correlate lexically. Thus, English statives have mostly predicative verbs, adverbs or adjectives for their equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.
"I lay awake a long time". Мені довго не спалось. (Я
(Galsworthy). довго не міг заснути.)
"Ruth was aghast". (London) Рут була приголомшена.
An exception constitute the following lexical correlations: They were ashamed — їм було соромно. Треба хазяїнові на хутір... (М. Вовчок) The farmer has a need in going on some business to the hamlet.
Among other isomorphic features one more should be pointed out: some statives may have grading. Cf. He is more dead than alive. She was more ashamed than anybody else. Йому стало краще. Нам тут гірше, їй там було найкраще. Йому ще холодніше, ніж було досі.
The combinability of English and Ukrainian statives is characterised by both isomorphism and allomorphism. Isomorphic are the following patterns of stative word-groups in English and Ukrainian:
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Stative + Vinf.: afraid to answer; треба працювати; (йому) соромно це згадувати; St. + prep. + N: ashamed of the deed/step; соромно за хлопця (йому соромно за свій вчинок);
St. + prep. + I: afraid of this/of everything; соромно за неї/за всіх. St. + prep. + Q: afraid of the two/three; треба для /на двох; краще для обох.
Pertaining only to English is the combinability of statives with the gerund (cf. afraid of answering, ashamed of having said that). Allomorphism is also pertained to Ukrainian in which some statives may take instead a direct prepositionless nominal complement also other indirect case forms which is impossible in English. Cf. шкода праці, треба часу, сором сліз and легше вже йому (dative case, object) вже краще малому /старшому, обом, etc. Hence, the prepositionless objective case in Ukrainian (краще йому старшому/обом, etc.) is impossible in English where nouns have only the genitive case (cf. Ann's, Peter's). Similarly with other nominals, except some personal pronouns and the interrogative pronoun who (cf. whom) which have the objective case forms (cf. me, him, her, them). A common syntactic function of statives in the contrasted languages is that of the predicate or predicative. Cf. a) as predicative: "Ruth was aghast". (London) Йому все-таки було тоскна... на серці. (Гончар); b) As simple nominal predicate: He, afraid? Мені їх не шкода, мені їх не жаль. (Шевченко)
Allomorphic for Ukrainian, however, is the function of the attribute, typical of the English language only. Cf. the child asleep, the house ablaze, the shore afar, etc.
Note. Some morphological and functional indefiniteness of statives gave ground to several Western and domestic grammarians not to recognise these words (singed out as a separate part of speech by Academician Shcherba a "legitimate" part of speech. This opinion was openly expressed by L. Barkhudarov and supported by I. Ivanova and her coauthors [15: 37-38] as well as by some Ukrainian grammarians [30] even in their latest publications [A. Hryschenko: 30].
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TYPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL WORDS
The number of functionals in the contrasted languages is practically the same, the only exception being the article in English. Their nomenclature is as follows: 1) modal words (and modal phrases); 2) the preposition; 3) the conjunction; 4) the particle; 5) the interjection.
Modal Words and Phrases/Modals
The lexical units belonging to this part of speech are characterised in both languages by their meaning of "modality". They are used to express the speaker's judgement concerning the action/event or object in the utterance/ sentence. These words/phrases in English and Ukrainian are as follows: certainly, indeed, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt - певне, напевне, звичайно, може, можливо, безумовно, безсумнівно and others.
Modals are traditionally classified as follows:
1. Modal words/phrases expressing various shades of certainty: cer tainly, of course, surely, no doubt, assuredly, indeed, undoubtedly, really (певне, напевне, звичайно, безсумнівно, безперечно, безумовно, зрозуміло, правда):
"Yes, certainly they (pigeons) Так, звичайно, вони (голуби)
will fly". (Hemingway) повилітають.
"Sure, he's a bum". (Caldwell) Безперечно, він волоцюга.
2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability: maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably (може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно, здається):
"They'll probably come through "Ну, можливо вони якось пере -
it all right". (Hemingway) живуть артобстріл".
"Maybe it was all a lie...". "Може, все це була брехня..." (Steinbeck)
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3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability (fortunate ly, unfortunately), which have a restricted number of semantic equiva lents in Ukrainian (на щастя, на жаль, шкода):
"You are wrong, unfortunately". "На жаль, ти неправий". "Fortunately, it didn't come true". "На щастя, це не здійсни- (Jacobs) лось".
4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty and coinciding in form with the modal words denoting probability (maybe, perhaps, proba bly — може, можливо, мабуть):
"Maybe it's not yet time...?" Може, ще не настав час?
(Caldwell)
"...perhaps you'd better take а ...може б ти довше/ще якийсь
little longer to consider". (Jacobs) час над цим поміркував.
The subjective and objective attitude of the speaker towards an event/ action may often be expressed by several other parenthetic words and phrases which may point a) to the authorship of the idea/assertion expressed in the sentence, eg.: they say, as reported, in my view, to my mind, 1 think - кажуть, як повідомляють, на мою думку, як говориться, etc.; b) to words and phrases expressing an estimation of the expressed idea in the sentence (shortly speaking, generally speaking, in a word — коротко кажучи, відверто кажучи, одне слово, etc.); c) to words pointing to the order or succession of ideas expressed in the sentence (firstly, secondly, on the contrary - по-перше, по-друге, навпаки, etc.).
Modals, like statives, originate from different parts of speech or phrases which acquire some modal meaning in the sentence. These parts of speech are: 1) adverbs (really, probably, fortunately справді, очевидно, дійсно); 2) nouns with or without prepositions (only in Ukrainian): in one's view, in one's opinion, to one's judgment — сором, страх, на мою думку, на мій погляд; 3) verbal phrases and sentences (it seems, you see - здається, бачите, як бачите, кажуть); 4) statives (in Ukrainian): чутно, видно, etc.
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One more common feature of modals in the contrasted languages is their position in the sentence. Most of them may occupy any position according to the emphasis they are given by the author/speaker. Cf. Perhaps he will come. He will, perhaps, come. He will come, perhaps.(Можливо, він прийде; він, можливо, прийде; він прийде, можливо). Modals may also be used in both contrasted languages as elliptical answers to some utterances. Eg:
"Maybe we better go out... "Може, краще вийдемо і роз-
and send them home?" женемо їх по домівках?"
"Maybe we better," Tad said. "Може й так,"- сказав Тед. (Saroyan)
Typological Characteristics of Prepositions
Prepositions in English and Ukrainian are characterised by both isomorphic and allomorphic features. Isomorphism is clearly observed in the morphological structure of prepositions which can be in the contrasted languages as follows:
|In English |In Ukrainian |
|Simple: at, in, on, of, with, to, by |Прості: в, з, о, під, на, за, при, без |
|Compound: inside, into, within, without, |Складні: із-за, з-під, з-понад, попід, поперед, |
|throughout, upon, etc. |посеред, поміж, щодо, задля |
|Derivative: along, below, beside, inside, |Похідні: внаслідок, завдяки, коло, круг,поверх, |
|outside, etc. |поперек, довкіл, etc. |
|Composite (Phrase prepositions): |Складені: в справі, на відміну від, у зв'язку з, |
|by means of, because of, in accordance with, |поруч з, згідно з, незалежно від, у відповідь на, |
|owing to, in front of, in spite of, with |збоку від, близько від, в межах, у плані, etc. |
|regard to, on account of, etc. | |
The only structural difference, therefore, is in the group of simple prepositions, among which there are some Ukrainian prepositions consisting of a single consonant or vowel (в, у, о, з). Cf. в очі, у возі, о п'ятій годині, з гір.
Mainly common are the parts of speech from which many preposi-
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tions are formed (except the diyepryslivnyk). They are: a) nouns: beside, in front of, in accordance with внаслідок, у зв'язку з, слідом за, коло, кругом; b) verbals (participles, diyepryslivnyks): owing to, concerning, including включаючи, завдяки, зважаючи; с) adverbs (the largest number): along, before, down, among близько, довкола, ззаду, обабіч, серед, etc.
The lexico-grammatical meaning of prepositions as semi-notional words is isomorphic in both languages as well. Prepositions may be temporal (before noon до обіду, after that після того, during the war під час війни, since Monday від понеділка, until he came доки він не прийде, etc.); local (along the road вздовж дороги, across the street через шлях, among the books серед книжок, in front of me переді мною), behind/over the house за/над хатою; causal (because of that через те що, in view of all this з погляду на це, or pervasive (he poured water all over me з голови до ніг); concessive (despite his expectations всупереч його очікуванням).
Prepositions are characterised by an almost exclusive bilateral combinability with any left-hand notional and a right-hand nominal part of speech/its equivalent. Cf.
[pic]
preposition
noun
verb
adjective
pronoun
numeral
adverb
stative
noun
verb/gerund*
pronoun
adjective
numeral
word — group
A preposition expressing a relation between two entities forms a prepositional complement with the right-hand component. The latter is almost always morphologically amorphous, except when it is a personal or interrogative/relative w/h-pronoun having in English an objective case form, eg: ask about me, done by him/them, promised by whom, etc. Ukrainian
Only in English.
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prepositional complements are almost entirely marked by case inflexions, i. e. governed analytico-synthetically (cf. книжка для неї/Марії, лист від товариша, троє з товаришів, засмаглий на сонці, легко на душі).
In titles, however, prepositions may have only a right-hand combinability, eg:
"To a skylark" (Shelley). "Of Human Bondage" (Maugham), "Under the Greenwood Tree" (T. Hardy), "До Основ'яненка" (Шевченко), До мого фортеп'яно" (Л. Українка), "Під мінаретами" (Коцюбинський), "На майдані" (Тичина), etc.
A peculiar feature of English is the postposed use of prepositions in some interrogative sentences (What paper have you subscribed to?); in exclamations (What an accident he's got in!), or in the subjective with the infinitive constructions (She's impossible to work with).
According to their meaning prepositions in the contrasted languages may express various syntactic relations, the main of which are as follows:
1. Agentive relations: the play written by Shakespeare бути /під чиєюсь високою рукою/під орудою. 2. Objective relations: to be angry/ satisfied with somebody сердитись на когось, помиритися з кимсь. 3. Attributive relations: birds of a feather, the man in question товариші по школі, друзі з Канади. 4. Various adverbial relations: a) temporal: to depart on Monday, to arrive in spring від'їжджати в понеділок, приїхати в березні/через півроку; b) local: in the cottage, behind the fence, in front of the house у хаті, за тином, під лісом; с) of direction: into the room, go out of the room, he went to the door у кімнату/з кімнати, зайдіть до хати; d) of manner or comparison: to look in astonishment, the air came in a warm wave глянути з подивом; радощів у серці через край (Тичина); е) of attendant circumstances: Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. (Cronin) зима прийшла зі снігопадами; f) of cause: My dog pants, with the heat собака задихається від спеки. Троє діток на віспу вмерли. (Федькович); g) of concession: they continued their way despite the rain, he would do it in spite of the obstacles. Чорнявому зрадливому на лютеє горе... (Шевченко). Він приїде незважаючи на хворобу; h) of possession: books of his brother, the
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windows of the cottage. Стояв генерал... при всіх орденах (Яновський). Отже, будемо й ми при розумі. (Головко). 5. Various other relations as: a) Relations of resemblance: she is like her mother (він схожий на батька), b) Relations of subordination: to be secretary to the firm manager бути секретарем у посла, с) Relations of dissociation: to be devoid of suspicion бути вільним від підозри/бути поза підозрою, etc.
These are the main but far from all the relations expressed by prerepositions in English and Ukrainian word-groups and utterances. Allomorphism is observed only in the nature of the syntactic functions of prepositions. These are mainly linking in English, where prepositions generally do not require any case form from the right-hand nominal component (cf. a book of my brother, toys/or the child, four of the boys). An exception present the so-called grammaticalised preposition of, to, for, by and with which explicitly express the corresponding case relations, namely: of the genitive case relation (books of hers, theirs), to the dative case relation (sent to them, books for him/us), by and with the instrumental (орудний) case relation (written by him/them, us, went with her, us, them), etc.
In Ukrainian, on the other hand, prepositions govern nouns, pronouns, numerals, substantivised adjectives and nominal word-groups, eg: праця в садку/на полі, лежати під грушею (під дубом), лист від нього/від першого, захист від польових гризунів, книжка для двох, переляк від червоного, etc.
Ukrainian prepositions may be used with nominals in a certain case form only, as for instance, in the genitive case (без, біля, від, для, до, and others) or with two cases, for example, with the accusative and instrumental case (над, під, перед), and sometimes with three cases (з, за, між, у): у житті, у відповідь, з горя/горем. Therefore, Ukrainian prepositions, unlike the English ones, help to express different syntactic relations through case forms of the subordinated nominal parts of speech in word-groups and utterances/sentences. Each of the more than 130 Ukrainian prepositions is used to express one or more case relations as can party be observed from the following table:
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Table 22
Case Allocation of Ukrainian Preposition.
|Case form |Structural Types of Prepositions |
|Genitive |Simple |Compound |Derivative |Composite |
| |без, біля, у, в,|задля, заради, |близько, вглиб, |в ім'я, в інтересах, за |
| |від, ради, |з-за, з-межи |вздовж, відносно, |винятком, за допомогою, |
| |окрім, з, коло, |(з-між), з-над, |довкола/довкіл, |за рахунок, з боку, на |
| |між, etc. |з-поза, з-перед, |замість, зверху, мимо,|основі, в силу, etc. |
| | |etc. |etc. | |
|Dative |к, ік | |слід, всупереч, |на (у) противагу |
| | | |навздогін, навперейми,| |
| | | |назустріч, наперекір, | |
| | | |напереріз, etc. | |
| | | | | |
|Accusative|У (в), за, |Поза, поміж | |Зважаючи на, незважаючи |
| |крізь, між, на, |(помежи), понад | |на, у відповідь на, з |
| |над, о (об), |попри, проміж, | |огляду на, etc. |
| |перед, під, по, |etc. | | |
| |повз, про, проз,| | | |
| |через, etc. | | | |
| | | | | |
|Instrument|з (із, зі), за, |Поза, понад, поміж| |вслід (слідом) за, згідно|
|al |між (межи), над |(помежи), проміж, | |з (навздогін) за, нарівні|
| |(наді), перед |etc. | |з, на чолі з, одночасно |
| |(переді), під | | |з, паралельно з, побіч з,|
| |(піді), etc. | | |порівняно з, поруч з, |
| | | | |разом з, у зв'язку з, в |
| | | | |унісон з, etc. |
| | | | | |
|Locative |у (в), на, о | | | |
| |(об), по, при | | | |
| | | | | |
Even a passing look at the table proves the existence of a quantitative disproportionality concerning the allocation of Ukrainian prepositions among separate case forms. Thus, no derivative prepositions are used with the accusative, instrumental and locative case forms. Besides, the dative
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case lacks derivative and composite prepositions, whereas the locative case has only some 5 simple prepositions to govern nominal parts of speech. The overwhelming number of prepositions, however, are used in Ukrainian with the genitive case. Their number more than two times exceeds the number of prepositions used with all other case forms.
One more is also an isomorphic feature pertained to the contrasted languages which finds its expression in the occasional use of some Ukrainian (like English) prepositions to perform a purely linking function. This happens in cases when prepositions are used to connect (not govern!) unchangeable foreign nouns. Cf. їхати в таксі, вийти з фойє, ходити без кольє, бути в кімоно/сарі, народитися в Туапсе, мешкати в Бордо/Ліворно. Despite this the syntactic functions of prepositional phrases are common in both languages. They may be in the sentence as subject (cf. For me to read it was easy), predicative (this is for me to decide), as an attribute (a book for you to read) or as an adverbial modifier. [I left something under your door for you to read it. (Carter)] In other words, prepositional phrases may be complements to verbs, adjectives (Cf. The need of doing something, sorry for something). They can perform the functions of attributive or adverbial adjuncts (books for reading, singing in the room), or serve as disjuncts (to my surprise, the student answered well), or conjuncts (on the other hand, she was free).
Typology of the Conjunctions
Conjunctions in the contrasted languages are functional words realising the connection of homogeneous parts in co-ordinate word-groups and sentences or linking subordinate clauses in composite sentences. As to their structure, conjunctions in English and Ukrainian are generally characterised by isomorphism. The various types are as follows: 1) Simple (and, but, or, if, that, till і /й, а, бо, ні, та/. 2) Derivative/compound: all + though --» although, un + less -» unless, be + cause — » because, un + till -» until, where + as -» whereas, a + бо -» або, за + те -» зате, про + те — проте, як + що -» якщо, як + би -» якби, etc. 3) Composite (складені): as if, as soon as, in order that; так що; через те, що; для того, щоб; з того час, як; відтоді, як, etc.
The use of conjunctions may be non-repeated (and, but, since a,
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але, що) and repeated (in Ukrainian) or correlative (in English), eg: both... and, either..or, neither... nor, no sooner... than (i — i, ні — ні, то — то, чи — чи, не то — не то, не стільки — скільки).
As to their syntactic functions, conjunctions in the contrasted languages fall into two common-isomorphic groups: a) co-ordinating conjunctions and b) subordinating conjunctions. A graphic presentation of all classes of co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions in English and Ukrainian is as follows:
Table 23
|Copulative |Disjunctive |Adversative |Resultative |Causal |
|and, both... and,|or, either. ..or, |but, still, yet, |so, hence, тож, |for |
|neither. . .nor, |neither... nor, або, |however, але, проте,|отож, тобто, а | |
|as well as, etc. |ато, чи, чи... чи, |зате, однак, все ж, |саме, etc. | |
|і, й, та, ні... |ато... ато |etc. | | |
|ні | | | | |
[pic]
Adjoining
and, also, and still, та й, та ще й
Co-ordinating conjunctions
Gradational
not only... but also, not
so much...than
що не тільки, а навіть;
не тільки, а й /але й
CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS
of comparison
as...as, not
so...as, than, as
if, as through,
мов, немов,
неначе, наче
Subordinating Conjunctions
of Cause
because, as, since,
seeing,
бо, тому що,
оскільки
[pic]
|of place |of time |of condition |of concession |of purpose |of results |
|where, |after, till, |if, unless. |though, although, |lest, that, in|that, so |
| |until. | | | |that, |
|wherever. |since, before,|provided, |despite, whoever, |order that, so|що, так |
|де, звідки, |while, |supposing, |whatever, |that, |що/ й |
|куди, туди |доки, поки, |якщо, якби, |хоча (б), дарма |аби, щоб, для | |
| |як, аж поки |коли б, якщо б |що, хай, нехай |того, щоб | |
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As can be seen in the table, co-ordinating conjunctions in the contrasted languages fall into the following subclasses:
Copulative (єднальні): and, nor, neither... nor, as well as, both... and, not only... but also; і/й, та, також, і... і, ні... ні, як... так і, не тільки... але й/і. Copulative conjunctions in the contrasted languages have a bilateral combinability. They connect separate components, com ponental parts of word-groups or clauses in compound sentences which are of equal rank, eg: In the afternoon he and Jolly took picks and spades and went to the field. (Galsworthy), "It was a cold fall and the wind came from the mountains". (Hemingway). По обіді він і Джоллі взяли кайла і лопати й пішли на поле. Була холодна осінь, і вітер віяв з гір. І пить будем, і гулять будем. (Ukr. Folk-song)
Disjunctive (розділові) conjunctions denote in both languages sepa ration. They are: or, either... or або, ато, чи, або... або, чи... чи, то... то, чи то...чи то, eg: "I must weep, or else this heavy heart will burst". (Byron) "I have nothing of the artist in me, either in faculty or character". (B. Shaw). Я мушу плакати, ато від горя серце розірветься. "Все пішло то на податі, то на борги, то на оренди". (Гончар) 3) Adversative (протиставні): but, still, yet але, проте, зате, однак, все ж and others. Eg: Andrew turned towards her distressed, yet still determined to carry out his intention. (Cronin) Ендрю повернувся до неї занепокоєний, але готовий здійснити свій намір. 4) Resultative (пояснювальні): so, hence так, що, тож/отож, тобто, а саме, як от, eg: The grass was drenching wet, so he descended to the road. (Galsworthy) У траві стояла вода, тож він вийшов на шлях. І він катапультується, тобто вистрілює себе з літака разом з сидінням. (Гончар). 5) The causal conjunction (for) is pertaining only to English, eg: The windows were open, for it was hot. (Galsworthy). The corre sponding semantic equivalent of this conjunction in Ukrainian are, бо, тому що, оскільки - all of subordinating nature which testifies its allomorphism in the system of co-ordinate conjunctions in the contrasted languages. Consequently, it is sometimes far from easy for Ukrainian students to differentiate Ukrainian causal clauses in a complex sentence. It is not so with the subordinating conjunctions introducing subordi nate clauses. These conjunctions also include in both languages the group
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of the so-called connectives standing separate from regular subordinating conjunctions. Regular conjunctions of this group are: that, whether, if, що, чи, якщо/якби which are used to introduce in both languages subject, object, predicative and attributive clauses. Eg. Whether/if he is going to come or not is still unknown. The question is whether he is going to come or not. He asked if was going to come. I know that he is going to come. This is the flower that was bought there, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: Чи він прийде ще - не відомо. Питання полягає в тому, що/ чи він ще прийде. Я вірю/знаю, що він прийде. Common functions in both contrasted languages are also performed by connective or conjunctive/relative (as they are often referred to) pronouns: who, what, which, how many, хто, що, який, котрий, чий, скільки; and by connective/ conjunctive adverbs: where, when, how, why, де, коли, куди, як, чому.
Subordinate conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are of isomorphic nature, i. e. common in both contrasted languages, too. They express different sense relations and fall into the following groups:
Conjunctions of time: since, until, till, as long as, after, before, while, as soon as, коли, відколи, поки, аж поки, доки, аж доки, як, після того як, в міру того як, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве.
Conjunctions/connectives of place and direction: where, wherev er, whence, де, де б, куди, звідки.
Conjunctions of cause or reason: as, because, since, seeing, бо, через те що, тому що, затим що, оскільки.
Conjunctions of condition: if, unless, provided, supposing якби, якщо, якщо б, коли б, аби, скоро.
Conjunctions of purpose: lest, that, in order that, so that, щоб, для того щоб, з тим щоб.
Conjunctions of result: so that, that, так що, отож:, тож.
Conjunctions of concession: though, although, as, even if, even though, however, wherever, whatever, whichever, хоч, хай, нехай, дарма що, незважаючи (на).
Conjunctions of comparison: as, as...as, not so... as, than, as if, as though, як, що, мов, мовби, немов, немовби, наче, неначе, начебто, ніби, нібито.
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Typological Characteristics of Particles
Particles in English and Ukrainian are unchangeable words specifying some component in a phrase or the whole phrase (a sentence/clause). Unlike conjunctions or prepositions, particles do not express any syntactic relations. Their function is in both languages to emphasise, restrict or make negative the meaning of the units they specify by giving some additional shade (emotional, evaluative, etc.) to their meaning/sense. Therefore some particles may perform a form-building function (cf. To be or not to be. Shakespeare) бути чи не бути. Besides, particles in both contrasted languages express an attitudinal relation to action, state or the whole message/or to reality, as well as to expressing the attitude of the speaker to the content of some message. Hence, the categorial meaning of a particle in both contrasted languages comes to influencing the content/sense expressed in the utterance.
As to their morphological structure, particles in the contrasted languages may be:
Simple: all, else, even, just, too, yet, not, а, і/й, так, ну, не, ж, еге and others;
Derivative: alone, merely, scarcely, simply, нум, нумо, було, просто, все, воно, собі, та, те, це, оце, а, чи;
Compound: almost, also (невже, якраз).
Isomorphic is the homonymy of many particles in English and Ukrainian with the following parts of speech:
a) with adverbs: exactly, precisely, never, simply, still, просто, лиш, там, ще, вже; b) with adjectives (in English): even, right, just; c) with pronouns: all, either, все, воно, собі, те, то; d) with conjunctions (very few in English): but they are in Ukrainian (а, і, та, чи); е) with articles (in English only): the more, the better; the longer, the better.
Quite common, although not always equally represented, are the semantic groups of particles in both contrasted languages. Namely:
1. Particles of emphatic precision (емфатичного уточнення): absolutely, exactly, precisely, right, точно, справді, просто, прямо and others. Eg:
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| | |
|2. Demonstrative particles/вказівні: here, there, ось, от, це, оце, онде, ген, воно: |
|"Here is the man". (Mansfield) "There's no |Ось цей чоловік. / Ось де цей чоловік. «Ото ж бо й|
|little thing you want..." (Jacobs) |є». (Старицький) |
|3. Affirmative particles/стверджувальні: well, now, yes, так, гаразд, еге, еге ж, атож: |
|"Well, now, tell me if I'm wrong". (H. E. |"Отож. Так, ви може й маєте рацію." "Ви добре |
|Bates) |знаєте Карпа?" ..."Атож." (Коцюбинський) "Так, — |
|"Yes, said her host. Yes, indeed". (Parker) |сказав господар. -Авжеж, так. " (Таки так.) |
|4. Intensifying particles / підсилювальні/ are rather numerous in English and Ukrainian: all, |
|but, just, even, simply, yet, still, etc. і, й, та, таки, аж, навіть, вже, ж, бо, же, (a) and |
|others: |
|"Не simply could not bear joking |Він просто не сприймав жартів. Він запізнився |
|(Galsworthy) "He was late too ".(Ibid.) |також. |
|5. Negative or form-building (заперечні й формотворні) particles: not, never, no, не, ні, ані.|
|These particles are used for the following purposes: a) to make a predicate verb in both |
|languages negative, eg: |
|"Six weeks isn't really long.." |Ой не ходи, Грицю... (Нар. пісня) Не називаю її |
|(Galsworthy). "Don't you forget!" (Parker) |раєм. ..(Шевченко) Ні, я буду співати пісні! (Л. |
| |Українка) |
| |269 |
b) to make a part of the sentence/a component of a word-group neg ative, eg:
Not everyman's money. (Idiom) He кожному по кишені.
"He is neither fish nor fowl." "Він триба, ні м'ясо. (Ні Богу
(Salinger) свічка, ні чорту шпичка).
c) to negate the preceding suggestion, eg:
"What'd he cop, malaria?" "No". (F. Hardy). "У нього що - малярія?" - Hi. "I am careful". "Я ж уважний."
"No, you are not." (Fitzgerald) "Hi, ти не уважний. "
6. Interrogative particles/запитальні частки: well, really, no, why, why not, га, ну, невже, хіба, та ну, що за, eg:
"...This isn't the man". "No?" — Це не той чоловік — Ні?
"However, I don't believe it". — Однак я не вірю цьому.
"Why not?" "This is Slogle speaking..." — Чому б ні? Це справді говорить Слоґл.
"Yes?". (Fitzgerald) "It's not so very - Так? Це не так уже й страшно, terrible." "Well?" (Maugham) — Справді?/ Так?
7. Connecting or linking particles/приєднувальні частки: also, too (тож, також/теж, до того ж, ще й), eg:
"Не also takes off his hat and over- Він також скидає капелюха й coat." (В. Shaw) Soames, too, was пальто.
silent. (Galsworthy) Сомз теж мовчав./Сомз також
промовчав.
The large number of particles in both languages and the diversity of their specifying capacity make it possible to single out some more discrete groups of these words. Among these the following are most represented in English and Ukrainian:
quantitative (кількісні) particles: almost (almost everything), ap proximately (approximately the size) майже, приблизно, близько, мало не, трохи не, чи не, ледве не;
emphasising or singling out particles (видільні частки): even that,
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only look/say, more intense, more than necessary. And in Ukrainian: навіть, тільки, лише, лиш, хоч, хоча б, аж, же/ж, все, собі, таки, eg: ...тільки в цьому котловані буяють рясні сади. Хоча б цієї столиці не минути... (Гончар) Сині, аж сизі. А серце... таки рветься до кращого життя... (Коцюбинський).
A distinguishing feature of present-day Ukrainian is a more extensive use of particles in speech (especially of emphasising and modal particles). The latter constitute a large group including such particles as б, би, мов, мовби, бодай, хай, нехай, може, нум, нумо, etc. Cf.: A бодай вам весело було. (Кв.-Основ'яненко) Пройти б на старе бойовище. (В. Швець) Хай тільки-но зачеплять... (Трублаїні) ...зморшки на чолі все глибшають у мене... (Сосюра) Це далеко? А це як міряти.
Ukrainian has also a wide use of interrogative particles. Cf. Невже не можна ради дати серцю?.. (Павличко). Те дерево, що я садив, чи діждеться весни? (Рильський) Хіба є хто на світі крилатіший за людину? (О. Гончар) Це ти Шовкун? (Ibid.)
As was already mentioned particles in both contrasted languages can perform not only form-building but also word-forming functions. Word-forming are the following English particles: else-, not-, no more-, -most (elsewhere, notwithstanding, forget-me-not, nothingness, moreover, almost, altogether, although, nothing, nowhere).
Ukrainian has a considerably larger number of word-forming particles, eg: -будь, -небудь, казна-, хтозна-, -сь, аби-, де-, не-, ні-, би-, б-, -же-, -ж and others: хто-небудь, декуди, де-небудь, якийсь, мовби, ніби, начеб, щоб, ніколи, недбальство, ніде, ніщо, кознащо, немов, адже, отже, також, теж, ніж, etc. Form-building particles are used in English in the following functions:
a) as an infinitival identifier: to ask, to be reading; b) as a representation specifier (he'll come if asked to); c) as a specifier of degree (the larger part, he's the quickest, more quickly); d) as a negator of a word (eg: cannot) or a phrase (not he, certainly not, no reading practice).
Ukrainian form-building particles have a wider range of use. They may be part of a morphological paradigm (as in case of the particles хай, нехай, най-, що-, як-, -сь, би/б): Хай він жде біля криниці...
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(Малишко) ...нехай їдуть під шум. (Рильський) Якби були батько, мати, Та були б багаті, Було б кому взяти. (Шевченко)
Typological Characteristics of Interjections/Emotives
Unlike notionals, interjections in English and Ukrainian do not correlate with notions, they do not express any relations or point to any connection with words in an utterance. Interjections are unchangeable words or phrases expressing emotional and volitional reaction of the speaker on some event. Hence, there are to be distinguished communicative, emotive, and signalising interjections, which express respectively joy or pleasure, sadness, warning or repugnance, etc. Cf.:
"O-o, grand!" (Priestley) "O-o, пречудово!"
"Fine!" (F. Fowles) - Прекрасно!
"Oh, keeno!" (Murdoch) - Прекрасно! О, просто чудо!
"My, how you've changed!" (Brautigan) — Боже мій, як ти змінився!
"Oh, it hurts me. Oh!" (Maltz) - Ой, як болить. Ой!
As can be noticed, interjections in English and Ukrainian utterances mostly occupy a front position, rarely a midposition or a closing position. Cf.: А ми! хе! хе! а ми жонаті. (Шевченко) І одного часу, як гукне, так, ой-ой-ой! (Вишня)
Interjections may be primary (первинні) and derivative (похідні). According to their structure, interjections may be simple, compound and composite, or phrasal.
I. Simple interjections fall into some subgroups, namely: a) interjections consisting of one or two sounds: ah, a-ah, oh, oo, ooh, oof, coo, gee. Or in Ukrainian: а! е! о! е-е! ай! ах! ox! xa! xe!yx! am! em! etc. b) Interjections may consist of consonant sounds only: brr, mm, sh (sh-sh) гм! хм! цсс! шш! брр!; с) interjections often consist of more than two different sounds which form one syllable: gosh, tut, umph, whoop гай! гей! гов! гоп! пхе! пхи! etc; d) interjections can consist of two syllables: alas, ahem, boffo, hello/hullo, okey ага! агей! ату! агусь! ану! люлі! нумо! овва! ого! мугу!); е) reduplicating (повторні) interjections are pertained to both languages as well: ah-ah, ay-ay, ee-ee, goe-goe, how-how, ho-ho, hubba-hubba, chock-chock, ta-ta, tut-tut. Sim-
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ilarly in Ukrainian: a-a, ану-ану, гай-гай, еге-ге, о-го-го, ну-ну, ха-ха.
Compound interjections are more characteristic of English than of Ukrainian, eg: heigh-ho, holla-ho, fiddlesticks, whoo-whoop, wo-ho, yo-ho, etc. Cf.: Господи-Боже! Добридень! Спасибі! Боже мій!
Derivative interjections constitute a common group in the contrasted languages too. They are mostly of common origin and sometimes even of identical lexical meaning. There are distinguished six types of emotional interjections in the contrasted languages: a) of substantival origin: beans! bully! fiddle! hell! Lord! nuts! raspberry! rabbit! rats! taps! Господи! матінко! пене! Боже! леле! жах! страх! ґвалт! слава! хвала! біда! горе!; b) of verbal origin: come! look! see! cut! bother! shoot! диви! гляди! бач! рятуйте! пробачте! даруйте! прощайте! побачимо! цур! (from цуратися); с) of adjectival origin (mostly in English): fine! grand! right! dear! swell! divine! gracious!; d) of adverbial origin: here! there! now! well! why? so! добре! зараз! тут! там! так! геть! прекрасно!; e) of pronominal origin: "ay me! oh me!" (Shakespeare) отаке! стільки ж! отакої! "Куди ж писати?" "Отакої! Не знає куди!.." (О. Гончар); f) of phrasal origin (contracted), which are rather numerous in English: howdy (from how do you do), alright (from all right), my! (from my God/my Lord), dammit (from damn it), attaboy (from that's a boy), добридень (from добрий день), спасибі (from спаси біг), тсь! цсс! (from тихіше), etc.
Derived are also numerous idiomatic interjections of various componental nature and expressing different emotions, eg: my eye! Holy Moses! the cat's pyjamas! gee whiskers! well I never! їй же бо! хай йому цур! кат їх бери! Боже ж мій! біда та й годі! де там! ой лелечко! де ж так! etc.
Emotive interjections express various feelings, one interjection being often used in English and Ukrainian to express different meanings. These classes of meanings are as follows:
1. Positive feelings (joy, satisfaction, sympathy), eg:
"Great!" Michael said". (I. Shaw) Чудово!» — вигукнув Майкл.
"Ooh! ooh!" the crowd was moa- «Гу-у! Г-уу» — стогнав, пере-
ning in a kind of amorous agony", повнений ніби якимось зами-
(Huxley) луванням, збуджений натовп.
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|2. Incentive orders (спонукальні накази), eg: |
|"Hey, now! Wait a minute". (Dahl) "Here, Buck", |«Гей там! Зачекайте». «Сюди, Баку!» — |
|the Boss called. (Warren) "Quiet!" I yelled to |гукнув Бос. «Вгамуйтесь/Замовкніть!» |
|them. (Hemmett) |— гримнув я на них. |
Here also belong interjectional orders given to domestic animals. For example: gee-up! or giddap! hait! hi-up! (to horses) но! гайда! вйо! whoa, hoa, whoa! mnpy! sookl sook! цоб-цабе! puss, puss, puss! киці, киці-киці; киць-киць-киць; dilly, dilly! тась, тась! chook-chook! chuck-chuck! ціп-ціп-ціп! etc.
3. Negative feelings (grief, sorrow, horror, alarm, disgust, etc.):
|"Oops! It's after midnight" . (Sheldon) |"Ух-ти! Вже за північ". "Ух гарно! Ух гарно!" - |
|"Pshav! said the other twin". (Capote) "Nuts!" |тільки ухає Христя. (П. Мирний) "Тьху!" - сказав|
|the Boss said. (Warren) |другий близнюк. "Дурниці!" — сказав Бос.. |
4. Orders to stop an action: hist! hush! shh! shush! In Ukrainian: тихо! тихо! тсс! тс! шш! cave! — обережно! nuf! nuff! — годі! scat! shoo! — геть! eg:
|"Hush ", my mother said, "hush, son". |"Ша, синку", — сказала мама. — Ша». "Ша! Мовчок, |
|(Warren) |хлопці." (І. Микитюк) |
5. Greetings and partings which may sometimes be rather emotional as well. Cf.:
|"Oh, hello!" she called..." (Brash) "Howdy," |«О, привіт!» — вигукнула вона... «Здоров!» — |
|said Isabel..." (Capote) "Bye!" said Romona. |сказала Ізабел... «Бувай!» — відповіла Ромона.|
|(Salinger) | |
Note. Imitations of sounds produced by birds and animals like dab-dab, mew, cock-a-dooble-doo, moo, how-wow, etc. and their Ukrainian equivalents кря-кря, няв, кукуріку, му-у, гав-гав, can not be treated as interjections or as emotives unless used on some occasions for the sake of stylisation. Cf. "Bow-wow!" Repeated the boy jokingly. "Гав-гав!" повторив, граючись, хлопчина.
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Topics for Self-Testing and Individual Preparation
The dominant morphological and syntactic features distinguishing the structural type of present-day English from the structural type of present-day Ukrainian.
The morpheme as a typological constant in the contrasted lan guages. Quantitative and qualitative correlation of affixal mor phemes in English vs. Ukrainian.
Types of inflexional morphemes in the contrasted languages.
The problem of "Word classes" vs. the parts of speech in English and Ukrainian.
Isomorphism and allomorphism in the quantitative representation of the morphological categories and means of their expression in the nominals of the contrasted languages.
Typological characteristics of the noun (classes, morphological categories, functions of the noun in the contrasted languages).
Singularia and pluralia tantum nouns and expression of quantity (or number) in the contrasted languages.
Isomorphism and allomorphism in the means of expressing defi niteness and indefiniteness in the contrasted languages.
Morphological/structural, categorial, functional and other isomor phic and allomorphic features of different classes of adjectives in the contrasted languages.
The pronoun. Classes of pronouns. Isomorphic and allomorphic features of English vs. Ukrainian pronouns.
The numeral. Classes of numerals and their isomorphic/allomor phic features in the contrasted languages.
The verb. Isomorphism and allomorphism in the classes of verbs. Morphological categories of person, number, tense, voice, aspect, mood and their realisation in the contrasted languages.
13. Isomorphism and allomorphism in the system of verbals of the
contrasted languages. 14. Typological characteristics of different classes of adverbs and their
structural peculiarities. The origin of some adverbs in English and
Ukrainian.
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Typological characteristics of English vs. Ukrainian statives and their combinability.
Typological characteristics of the functional parts of speech in the contrasted languages:
semantic groups of modal words and modal expressions in En glish and Ukrainian;
isomorphism and allomorphism in the meaning, structure and functioning of prepositions in the contrasted languages;
the conjunction. Paradigmatic classes of conjunctions and their morphological structure in English and Ukrainian;
isomorphic and allomorphic features of different classes of par ticles in the contrasted languages;
typological characteristics of interjections/emotives in the con trasted languages.
Exercises for Class and Homework
Exercise I. Contrast the morphological structure of the English and Ukrainian words below. Identify a) the national and b) the international affixal morphemes in them:
|ablaze, bedew, degrading, illegally, |краще, вводити, зім'яти, антитіло, посіятися, |
|interstate, non-smoking, linguistically, |нереально, диктаторство, недокінченість, |
|dictatorship, computerisation, employee, |комп'ютеризація, по-новому; дитяточко, |
|examinee, duckling, princeling, sissy, |дрібнесенько, козарлюга, басище, здоровило, |
|cloudlet, studenship, drunkard, sluggard, |щонайкращий, якнайновіша, якнайбільше; |
|commander-in-chief, merry-go-round, |переписати, попоходити, попобігати, |
|fifty-fifty, sportsman, transportation, |перекотиполе, Гнидуб, сяк-так, хоч-не-хоч, |
|willy-nilly, supersonic, rewritten, |роботизація. |
|redistribute, non-aggression, underwrite. | |
Exercise II. Point to the factors facilitating (or otherwise) the identification of the parts of speech in the following English and Ukrainian words/word-forms:
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clean, cleaner, cleaning; back, bad, badly; worse, force, good, goody, better; deciding, home, man, finance, manned; psychology, finish, set; before, but, butter, must, near, round, save, start, waste, zip, pollution, clear, clearness.
добре, краще, мати, матір, молода/ молодий, варене/печене; перед, передове, відживаюче, вчений; батьків, сестрин; коло, край, перше, берегти, береги, кілька, собі; моя/твоя, коло, перед, багато, багатий, багатій, кілька, декілька, нявкати, посміхатися
Exercise III. State the difference (if any) in the expression of the category of number and quantity in the following English and Ukrainian nouns:
the North-West, the South-East; advice, business, courage; finance; archives, arms, customs, foliage, scum; brushwood, oil, silver, carp, pike, salmon, swine; bacilli, errata, radii, termini, outskirts, riches, shorts, tongs, savings, victuals, the Pole, sweepings; the Netherlands, the Bahamas, scales, money.
північний захід/схід, золото, срібло, борошно, м'ясо; білизна, збіжжя, збрид, віниччя, паліччя, сміття; гамір, сметана, гнів; освіта; проводи, вершки, поминки, вечорниці; висівки, вишкрібки, цінності; ворожіння, посиденьки, дріжджі, помиї, міліція, Бровари, Суми, Чернівці, Урал (гори).
Exercise IV. Find the isomorphic and allomorphic features in the expression of the morphological categories of number, case and gender in the italicised English nominals and their Ukrainian equivalents in the counteroppossed sentences below:
The two were quite unable to do anything (Wells)
The first was an old woman. (R. Chandler)
3. I sympathise with you in your husband's death. (Maugham)
Young man, you're very ready with your tongue. (Cusack)
I've got to see her home. (Maugham)
That was a great shock to me. (Christie)
Ці двоє були зовсім не в змозі
щось удіяти/зробити.
Перша була вже старою жінкою.
Я співчуваю тобі у зв'язку зі
смертю твого чоловіка.
Ви, юначе, ніколи не лізете за
словом у кишеню.
Я маю провести її додому.
То було великим ударом для мене.
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|7. Every family has its own cultural rules... |Кожна родина має свої правила культурної |
|(Schimmels) 8. Off went the proud Kangaroo on |поведінки. . . \ стрибонув Кенгуру на своїх |
|his four little legs... (Kipling) 9. Freestone|чотирьох ніжках... Фрістоун нахнюпився,... |
|frowned, at the... detestable abbreviation of |зачувши огидне скорочення свого християнського|
|his Christian name. (Barstow) 10. He asked his|імені. Він запитався у своєї високої тітки |
|tall aunt the Ostrich, why her tail-feathers |Страусихи, чому в пеїтяк росте пір я.... а в |
|grew just so... and he asked... the |своєї гладкої тітки Гіпопотамихи, чому в неї |
|Hippopotamus why her eyes were red. (Ibid.) |червоні очі. |
Exercise V. Using the model below prove the existence of the objective gender (sex) and the non-existence of the morphological gender in the English animate nouns in contrast to the existence of both the genders in their Ukrainian equivalents. Model: the actor played — the actress played (well). Артист грав — артистка грала (гарно). The team worked / the wheel worked. Бригада працювала / колесо працювало.
|director — directrix, emperor — empress, king —|директор — директорка, Імператор — |
|queen, hero — heroine; bull — cow, |імператриця, король — королева, герой — |
|bull-elephant — cow- elephant; dog — bitch, |героїня; бугай — корова, слон — слониха, пес —|
|lion — lioness, billy-goat — nanny-goat, |сучка, лев — левиця, цап — коза, жеребець — |
|stallion — mare; cock-sparrow — hen- sparrow; |кобила; горобець — горобка, качур — качка, |
|drake — duck, gander — goose; sun — moon; |гусак — гуска; сонце — місяць; (смерть, |
|death, hatred, love, hotel, ship (when |кохання, готель, корабель). |
|personified). | |
Exercise VI. Pick up the corresponding English equivalents to the Ukrainian adjectives below. Identify their nature (qualitative, relative, etc.) and their grading patterns (if any). Model: короткий short (base, adjective shorter, shortest); дерев'яний wooden (relative adjective, no grading); байронівський Byronian (possessive and relative adjective, no grading); дядьків (possessive adjective, not available in English).
Бібліотечний, адекватний, оригінальний, керамічний, щасливий, добовий, дробовий, корисний, вузький, скорочений (concise), розумний,
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відважний, упевнений, мамин, татів, братів, сестрин, тітчин; сліпий, глухий, кривий, голий, керамічний, морський, піщаний, залізний, золотий, рідний, гарнесенький, малесенький, молодесенький, старшенький (старшенька), коротесеньке, сліпесеньке (звірятко), теплесенький, англійський, австралійський, індонезійський, наський, цікавий, важливий, адаптований, відповідальний, відповідний, чотириповерховий, новостворений, всенародний, запорізький, повсякденний, закарпатський.
Exercise VII. Suggest English equivalents and identify the class of numerals (or other parts of speech) to which the following Ukrainian numerals should be allotted:
восьмий, вісімнадцята, тридцять дев'ятий, дев'яносто дев'ятий, двохсотий, тисяча перший, нуль цілий і три сотих, тринадцять цілих і дві десятих, шість цілих і три восьмих, тридцять два цілих і п'ять вісімнадцятих, три четвертих, дві третіх, кількадесят, кількасот, кільканадцять, півтораста, стонадцять, четверо, п'ятеро, двійко, кілька, декілька, чимало, немало, стільки, скільки, кільканадцятеро, ніскільки.
Exercise VIII. Analyse the Ukrainian pronouns below, translate them into English and distribute them between the following typologically deictic groups: 1) noun-pronouns (eg. he, they me); 2) adjective-pronouns (functioning as attributes): this, my, every, and 3) numeral-pronouns (how many, how much):
Себе, тебе, ви, хто, що, аби-хто, дехто, будь-хто, казна-хто, казна-що, дещо; удвох, утрьох; наш, ваш, твій, мій, ніякий, нікотрий, ніякісінький, отакенний, отакенький, отакезний, який-небудь, кожен, усякий, чий-небудь, сякий-такий, ніскільки, ніскілечки, стільки, стільки-то, скільки-то.
Exercise IX. Point out the difference in the expression of the morphological categories of tense, aspect and mood in the English and Ukrainian verbs in the following sentences:
1. . ..how diligent I have been, 1. ...яким ретельним я завжди був і
and 'am being. (Keats) все ще (зараз) є.
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|2. Haven't you ever seen it before? |2. |«Невже ви її (автомашини) досі ніколи не |
|(Fitzgerald) | |бачили? |
|3. 1 shall be painting all day. (Galsworthy) |3. |Я малюватиму цілий день. |
|4. I thought we'd ride up together" . ( |4. |Я гадав, ми під'їдемо верхи (на конях) |
|Fitzgerald) | |разом. |
|5. What have you been doing to yourself since |5. |Що ви тут поробляли самі, відколи мене не |
|I've been away? (Cusack). | |було? |
|6. We hadn't reached West Egg Village before |6. |Був позабував товаришів — тепер пригадав... |
|Gatsby began leaving his elegant sentences | |(Васильченко) Я й туди хотів був вступити та|
|unfinished... (Fitzgerald) | |перешкодили якісь події. (Довженко) |
|7. Water was given her. Some things had been |7. |їй дали води. Від деяких речей загубився й |
|lost sight of. (Galsworthy) | |слід (зникли з очей). |
|8. Success attend you! (Sheridan) |8. |Щасти вам!/ Хай вам щастить! |
|9. Do it down. (Galsworthy). |9. |Та сядьте ж. / Та присядьте ж. |
|10. Let me go in and see him alone. (Maugham) |10.|Нум я зайду й сам побалакаю з ним. (Ану я |
| | |зайду і побалакаю з ним). |
Exercise X. Suggest English typological isomorphism or allomorphism for the Ukrainian italicised words in the following sentences. Model: Йому значно полегшало (stative). He feels much better (adv. modifier of attendant circumstances). Ця новина приголомшила всіх (predicat. verb). She was aghast (stative). Він схуднув і йому легше бігається (adverb, modifier of attendant circumstances). Йому стало набагато легше (stative).
Цього всього нікому тепер не треба, їм як ніколи треба доброго здоров'я.
Всім стало на серці веселіше. Співайте, друзі, ще веселіше.
Він говорив суворо й гнівно. Не суворо на серці, не гнівно. (Малишко)
Батьків і рідних своїх треба любити. Нам треба більше часу.
Дітям соромно розповідати про це. Його раптом охопив сором.
Одні не могли заснути. Інші вже давно позасинали (спали).
Багато лісів навколо столиці Австралії були охоплені полум'ям.
Майже всі вулиці міста були залиті світлом (were ablaze with...)
Йому було прикро за сказане. Скрізь на берегах було прикро.
Над цим треба добре поміркувати. Йому вже й справді добре.
Студенти легко впоралися з перекладом. Нікому тепер не легко.
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TYPOLOGY OF THE SYNTACTIC SYSTEMS
A successful typological contrasting of syntactic systems of the English and Ukrainian languages becomes possible due to the existence in them of several isomorphic and allomorphic features and phenomena. The principal of these are predetermined, as will be shown in this section, by several factors, the main of which are the following: 1) by common in both languages classes of syntactic units which are word-groups, sentences and various types of supersyntactic units; 2) by generally common paradigmatic classes and types of these syntactic units; 3) by isomorphic and allomorphic types and means of syntactic connection in them; 4) by mostly isomorphic syntactic processes taking place in their word-groups and sentences; 5) by identical syntactic relations in word-groups and sentences of both contrasted languages; 6) by common functions performed by different parts of speech in word-groups and sentences.
The allomorphic features and phenomena at the syntactic level find their expression in the following: 1) in the existence of various qualitative and quantitative differences in some paradigmatic classes of word-groups and sentences; 2) in some types of word-groups; 3) in the unequal representation of different means of syntactic connection; 4) in the existence of different ways of expressing predication; 5) in the difference in the structural forms of some English parts of the sentence; 6) in the means of joining some subordinate clauses to the main/principal clause, etc.
All these features characterise respectively the syntactic constants of the syntactic level, i. e. the syntactic processes, the syntactic relations, the syntactic connections in word-groups and sentences being sem-selves constants of this language level.
Syntactic Processes, their Types and Ways of Realisation
Syntactic processes are various in the contrasted languages and they find their realisation only in word-groups and sentences. The realisation of these processes in English and Ukrainian syntaxemes may be achieved both by isomorphic and allomorphic ways and means, the main of which are as follows:
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1. Extension which is achieved in both contrasted languages through adding subordinate components to an element that is the head/nucleus, i.e. subordinating in the syntaxeme. Extension in English and Ukrainian syntaxemes may be achieved both by syndetic, i.e. explicit, synthetic or analytical means or (which is more often in English) asyndetically, i.e. only by way of placement of components. These processes are naturally realised in smaller and larger syntactic units which are word-groups and sentences. The former consist of two or more notional words connected by isomorphic or allomorphic grammatical means and expressing some sense. Eg: this book - these books, to see somebody - to see him; books for reading, library books, worth reading, red from excitement, to read much/well, very well, etc. Such and the like word-groups are known to be syntactically free contrary to stable (усталені) or phraseological word-groups as, for example: to throw light, to set free, to make steps, etc. All word-groups in sentences usually perform the syntactic function of a part of the sentence.
As to their structure, word-groups can be unextended, i.e. consisting of two notional words (read well, nice flowers, good enough) and extended which consist of more than two notional words, e.g. to go to work every day, not to know what to do, strike the iron while it is hot, etc. Such and the like word-groups function as extended parts of the sentence as, for example, the extended subject in the following sentence:
- her dark short hair was neat ... її чорні коротенькі коси були
and glossy. (Maugham) гладенькі й лиснючі.
Similarly extended in both contrasted languages may also be the simple and compound predicates, objects with attributive adjuncts and also adverbial modifies. For example, a simple phrasal predicate performed by an extended word-group:
She gave him a slightly rueful smile. Вона ледь помітно окинула його (Ibid.) невеселим поглядом.
Extended in both contrasted languages may equally be the compound nominal predicate as in the following English sentences and their Ukrainian structural equivalents:
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Their mother is one of the village їхньою матір'ю є одна з цих
girls. (Ibid.) сільських дівчат.
Practically isomorphic by their structure are also extended objects with the adjunct attributes in both contrasted languages. Thus, the simple (unextended) word-group her face may be extended and function as an extended object in the following sentence:
There was almost a frown on her По щирому, відкритому, гарному
frank open pretty English face. (Ibid.) обличчі англійки сковзнула тінь
несхвалення.
Extension may be achieved in English with the help of asyndetic clustering of nouns or other parts of speech forming syntactic (and semantic) strings of words or a regular tandem. For example: school library --» school library books --» new school library books --» school library books readers. Or such syndetic word-groups as production and sale prices, production and also sale prices changes, etc. Such and the like clusters of nouns or nominal sense groups, as was shown above, perform in English and Ukrainian utterances the functions of different extended parts of the sentence. Cf. the subject: The latest New York and Washington terrorist air attacks were aimed at intimidating America. (USA Today) The object: Cuba pays great attention to this year's cane sugar production, etc.
Extension of adverbial components is realised likewise, i.e. asyndetically. And not only in English, but in Ukrainian as well. Eg:
"It (house) is just round the bend, "Будинок там зразу за поворотам, по to the left, a few hundred yards''. ліву руку, кілька com ярдів звідси".
(S.Hill)
Ukrainian has no asyndetic substantival word - groups of this kind, though analytical joining of components may be observed in some cases of extension as well. Cf.: можна спати --» можна довше спати --» можна взавтра довше поспати --» можна взавтра вранці довше поспати. Consequently, the Ukrainian language is not completely devoid of extension via asyndetic clustering, though Ukrainian asyndetic clusters do not go into any comparison with the possible analytical ways
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and means of extension in the syntactic units of present-day English. Even though many of them, as will be shown further, are of isomorphic nature in both these languages.
Apart from the above-named ways of realisation of syntactic processes achieved through extension, there are some others having isomorphic nature in the contrasted languages as well. They are: a) Apposition, which is equally often employed in English and Ukrainian. Eg: a woman doctor, the city of Kyiv/London, Shevchenko the poet, Shevchenko the painter, we all, they all, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: жінка-лікар, місто Київ, Шевченко-поет, Шевченко-маляр, ми всі, вони всі.
An external syntactic transformation may equally be achieved via parenthetic and inserted words, word-groups or sentences that are incorporated into the structure of a syntactic unit by addition or insertion. For example:
|He would, of course, say nothing. (B.Glanwill) |Він, звичайно/зазвичай, нічого не відповів. Того |
|That evening after supper - her father had a |вечора по вечері (а її батько добре розумівся на |
|taste for Middle East food - Mary slipped out |смакових якостях близькосхідних страв) вона вибігла|
|into the garden in great agitation. (D. |страшенно збуджена в сад. |
|Garnett) | |
|As can be seen, extension of the sentence was achieved by the author by way of an insertion of the |
|whole sentence. In some texts (and rather often) parenthetic words and inserted words or phrases |
|may be used side by side: |
|The percentage of college education, John W. |Звуження освіти багатьох людей до рівня коледжу, на|
|Gardner says, has led many people to assume |думку Дж. В. Ґарднера, привело багатьох до |
|falsely that there is no other type of learning|невиправданої думки, що після середньої школи |
|after school. (G. Schiffhorst, D. Pharr) |взагалі не існує іншого типу освіти. |
|Here the parenthetic sentence John W. Gardner says and the inserted adverb falsely were introduced |
|by the author additionally in order to extend the sense of the sentence. |
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B. Detachment is one more common way of external syntactic exten sion that is presumably of isomorphic nature in most languages. De tached (відокремленими) in English and Ukrainian may by any second ary part of the sentence and detachment is achieved through extension by means of subordination. These may also include subordinating con junctions or regular expansion, which is realised by way of co-ordination that may be achieved usually with the help of co-ordinate conjunctions.
For example, detached attributes:
They're (Negroes) just like children Таж вони просто як діти - такі ж -
just as easy-going, and always singing добродушні і завжди то співають, and laughing ... (D. Parker) то сміються собі...
A detached apposition (also functioning as an extended part of the sentence):
And you know, he had this old І знаєте, у нього навіть нянькою була
coloured nurse, this regular old стара негритянка, справжнісінька
nigger mammy and he just simply негритоска мемі, і він просто любить
loves her. (Ibid.)* її.
Extension can also be achieved by other syntactic means, among which quite productive and often employed in the contrasted languages may be, for example, the one referred to as
C. Specification. This kind of syntactic process presents a way of syn tactic extension in English and Ukrainian which is achieved via a syntac tic element/part of the sentence usually modified by one or more other complementing elements of the same nature and syntactic function. Though not necessarily of another lexico-grammatical class of words. As for example:
"I'm not very tall, just average." Я не дуже висока, якраз середня.
(A. Wilson)
' See more about the realisation of extension in English in: И.П. Иванова, В.В. Бурлакова, Г.Г. Почепцов. Теоретическая Грамматика современного английского языка. - М.: Высшая школа, 1981, р. 213-226.
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"She's got heaps of drink there - "У неї там багато різних напоїв: віскі, whisky, cherry brandy, сruте de черрі-бренді, молочний лікер",
menthe" (Ibid)
Hence, in the first sentence the meaning of the predicative not very tall is specified, made more precise by the second part of the predicative half just average. Practically an identical process is observed in the second sentence where the objective complement heaps of drink is specified by the names of these drinks: whisky, cherry brandy, crume de menthe. Similarly specified are the equivalent componental parts in their Ukrainian translated sentences. Cf. не дуже висока, якраз середня; різні напої: віскі, черрі-бренді, молочний лікер.
Specification is more often employed for the identification of adverbial parts of the sentence as in the following example:
In the evening, about eight о'clock, Увечері, десь біля восьмої години, він he went dejectedly to call on Denny, пішов у невеселому настрої до Денні. (Cronin)
Alongside of extension, though formed on cardinally different principles of enlargement (on the basis of co-ordinate connection of componental parts) and yet performing the same syntactic functions of different parts of the sentence in the contrasted languages is also expansion.
2. Expansion as a syntactic process is equally aimed at enlarging the content of word-groups and sentences in either of the contrasted languages. It is no less often resorted to than extension though by its nature it is a completely different syntactic process representing a co-ordinate joining of components which are syntactically equal in rank. Connected in this way and maintaining the syntactic status of componental parts of the syntactic units unchanged may be in English and Ukrainian various parts of speech functioning as expanded parts of the sentence. Expansion is usually achieved by way of addition (termed so by Почепцов 1971: 121). The formed in this way (through addition) strings of components usually function as homogeneous parts of the sentence. For example, homogeneous subjects:
The police, the fishmonger, boys Полісмени, торгівець рибою, учні, що
going to school, dozens of people йшли до школи, десятки людей маха-
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|waved to him. (V.S. Pritchett) There were |ли йому руками. Щодалі більше ширились чутки, |
|rumours, rumours, rumours... (Dreiser) |чутки й чутки ... |
|Expanded can also be in both contrasted languages the simple verbal predicate. For example: |
|Hercule Poirot rose, crossed to the |Геркул Пуаро встав, підійшов до писемного стола, |
|writing-table, wrote out a cheque -and handed|виписав чека і вручив його другому чоловікові. |
|it to the other man. (Ibid.) | |
|Such and the like simple verbal predicates in the contrasted languages are usually referred to,|
|as was said above, to homogeneous. Expanded in this way may also be objects/objective |
|complements. They may often be with prepositive or postpositive attributive adjuncts. For |
|example: |
|- we passed troops marching under the rain, |... відступаючи, ми бачили солдатів, що йшли під |
|guns, horses, pulling wagons, mules, motor |дощем, гармати, коні, що тягнули вози, мули, |
|trucks, all moving from the front. |вантажні машини, які відходили з передової. |
|(Hemingway) | |
|Expanded (homogeneous) adverbial modifiers or adverbial complements, as they are usually |
|termed, are equally common in both contrasted languages. Cf.: |
|Long, long, afterwards I found the arrow |Геть-геть десь по тому, я знайшов ще цілою |
|still unbroken. (Longfellow) |стрілу... |
|Apart from external syntactic processes there also exist some external ones in word-groups and |
|sentences of the contrasted languages. The latter take place only in sentences and include |
|omission and reduction that may be by their nature as follows: 1. Elliptical which are often |
|occurring in oral and written speech in two-member sentences and not only in the contrasted |
|languages. Omitted may be in a two-member sentence only one or both principal parts of the |
|sentence. For example, the subject and the predicate in the second sentence are omitted: |
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"When did you get in?" - Ти коли прибув сюди?
"Yesterday morning". (H.E. Bates) - Вчора ввечері.
Here the subject ("you") and the predicate of the sentence ("did you get in") are omitted both in the English sentence and in its Ukrainian variant. Similar omissions may commonly be observed in spoken utterances in English and Ukrainian:
"I suppose you've left school?" - Ти, здається, покинув школу?
"Last term". (Ibid.) - Минулого семестру.
The adverbial modifier Last term in the last sentence accumulates the meaning of the whole previous utterance, or more precisely the whole its primary predication word-group "you've left school" that has a corresponding Ukrainian equivalent "Ти покинув школу?" Consequently, ellipsis as a syntactic process performs in both languages absolutely identical functions. Its transformational potential is mostly used in both languages for economising the speech effort as well as for achieving the necessary expressiveness in oral and written speech.
Maintained as a result of omission may sometimes be only the object in the elliptical sentence:
"What do you want from me?" - Що ти хочеш від мене?
"Everything". (Ibid.) - Все.
The subject (you) and the predicate (want) in this sentence are omitted in English and consequently they may be omitted in Ukrainian. Moreover, the subject in Ukrainian elliptical sentences may often be omitted as well, though not the predicate, which is impossible in English in such sentences as the following one: Рахунки за імпорт газу надійшли? -Давно надійшли (or simply: надійшли).
The omitted subject in this Ukrainian definite personal sentence is clearly reflected in the categorial (plural) ending of the predicate надійшли (рахунки). Since the English language has no definite personal sentences, no omission of its subject and maintaining of the predi-
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cate (as in Ukrainian) is ever possible. Nevertheless, English predicates may often be partly reproduced in elliptical sentences which is, on the other hand, only in some cases possible in Ukrainian:
"Do you think I'm a selfish brute?" - Ти що, вважаєш мене грубою
егоїсткою?
"Of course not, Frank, you know - Звичайно ні, Франку, ти ж знаєш, що I don't. не вважаю.
"Can you believe me?" - Ти можеш мені повірити?
"Sure I can." (I. Carry) - Безперечно, можу/Звичайно, можу.,
Therefore, the auxiliary and modal verbs in the last two-sentences ("I don't", "I can") represent the meaning of the predicates "Do+think" and "Can+believe". Modal verbs in Ukrainian mostly maintain this substituting functions as well (cf. Ви можете взавтра мені зателефонувати? — Можу/ or He можу). Sometimes it is stylistically quite relevant and there is common use of such English elliptical sentences as in answers to the following interrogative sentence: "Had you forgotten I was a policeman?" - 'Was?' "You are a policeman". (L.P. Hartley)
Among other internal syntactic process pertaining to the English or to Ukrainian oral and written speech the following are most often employed:
2. Representation (репрезентація) which is a particular process of syntactic substitution alien to the Ukrainian language. It represents a kind of reduction in which the component of a syntaxeme is used to present the content of the whole syntactic unit, which remains in the preceding syntaxeme but its meaning is implicitly represented by some element. For example: "I don't know if he's hungry, but I am." (I. Baldwin) Here the linking verb am in the closing co-ordinate clause (but I am) represents the whole subordinate clause "if he's hungry".
No less often used alongside of the linking verb in present-day English is the syntactic substituting particle to. Eg. "He thought of making another phone call, but he realised that he was afraid to". (Ibid.) The representing particle to in the final clause here is used as a kind of replacement for the prepositional object performed in the sentence by the word-group making another phone call. Similarly in the replying sentence to the following one: "I'm a fool to tell you anything". And the
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answer to this sentence is: "You'd be a bigger fool not to". (J. Carre)
Here the representing part not to in the replying sentence is used instead of the adverbial part of the first sentence to tell you anything. Representation may also be realised with the help of such words as not, one, do/did and even with the help of the syntactic formant '-s/-s', as in the following sentence: The other voice was raised now, it was a woman's. (Maugham) The -'s in the sentence represents/ substitutes the noun voice, i.e. a woman's voice.
3. Contamination (суміщення) is another internal process in which two syntaxemes merge into one predicative unit as in the following sentence: The moon rose red. This means: The moon rose + she was red. Or in Ukrainian: Наталка прибігла сердита, задихана. (О. Гончар), i.e. Наталка прибігла + (Наталка) була сердита + (Наталка) була задихана. Or: Шлях лежить великий. (О. Довженко), i.e. шлях лежить + шлях великий.
Partly close to contamination is also the secondary predication construction with the English past participle that has practically an identical equivalent construction in Ukrainian. Cf. They found the door unlocked (that is: they found the door, it/which was unlocked). Вони застали двері, відімкненими: вони застали двері, вони/ які були відімкненими.
4. Compression represents a syntactic process which is closely con nected with reduction and with the secondary predication complex as illustrated above, but it exists only in English. This syntactic process is most often observed in English with the nominative absolute participial constructions, which are usually transformed in speech. Cf. He stood beside me in silence, his candle in his hand. (C. Doyle) The nominative absolute participial construction in this sentence is a reduced transform from the construction his candle being or having been in his hand. The Ukrainian transformed variants of this secondary predicate/complex will be either a participial/diyepryslivnyk construction тримаючи свічку в руці, or a co-ordinate clause а свічка була в руці, or simply зі свічкою в руці.
The mentioned above external and internal syntactic processes do not completely exhaust all possible ways of transformation taking place
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within English and Ukrainian sentences. And yet they graphically testify to the existence of isomorphic and allomorphic features that characterise respectively the syntactic systems of each contrasted language.
Syntactic Relations and Ways of their Realisation
Unlike some syntactic processes as, for example, representation that is observed in English and is completely alien to present-day Ukrainian and other languages, the syntactic relations in contradiction to them present a phenomenon characteristic of all the 5651 languages of the world. Syntactic relations, therefore, constitute a universal feature and are realised depending on their grammatical nature either at sentence level or at word-group (словосполучення) level.
There exist four types of syntactic relations that are also realised in different languages partly via different means. These are: 1) predicative relations; 2) objective relations; 3) attributive relations and 4) various adverbial relations.
Not all these relations are equally represented in the contrasted languages. Thus, predicative relations may be in English and in most other West European Germanic and Romance languages of two subtypes: a) primary predicative relations and b) secondary predicative relations. The latter, it must be emphasised, are erroneously considered to be completely missing in present-day Ukrainian.
I. Primary predication is universal. It finds its realisation between the subject and predicate in any two-member sentence of any paradigmatic form or structural type. Consequently, primary predication presents a grammatical/syntactic and logico-semantic relation on the Subject-Predicate axis. Eg:
"I never said I was a beauty". - Я ніколи не казав, що я є красенем. -
he laughed. (Maugham) сказав, усміхнувшись, він.
In this quotation three predicates of two types are realised: two simple verbal predicates (/ said, he laughed] and one compound nominal predicate (I was a beauty). These types of predicate are presented in
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Ukrainian as well. Cf. Я не казав, усміхнувся він, and Я є красенем.
Consequently, predication of these sentences in both contrasted languages has an identical expression.
This expression can also be different, as can be observed in the following interrogative sentences below:
1. "What did she want?" (Ibid.) "Чого вона хотіла'?" (Cf. Чого їй
треба було?)
"What have I done?" (V.S. Pritchett) "Що я вчинив?/ Що я зробив?"
"She was trying to help you". (Ibid.) "Вона намагалася допомогти
тобі."
Hence, the primary predicative relation may have different forms of expression in the contrasted languages. English predicates may have analytical forms of the verb (did + want, have + done, was trying+ to help) with no analytical equivalents for the same simple predicates in Ukrainian. This may be seen from many other sentences as well, which testify to the difference between the means of expression of the primary predication in the contrasted languages. Cf.:
"I'т off, Dick, it's good-bye till "Я від'їжджаю, Діку, а це означає до
Christmas". (D. Lessing) побачення аж до Різдва".
In this sentence both predicates in the English variant are compound nominal, whereas in Ukrainian their equivalents are two simple verbal predicates instead: Я від'їжджаю and Це означає.
On the other hand, there also exist some differences in expressing predicative relations in Ukrainian that are unknown in English. These include first of all the placement of the predicate in Ukrainian, since the inflexional morphemes always identify person, number and tense form of the verb/predicate irrespective of its position in the sentence. Cf. Він мусив це знати. — Знати мусив він це. — Мусив він це знати. — Знати він це мусив. - Це знати він мусив. - Він знати це мусив. Despite the change of placement in the sentence, the Ukrainian predicate preservers its syntactic function unchanged. As a result, the grammaticality of the sentence is not ruined. It goes without saying that the corresponding English sentence (He must have known it) can not be
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transformed this way, except for its interrogative form (Must he have known it?) where part of the predicate (must) may change its place in the sentence.
Besides, placement may often be used in Ukrainian as a reliable means of expressing and often also as a means distinguishing between the predicative and attributive relations in a word-group or sentence. Cf.:
Attributive Relations Predicative Relations
гарна погода, червоне небо; Погода гарна, небо червоне,
працююче колесо/ устаткування; Колесо/ устаткування працююче,
розбита клумба, засіяне поле, etc. Клумба розбита, поле засіяне.
As can be ascertained, prepositive adjectives as well as present and past participles form the attributive relation, whereas those same adjectives and participles in postposition to those same nouns form in Ukrainian a predicative relation. Eg. Тепле літо - Літо тепле. Посаджені дерева - Дерева посаджені. In other words, preposed adjectives and past participles express quality and postposed adjectives/participles express state of things and form simple nominal (and not compound nominal) predicates. This assertion is based on the absence of the linking verb which can be substantiated in Ukrainian via an extension of the sentence, eg.: Грядка засіяна гарної добірним зерном/ торік пізньої осені, etc.
//. Secondary predicative relation is formed in English by verbals in connection with other nominal parts of speech. The secondary predication constructions are formed in English by the so-called infinitival, participial and gerundial complexes, which function as various parts of the sentence. The nomenclature of them is as follows 1) the objective and the subjective with the infinitive constructions which perform respectively the function of the complex object and that of the complex subject. For example:
He stood by the creek and heard Він стояв біля струмка і чув як він
it ripple over the stones. (Cusack) (струмок) хлюпоче по камінцях.
He stood watching the red dawn Він стояв і спостерігав, як народжуєть-
break in the east. (Caldwell) ся (червоний) світанок на сході.
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It goes without saying that the complex object expressed in this Ukrainian translation through the object subordinate clauses can also be conveyed with the help of nouns. Cf. Він чув хлюпіт/жебоніння води по камінцях or in the second sentence: Він спостерігав за народженням світанку на сході. Neither of these Ukrainian variants conveys the nature of the secondary predication expressed by the English objective with the infinitive constructions.
Similarly with the subjective with the infinitive complexes, which may be formed by turning the objective with the infinitive constructions passive. Cf. it (creek) was heard to ripple over the stones i.e. чулося/ було чути, як вода хлюпоче по камінцях. Or in such sentences:
You seem not to have caught my - Ти, здається, не зовсім зрозумів, що
idea. (Наrley) The operation is я хочу сказати/ мою думку.
expected to start in 48 hours. Очікується, що (антитерористична)
(К. Post) операція почнеться за 48 годин.
The subjective with the infinitive construction in English sentences has the function of the complex subject that is allomorphic for Ukrainian. Lexically and structurally isomorphic, however, is the English multifunctional secondary predication construction/complex of the for + to + infinitive. This English construction can perform the function of the complex subject, complex predicative, complex object, complex attribute and complex adverbial parts of the sentence. For example, the complex subject: "For you to decide it won't be easy." (Hartley); the complex predicative: "That is for you to decide is it not?" (C. Doyle); the complex object: She wanted to wait for the moon to rise. (Galsworthy); the complex attribute: "There is nothing for us to change at present, you see." (A. Wilson), etc.
One more secondary predication group constitute participial constructions/complexes which are functionally similar to the infinitival constructions and are: a) the objective with the present or past participles performing the function of the complex object: She heard the door closing. (Galsworthy). I will have some photographs taken. (Caldwell). These secondary predication constructions perform the same functions in the English sentences as the objective with the infinitive complexes.
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Note. It should be repeatedly emphasised that there is one more secondary predication construction which is practically identical in English and Ukrainian. It also performs the same function in the sentence. This is the already mentioned objective with the past participle (or adjective) construction, which has not only an identical meaning in both contrasted languages, but also the same structural form. It is treated in present-day Ukrainian grammars as double predicate (подвійний присудок). For example:
1 found the windows closed. Я застав вікна зачиненими.
We remember him quite young. Ми пам'ятаємо його зовсім молодші.
They found the soldier wounded. Вони знайшли воїна пораненим.
Consequently, the predicative nature of the objective with the past participle is isomorphic in the contrasted languages, which is not the case with the objective present participle construction, that is completely allomorphic for Ukrainian. Cf. I hear you reading (pronoun you+present participle). Я знаю, як ти читаєш (connective adverb як + objective subordinate clause, i.e. a complex sentence), which is but a simple (extended) sentence in English.
One more English secondary predication construction constitutes the subjective/ nominative absolute participial complex that is practically allomorphic for Ukrainian. The functions of this secondary predication construction is mostly adverbial. For example: She walked steadily, the showel in front, held like a spear in both hands. (D. Lessing) or: Charlie stood with the rain on his shoulders, his hands in his pockets. (Ibid.) Both italicised adverbial constructions have the functions of the complex attendent circumstances (How/ in what way did he hold her showel? How/ in what way did Charlie stand?). The nominative absolute participial construction may also perform the functions of the adverbial modifiers of time or cause. For example: This being done, they set off with light hearts. (Irving). In this sentence two functions may be implicit simultaneously - that of the adverbial modifier of time (When did they set off!) and that of the adverbial modifier of cause: Why did they set off! The answers may also be respectively two: either 1) after that being done or 2) because that was being done.
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///. Objective relations. These, like the predicative, attributive and adverbial relations are undoubtedly pertained to all languages without exception. They are directed by the action of the transitive verb on some object, which may be either a life or lifeless component. Hence, the notions of seeing/hearing somebody or something of being given smth. by somebody, etc. are pertained to each single language and to all lan guages of the world irrespective of their structural/typological differenc es. Hence, depending on the concrete language, these relations may have different/unlike forms of expression i.e. realisation. Thus, the notion to giving something to somebody can be expressed as follows:
|Language |Realisation of case relation |
|In Ukrainian |дати книжку (accusative case) Петрові (dative case) |
|In English |Give a book to Peter/give Peter a book (no case forms) |
|In German |Ein Buch (accusative case) dem Peter (dative case) geben Dein Peter |
| |(dative case) ein Buch (accusative case) geben |
|In Italian |Dare il libro a Pietro/ dare a Pietro il libro (no case forms) |
|In French |donner la livre a Pierre/ donner a Pierre la livre |
|In Spanish |dar a Pedro el libro/ dar el libro a Pedro |
Therefore only in Ukrainian and German the objective case relation of nouns and in the former the accusative case of them (cf. Взяти/дати книжку, листа, дитину) have a synthetic way of expression. English, German, French, Italian and Spanish (like some other languages) have no synthetic expression of case (objective, accussative and some others) of nouns and consequently of case relations either, which are expressed analytically (by means of prepositions). Cf.
"Come on", said Mr. Sloan to Tom, "we're late". (Fitzgerald)
"Ходім", - сказав Томові пан Слоан, -ми запізнюємось.
Isomorphism is observed, however, in the syntactic connection of the English or Italian objects expressed by some personal pronouns which take the objective case form (cf. for me, her, him, us, them; a me, a te, a noi/a voi, etc.). The expression of the objective relation coincides then not only in English and Ukrainian (cf. in German: gib ihm/ ihnen or in Italian date mi, etc.). This can be seen in following examples:
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|"Tell him we could wait, will you?" But the |"Скажіть йому, ми почекаємо. Добре?" Все інше |
|rest offended her. (Ibid.) |ображало її. |
|Objective relations can also be expressed via a preposition and the synthetic form of the |
|governed nominal part of speech (usually personal pronoun in English). Eg: |
|"You hadn't any pity for me, had you?" Walter |"Ти не мав до мене ніякого жалю, правда ж?" |
|could only stare at him. (L.P. Hartly) |Волтер тільки вирячився на нього. |
|Objective relations, therefore, can be expressed in English and in several other languages with |
|the help of analytical means including the syntactic placement of objective complements. For |
|example, in English: |
|Mary sat next to Diana. "Just listen to your |Мері підсіла до Діани. - Ти тільки прислухайся до|
|husband", Diana exclaimed. (Ibid.) |свого чоловіка! - вигукнула Діана. |
As can be ascertained, objective relations in each English sentence are perceived due to the logico-grammatical nature of the parts of the sentence and due to their functional significance. In the sentence above the objective relations are realised partly through the position of the objects which (their position) is usually stable in English, i.e. always following the predicate, as well as with the help of prepositions: next to Diana, to your husband. In Ukrainian these objective relations are conveyed with the help of the prepositional government (preposition plus the dative case ending: до Діани) and via inflexions (свого чоловіка, the accusative case of the direct object чоловіка).
The fixed placement of these objects in Ukrainian is not obligatory and can easily be changed without ruining the objective relation in the sentences. Cf. До Діани підсіла Мері, or: свого чоловіка тільки послухай. Such kind of transformation is usually impossible in English. Though not without exceptions either, as in some emphatic sentences like Talent Mr. Micowber has, capital Mr. Micowber has not. (Dickens) In Ukrainian too placement on rare occasions can be employed to distinguish the
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subject from the object or vice versa as in the following sentences:
Радість сповнює серце (object) but: Серце (subj.) сповнює радість (object). Дні змінюють ночі (object) but: Ночі (subj.) змінюють дні (object).
Вітри супроводжують дощі (object) but: Дощі (subj.) супроводжують вітри
(object).
Such cases can naturally be considered coincidental, since objects in Ukrainian have mostly inflexional identification except for cases when nouns are indeclinable, as in sentences like Вони оформили фойє, ми взяли таксі, їй подобається кімоно/сарі, etc. Foreign indeclinable nouns of the kind do not loose their objective functions as a result of transposition. Cf. Фойє (object) оформили вони; Сарі (object) їй подобається/ не подобається; Таксі (object) ми взяли, etc.
IV. Attributive relations. These are formed in all languages between adjuncts and head words (subordinating parts) of nominal word-groups. This can be seen, for example, in the following English sentence and its Ukrainian counterpart:
|The young man was still fresh, with jaunty |Молодий шахтар ще був свіжим новачком з |
|fair hair and alert eyes. (D. Lessing) |неслухняною світлою чуприною і жвавими очима. |
The attributive components in the English sentence (young man, jaunty fair hair, alert eyes) do not agree syntactically with their head nouns as their Ukrainian equivalents do (cf. молодий шахтар, неслухняною чуприною, свіжим новачком, жвавими очима). Each Ukrainian adjunct reflects the grammatical number, case and gender of its head noun through the corresponding endings. The English adjuncts, on the contrary, rarely combine with their head components by means of their inflexions, the main means being semantic and syntactic placement (often with prepositions). This becomes especially evident in cases with the indeclinable adjuncts which are, for example, infinitives, gerunds, adverbs and other parts of speech (or their paradigmatic forms). For example: books for reading, books to read/to be read and to be translated, September five/fifth, the then governments, etc. Such kind of adjuncts are
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rare through not completely excluded in Ukrainian. For example: бажання виграти, бажання відпочити, номер два (alongside of номер другий/ другий номер), etc. The overwhelming majority of Ukrainian adjuncts, however, agree with the head word in number, case and gender. Cf. гарний день, гарна погода, гарне вбрання, гарні квіти; перший день, першого дня, першої зміни, першій зміні, перше змагання, першого змагання, перші сходи, перших сходів, першим сходам, etc.
Therefore, attributive relations in Ukrainian are mostly expressed with the help of synthetic means, i.e. via inflections, which is observed only in some four cases in English (when the adjuncts are the demonstrative pronouns this, that, such_a and many_a in singular and these, those, such and many in plural). Eg: this dumb beast, that hand, these bandages, those bitter lips, such a day - such days, many a boy - many boys (S. Chaplin). In Ukrainian, naturally, all adjectives, ordinal numerals, participles and adjectives-pronouns agree in number, case and gender with the head word. Cf.: червоний місяць, червона квітка, червоне небо, червоні очі; працюючий мотор, працююча зміна, працююче колесо, працюючі люди; твій брат, твого брата, твоя сестра, твоєї сестри, твоє пальто, твого пальта, (в) твоєму пальті, твої проблеми, твоїх проблем, твоїм проблемам, etc.
Nevertheless Ukrainian adjuncts may sometimes not agree in number, case and gender (as it is mostly in English). It happens when the adjunct is an indeclinable part of speech or a word-group. Eg.: бажання поспати, фільм "Вони боролися за волю батьківщини", акція "Допоможемо дітям-інвалідам", etc. Such and the like attributive word-groups are common in English. Cf. They fought for their motherland picture, America fights back action, boy and girl affair, night shift workers, etc.
Generally, however, attributive relations in English and Ukrainian are realised with the help of quantitatively the same but qualitatively rather different means and ways of connection (and expression).
V. Adverbial relations in the contrasted languages are created both in co-ordinate and in subordinate word-groups to express different adverbial meanings. The latter may find their realisation in isomorphic by syntactic connection and componental structure co-ordinate or subordi-
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nate word-groups. Subordinate word-groups can be in all European languages substantival, verbal, adverbial and others. Co-ordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations may be a) substantival: in winter and/or in summer (time) зимою та/чи літом; by hook or by crook усіма правдами і неправдами (manner), b) adverbial, i.e. consisting of adverbial components: quickly and well швидко й добре (manner or attendant circumstances); neither seldom nor often ні часто ні рідко (time or frequency), etc.
Subordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations and meanings may be 1) substantival: rains in March; university winter examinations in Ukraine, the harvest of 2002, дощі в березні, зимові іспити в університетах України, урожай 2002 року', винаходи 20 cm., etc.
Verbal word-groups expressing local or temporal meanings and those of attendant circumstances: to work/to be working there (local adv. relation), соте/coming soon, raising early, arrive next week/on Sunday (temporal relations), to work hard, to speak slowly, (adverbial relation of manner), etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: мешкати в Україні, працювати тут/там, приходити невдовзі/скоро, приїжджати наступного тижня/в неділю, вставати рано, працювати добре, говорити повільно.
Adverbial word-groups are formed on the basis of adverbs or adverbial phrases (as heads): very well, seriously enough, rather well, very early, soon enough, late on Sunday, early in 2001, somewhere there, almost here, etc. And in Ukrainian: досить добре, зовсім серйозно, дуже рано, ще рано, пізно в неділю, наприкінці 2002 року, десь там, майже тут/ на окраїні.
Co-ordinate adverbial word-groups: soon and well, slowly but certainly, early or late, neither here nor there, here and everywhere, etc. скоро й повільно зате напевне, рано чи пізно, ні тут ні там, тут і скрізь, etc.
The adverbial relations in all languages usually coincide with various adverbial meanings, the main of which are as follows:
1. Temporal relations which express adverbial meanings of time or frequency: the meeting in 1991 or: the 1991 meeting, the detention of last August or: the last August detention, зустріч 1991 року, затримання минулого серпня, зустріч у понеділок, etc.
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2. Local relations: the house in Manhattan, life near the seaport, meetings at the hotel, помешкання в Мангеттені, життя біля/ поблизу морського порту, зустрічі в готелі.
Syntactic Relations in English and Ukrainian
As could be already noticed, various syntactic relations in the contrasted languages can be realised both by isomorphic and by allomorphic means. The latter pertain to both languages, though analytical means are naturally predominant in English, whereas synthetic or combined analytical and synthetic means are predominant in Ukrainian. An exception constitutes, however, only one relation (that of the primary predication) whose expression finds its realisation between the main parts of the sentence, i.e. between the subject and the predicate. This type of connection is often qualified as interdependence, that is dependence of the subject on the predicate on the one hand, and dependence of the predicate upon the subject on the other. This means that primary predication is realised, at least in English, only on the S-P axis, though in some other languages it may be realised even without one (S or P) of these components. As for instance, in Latin: veni, vidi, vici or in present-day Italian, Ukrainian or Russian: Ато patria mia/ Люблю свою Батьківщину. Люблю свою родину. The predicate verbs ато and люблю correlate with the implicit subject (io, я) expressing its number, person and case.
The other three relations, which also pertain to all languages, i.e. the objective, the attributive and the adverbial ones can be realised with the help of different means that are grammatically relevant. Namely by a) syntactic placement and prepositions (analytical means); b) by morphological, i.e. synthetic means (inflexions), as well as with the help of combined means, i.e. synthetic plus analytical means simultaneously. Thus, the predicate in English statements always follows, as a rale, the subject, whereas in Ukrainian the simple verbal predicate even in unemphatic speech may precede the subject without ruining the grammaticality of the sentence. Eg:
Mary was listening; but she still Слухала Мері (or Мері слухала), проте
said nothing. (F. King) вона нічого не відповідала/ мовчала.
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In English interrogative or (emphatic) sentences a part of the predicate may be placed in front of the subject/subject group, which is not necessarily followed in their Ukrainian counterpart sentence. For example:
"Were you ever compelled to mutilate - Тебе примушували будь-коли ка-
the animals?" (S. Chaplin) лічити тварин?
"Would you like us to send somebody -Хотіли б ви, щоб ми когось зараз
now?" (Hartley) послали?
Therefore, English predicates, wether simple or compound, rarely occupy, unlike predicates in Ukrainian, the initial position in the interrogative sentence. Though not without exceptions either. Cf. "He was there too". "Was he really?" or in the imperative sentences like Come here, my dear. Іди сюди, дорогенький. Or: Do get your boy to bring it here. (F. King) Скажи своєму хлопцеві, щоб він хутенько його приніс сюди (японський екран).
English simple verbal and compound nominal predicates, however, are in syntactic agreement (expressed through morphological means) with the subject. Cf. "I'm off, Dad, it's good bye till Christmas". (Less-ing) "Who is that in your flat?" "Who are they?" (W. Trevor)
All four predicates in these sentences (am, is, are) agree with their subjects in singular (first person) and correspondingly with It and who which are in the third person singular or plural. The same is observed in the preceding sentence where the predicate (Was she really) agrees in number and person with its subject he.
It is only partly so with the expression of the objective relation which may be realised in English and Ukrainian both synthetically and analytically as well:
We passed him through the narrow - Ми передали його по вузькому про-way; others relieved us. (S. Chaplin) ходу; інші допомагали нам.
The first object (him) is direct and it is expressed through its morphological (synthetic) form him (objective case); the second object is prepositional (through the narrow way) and the third (us) has also a morphological (synthetic) form that expresses its objective function. In the
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Ukrainian counterpart of this sentence the objective relation has a synthetic expression in the first direct object його (as in English) and in the indirect object нам (synthetic expression, like in English). As to the prepositional object, its connection in Ukrainian differs from that in English in that it is prepositional and morphologically marked (по проходу). In other words it is combined (analytical, i.e. prepositional) and synthetic (objective case form no проходу). Hence, Ukrainian nouns express their dependence by means of their case forms (cf. дав книжку Петренкові товаришці, товаришам/товаришкам). Exceptions are made for the already mentioned indeclinable nouns as in Вона зайшла в фойє/ciлa в таксі, Вона у новому кімоно, сперечатися про галіфе, цікавитися працями Монтеск'є. The synthetic expression of objective relation in Ukrainian, unlike English, have also substantivised adjectives, present and past participles, and also numerals. Cf. задоволений новим (побаченим і почутим), зеленим та жовтим; зустрітися зі знайомим, з трьома/з першим. Synthetically dependent objective complements/ objects in Ukrainian may equally be indefinite and other pronouns. For example: зостатись/ вернутись з нічим, цікавитись усім, звести одного з одним, цікавитись кимсь, ніким і нічим. Many English pronominal objects of this type are naturally unmarked, i.e. they have no case distinction. Cf. He heard nothing. (S. Chaplin) Він нічого не чув. In Ukrainian нічого is the objective case form of the indefinite pronoun ніщо, whose equivalent nothing is indeclinable in English. Similarly with the English wholly substantivised adjectives which, unlike their Ukrainian equivalents, do not express their objective (or nominative) case form synthetically. For example:
Pink became royal red. Blue rose Рожеве ставало густо-червоним. Синє
into purple. (Norris) ставало пурпуровим.
Therefore, objective relations in English are expressed predominantly in the analytical way, i.e. by means of syntactic placement or with the help of syntactic placement and/plus the prepositional connection of objective complements (cf. satisfied with them/us).
The attributive relation and its realisation in English does not differ
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much from the realisation of the objective relations, there being both synthetic and analytical means employed. The former, as has been pointed out above, are reduced in present-day English to a few standard cases involving only the four pairs of demonstrative pronouns this - these, that - those, such a - such, many a - many. These pronouns express their attributive function with the help of their form in singular and plural, i.e. they agree in number with their head nouns (cf. This day - these days, that book — those books, such an event — such events, many a boy - many boys). Other ways and means of expressing the attributive relation in English are analytical. Namely, the preposed or postpositional placement of attributive components (adjectives, participles, numerals, pronouns) which do not agree either in number, case or gender with their head components (nuclei). Cf. jaunty fair hair, alert eyes, shining face, the only child, sweated bloody sweets, the drizzling darkness, the atmosphere of trade union meetings (after D. Lessing). Neither of the above-given attributive adjectives, present or past participles and adverbs agrees with the head noun. Nor does the postpositive prepositional word-group functioning as an attribute agree synthetically with the head noun in the last example above (e.g. the atmosphere of trade union meetings). Neither do gerundial and infinitival adjuncts agree with their head nouns or subordinating word-groups performing their function. Cf. books to read, articles to be translated or: books for reading (what books?).
One more way of expressing attributive relation is that by means of the so-called synthetic formant ('s) (Vorontsova: 10, 1950) as in the word-group her widowed mother's child. This synthetic element ('s) does nor express any categorical (morphological) meaning, it performs only a connective function. Consequently, the realisation of the attributive relation in English as compared with Ukrainian, so far as the means of expression are concerned, can be qualified as mainly allomorphic.
Adverbial relations in each of the contrasted languages are mostly realised with the help of the same means as the objective and partly the attributive relations. These means of connection are analytical (placement or placement plus prepositions in English) and synthetic or combined (analytical plus synthetic) in Ukrainian. Cf. in English: (to) work hard (how? the adverbial relations of attendant circumstances); hard
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work (what work? the attributive relation). Therefore, syntactic placement is the only means in English (here). In Ukrainian word-groups like працювати важко and важко працювати the change of place of the adverb важко does not change in any way the syntactic relation in the word-group, which remains in both variants adverbial (as in the English word-groups to work hard).
Other paradigmatic classes of word-groups in English and Ukrainian may have both isomorphic and allomorphic realisation of adverbial relations. Isomorphism is observed in adverbial word-groups as: very well дуже добре, early enough досить рано, quite seriously зовсім серйозно, rather slowly досить повільно, etc.
Syntactic placement or juxtaposition may be often enforced by way of prepositions preceding the adverbial word-group as in the following English sentence:
She looked at him with mild surprise, Вона глянула на нього трохи blushed. (Jessing) здивовано, червоніючи.
The attendant circumstance in the English sentence (How did she look at him? With mild surprise) has a combined expression: preposition with + adjective (mild) + noun (surprise), whereas in Ukrainian this same meaning can be expressed by means of an adverb здивовано or with the help of a prepositional noun (із здивуванням), i.e. with the help of prepositional government. Since in English there is no genuine government of nouns, as the noun is practically indeclinable, it can not express any attendant circumstance through its morphological (case) form as it is the case in Ukrainian. Neither can the causal meaning be expressed in this way in English (cf. to live from hand to mouth жити в злиднях, to be absent because of illness бути відсутнім через хворобу). Therefore, the accusative case form of the noun хвороба is used in Ukrainian), i.e. prep. + Naccusative, the analytical and synthetic way of expression. Syntactic placement (juxtaposition or adjoinment) is also the main means of realisation of temporal and local relations in English, which was already partly illustrated above. It is often observed in Ukrainian as well. Eg. to come/coming today приїжджати сьогодні, come/coming
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in time прийти/приїхати вчасно, early today сьогодні вранці. In Ukrainian, however, adverbial components may change their place because of the logical/emphatic stress: учора звечора - звечора вчора, прийти раніше - раніше прийти. The means of connection, however, remains the same, i.e. analytical (placement, i.e. juxtaposition). This way of grammatical connection in both languages can often go along with prepositional connection which is usually an explicit form of prepositional government in Ukrainian. For example:
- by the way, your mother is in town. "... між іншим, ваша матір (є) у місті".
(J.Cary)
There was no one else on the beach Уже більш нікого не було на пляжі в
so late in the afternoon. (S. Hill) таку пізню годину пополудні.
The local meaning in the first English sentence is expressed only through the postpositive placement of the noun town (in town), whereas in Ukrainian this same adverbial relation (local meaning) is conveyed (and expressed) with the help of the preposition (y) and/plus the case form (locative) of the noun town (у місті), i.e. prepositional government.
Similarly realised are also local and temporal relations in the second sentence. In English: was on the beach (prepositional connection), in Ukrainian не було на пляжі (preposition plus the locative case ending, i. e. syntactic government of the noun пляж/на пляжі). The temporal meanings (and relations) in the English and Ukrainian sentences have some isomorphic and allomorphic expression as well. The main means in English here is placement (so plus late) and prepositional connection (late in the afternoon), whereas in Ukrainian there is observed the combined, i.e. the analytical and synthetic ways of connection in the temporal word-group (у таку годину), but there is a purely asyndetic (analytical connection, i.e. juxtaposition прилягання) in the second temporal word-group (у пізню годину пополудні). This is because the adverb пополудні is indeclinable and is adjoined to the synthetic head/ nucleus у пізню годину (пополудні).
Consequently, the same syntactic relations in English and Ukrainian word-groups are mostly realised with the help of different means. The
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latter also display, as will be shown further, their cardinally different quantitative correlation in English and Ukrainian subordinate word -groups.
Typology of the Word-Group/Phrase
The word-group in both contrasted languages consists of two or more grammatically connected notional parts of speech expressing some content. Word-groups in English and Ukrainian may be: 1) syntactically free combinations of words like to learn much, to learn hard, to learn quickly, to learn well, to learn there/here, etc. or 2) idiomatically bound (constant) collocations, i. e. unchanged for the given sense word-combinations as to have dinner/supper, to take measures, to throw light, Hobson's choice, etc.
Free word-groups or word-combinations exist alongside of prepositional phrases which are often considered even to be of the same nature as the idiomatic word-groups [7]. Genuine syntactically free word-groups, unlike prepositional phrases, are used to name actions (quick reading), objects (a new hat), state of objects (the house ablaze), number or quantity (two thirds, the first three); also they may give characteristics of an action (singing well, going quickly, arriving first — новий капелюх, йому/Миколі страшно, дві третіх, перші три, швидко йти, гарно читати).
Common features are also observed in the structural forms of word-groups in the contrasted languages. They are:
Simple or elemental word-groups which consist of two immediate components /ICs/ connected with the help of one grammatical means (synthetic or analytical): this book — these books, to see her; to read well; nice flowers; cotton yarn, people of rank; ця книжка — ці книжки, бачити її; гарно читати, дуже добре, зайти у фойє, вийти з метро.
Equally common in English and Ukrainian are word-groups of com plicated structure and grammatical form, i. e. with two ways of gram matical connection of their ICs or expressing different grammatical rela tions, eg: writing and reading letters (co-ordinate and analytical forms of connection), these books and magazines (synthetic and co-ordinate
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connection), to see Mike driving a car (analytical and predicative) — ці книжки та журнали, застати двері зачиненими, бачити когось у метро, носити кімоно останньої моди.
There are also structurally more complicated free word-groups in both languages, eg: those long sentences for you to analyze and translate — ті довгі речення тобі для аналізу й перекладу. In this English word-group and its Ukrainian semantic equivalent one can identify different grammatical relations: a) attributive (those long sentences) and predicative (sentences for you to analyze). Besides, the ways of syntactic connection are different: subordination with synthetic agreement in the initial part (those long sentences) and co-ordination (to read and analyze) in the second part of the word-group. In the Ukrainian equivalent word-group there is no secondary predication available in the English variant. Hence, there is no mostly qualitative and quantitative correlation between the means of grammatical connection of different constituents in English vs. Ukrainian free word-groups. Since present-day English is mainly analytical by its structure, the predominant means of its grammatical connection in word-groups are naturally analytical. They are syndetic (prepositional) and asyndetic (syntactic placement). These two forms of analytical connection are very often of equal semantic relevance, as a result of which they are often interchangeable, as in the following substantival word-groups:
Syndetic connection Asyndetic connection
books/or home reading home-reading books
production of sugar cane sugar cane production
books at the institute library the institute library books
Syndetic and asyndetic connection, as will be shown further, is observed in verbal, adjectival, numerical, pronominal, adverbial and statival word-groups, eg: to read books, to see well, red from anger, he himself, we all, four of the workers, well enough, afraid to read, afraid of that, ashamed to speak, etc.
Hence, the word-groups, traditionally objective by their syntactic relation like to ask Pete/somebody, reading books, to receive four/five, to invite all, good for all, etc. have in English an analytical form of
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connection, whereas these same word-groups in Ukrainian have a synthetic or analytico-synthetic connection: запитувати Петра/когось, читання книжок, одержати четвірку, добре для Петра/для мене, зайти першим, думати про старих і малих, просити до столу.
Synthetic government in English can be observed only in verbal word-groups having the following structural patterns: 1) the Vmf + Iobj or 2) Ving+ Iobj with the pronoun in the objective case form, eg: to see him (her, them, whom), seeing him (her, them, etc.). The analytical and synthetic connection is observed in all other kinds of English word-groups with these same objective case pronouns, eg: reference to him them, four of them, none of whom, much for me, depend on her, afraid of them/us.
As to synthetic agreement/concord, its use is restricted in present-day English, as was mentioned, to six patterns of substantival word-groups, in which adjuncts are the demonstrative pronouns this/that -these/those, such a/such + Nsing. — Nplur.: this/that book — these/those books, such a case/such cases; many a girl — many girls (of this age).
Note. Cardinal numerals functioning as adjuncts in English substantival word-groups are only in lexical agreement (unlike Ukrainian) with their head nouns, eg: one book, twenty one books; one boy - one girl, one deer/ sheep — two deer/sheep. It is not so in Ukrainian where cardinal numerals may have number, gender and case distinctions (synthetic agreement). Cf. один хлопець - одна дівчина, десятьох хлопців -десятьом хлопям/дівчатам, etc. The same syntactic connection have also ofher Ukrainian notional parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns and participles), which, when used as adjuncts, mostly agree with the head-word in number, case and gender (though not without exceptions), eg: рання весна — ранньої весни — ранній весні — ранньою весною; ранні весни — ранніх весен; один день — одного дня; два дні — дві ночі; працюючий апарат — працююча зміна, працююче колесо.
No less striking is also the presentation of synthetic or analytic and synthetic government in the contrasted languages, these ways of connection are predominant in Ukrainian. This is because in English only some personal pronouns have the objective case form (cf. to see me, her, them, him, us), whereas in Ukrainian almost all nominal parts of
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speech are declinable, i.e. can be governed. Eg: бачити Петра/Марію, знати першого/другу, перев'язувати пораненого, задоволений чорним/обома, двома, etc.
It goes without saying that amorphous components in any language can be connected with the help of analytical means only (both syndetically and asyndetically). Since in English the analytical way of connection prevails in all kinds of word-groups and in Ukrainian — the synthetic means of connection is predominant, their role and correlation can not be the same, as can be seen from the following table of comparison:
|Type of syntactic connection |In English |In Ukrainian |
|1 . Synthetic (agreement and |much less common |absolutely dominant |
|government) | | |
|2. Analytical connection (syndetic |absolutely dominant |much less common |
|and asyndetic) | | |
The Ukrainian language is far from devoid of analytical (syndetic and asyndetic) connection either. Cf. брати таксі, носити кімоно, бути в галіфе/у фойє для глядачів. Common in both languages are also the V + D pattern word-groups with syntactic juxtaposition (analytical connection) of components, eg:
|In English |In Ukrainian |
|to come soon, to learn well, going quickly, |скоро прийти, добре вчитися, йдучи швидко/йдучи |
|going home, take slowly/ go there, make |додому, заходити туди/ зайшовши туди, вийти |
|sure, etc. |звідти. |
Verbal and substantival word-groups with extended or expanded complements and adjuncts often have an analytical asyndetic connection in both languages as well, eg:
|In English |In Ukrainian |
|/not/ to distinguish A from Z, to feel lonely|не знати ні бе, ні ме; почуватися одиноко і |
|and desperate, to love Shevchenko the |розгублено, любити кіно, фільм "Живі й мертві", |
|painter, the film "They chose freedom". |телепередача "Екран для малят". |
Pertaining to English only are substantival word-groups of the NN,
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NNN, etc. patterns having asyndetic connection of components. For example: cotton yarn, cotton yarn production, cotton yarn production figures; Kyiv street traffic, Kyiv street traffic violations, the university library books readers, etc. No such asyndetically connected noun word-groups are available in Ukrainian, of course.
Types of Word-Groups in English and Ukrainian
According to the existing interrelations between their immediate components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into the following three types: 1) co-ordinate word-group 2) subordinate word-groups and 3) predicative word-groups.
I. Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement). For example: books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; neither this nor that, книжки й журнали; читати, пере-кладати й переказувати, ні те й ні се. Co-ordinate word-groups are non-binary by their nature; this means that they may include several IC's of equal rank, though not necessarily of the same lexico-grammatical nature. Cf. (They were) alone and free and happy in love. (Abrahams).
Such and the like word-groups in both contrasted languages perform the function of homogeneous parts of the sentence, eg: There they were: stars, sun, sea, light, darkness, space, great waters. (Conrad) — Тут ними були: зірки, сонце, море, світло, темінь, простір, великі води. Не was clean, handsome, well-dressed, and sympathetic. (Dreiser). Він був чистий, гарний, прекрасно одягнений і симпатичний. It was done thoroughly, well and quickly. — Це було зроблено досконало, гарно й швидко.
According to the structure of the ICs and their number, co-ordinate word-groups may be elemental and enlarged. Elemental word-groups consist of two components only, eg: Pete or Mike, he and she, read and translate, all but me; Піт чи Майк, він і вона, читати й перекладати, всі крім мене.
Enlarged co-ordinate word-groups consist of structurally complicat-
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ed components: to read the text, to analyze it stylistically and translate it — читати текст, аналізувати його стилістично і перекладати його.
As to the expression of sense, co-ordinate word-groups in the contrasted languages may be closed or unclosed, i. e. infinite. Closed word-groups denote some actions, objects and phenomena. They consist of two components only, eg: rivers and lakes, neither he nor she, all but me — річки й озера; ні він, ні вона; всі крім мене. Common in both languages are also the unclosed or infinite word-groups consisting of several constituent components the number of which may still be continued (as by enumerating). These constituents may be connected by means of conjunctions or asyndetically, eg: books, note-books, bags, pens and pencils; ні гори, ні гірські потоки, ні звірі чи птахи, ні рослини (не цікавили їх).
A common means of expressing homogeneousness as well as forming co-ordinate word-groups in both languages is also intonation. Cf He speaks /English, /German, /French, /Spanish and \Russian.
/Явором, /канупером, /чебрецем, /м'ятою, /любистком запахло \літо (К. Гордієнко).
II. Subordinate word-groups in all languages are binary by their nature. It means that they consist of a head component, which is the nucleus of the word-group, and of one or more adjuncts/complements. They may be either a single notional word or a group of words/word-group functionally equal to it and having the function of a notional word, eg: my pen, his "oh", your "r", her father and mother, take part in the games, bad for you, the film "They fought for their Motherland", Peter's brother, etc.
Among the existing classifications of word-groups the morphological (paradigmatic) classification remains one of the most embracing. It is based on the lexico-grammatical nature of the head component or on its functional substitute. As a result, the following seven (according to the number of national parts of speech) common paradigmatic classes of substantival word-groups are to be singled out in English and Ukrainian:
1. Substantival Word-Groups, in which the mainly attributive adjuncts may be in pre-position or in postposition to the noun head. Their way of connection is analytical in English and synthetic in Ukrainian, though not without exceptions, as can be seen in the following table:
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Table 24
|Surface / |English |Ukrainian |
|Models / | | |
|./Ways of | | |
|/Connection | | |
| |Analytical (syndetic and asyndetic)|Synthetic connection (agreement or |
| |connection |government) |
|N>N |cotton yarn, wage strike |NN |street traffic rules, sugar crop |NN гра оркестру телестудії, |
| |disaster |будова станції метро |
|NP>NP* |last week football matches |NNP/NN |Glasgow autumn holiday |NN(P) |boy and girl secrets |Мс/М>Кхлопця й дівчини секрети |
|A>N |small children, lovely flowers |A>N малі діти, гарний день, холодна |
| | |весна |
|I>N** |his work, my day, this look |I>N моя праця, його брат, наше таксі |
|Q(P)>N(P) |the first meeting, five days |Q>N перша зустріч, другий день |
|Ving >N(P) |the reading people, the coming |Vpartc > N працюючий прилад, крокуючий |
| |spring |екскаватор |
|N(P) ................
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