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Common Fallacies of LogicPart 2: Illustrated Study GuideWhat is Propaganda: information, ideas, or rumors deliberately spread widely to help or harm a person, group, movement, institution, nation, etc.Illustrated Propaganda Study Guide Process:Discuss each of these terms as a class. Divide into 5 small groups. Each small group will be in charge of 4 propaganda terms. For each page include: List the term and a definition that is in your own words that helps us understand further what the term really means.Provide a magazine advertisement, a picture, a school appropriate meme, a poem or song lyrics, or a story/anecdote from life, the news, political cartoons, satirical cartoons, historical examples like war posters, or a movie or something else that shows the propaganda term in a way that will provide a study guide for all of us that is interesting and entertaining. It CANNOT be just typing in the propaganda term and using what shows up on GOOGLE IMAGES because it should be more thoughtful, unique, and interesting than that! Don’t use the examples on the handout because that’s even more unoriginal…let your creativity shine and have fun with this. Humorous examples are also great. ***You can use the magazines in Bondurant’s cabinet or make a powerpoint or word processed version by using your computer, phone, or if I can get us a few laptops or IPads—you can use those and then, email the final result to Bondurant to print. Each example should take a ? page to a page. These will become our study guides to help us with the fun “stump your friends” commercial activity.EXAMPLE:Syllogism (Term)Official Definition: A Syllogism is an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn (whether validly or not) from two given or assumed propositions (premises), each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion…In my own words: A Syllogism is when some uses circular reasoning to prove an idea but proves it falsely because the proof can’t stand as valid without the original claim – like a circle where a snake is devouring itself (yuck!).Examples: The “She’s a Witch” scene in Monty Python and the Holy Grail and Stevie Wonder Love Syllogism. (Disclaimer: Please note you can’t use the Stephen Colbert MEME without another one without syllogism defined, however. )39909758255004524375-34607500Propaganda Terms: Arguments Against the Person (Ad Hominem) These arguments are characterized by irrelevant references to the person rather than addressing relevantly the person’s Claim. Examples: Mr. Jones’ communist sympathies should prevent him from being our coach. He has no right to comment on Apartheid; after all, he’s white. Who could agree with him? He looks like he doesn’t know where his next meal is coming from. Arguments From AuthorityThese are many appropriate situations where authorities should be cited in argument. But care must be taken to be sure that the “authority’s” usefulness as valid support is not compromised as it is in the following cases: Examples: The authority is not an expert in the particular area in which the claim is made. The authority is an expert, but there is disagreement among the experts in the field. The authority has vested interest in the testimony offered, thus creating the appearance of a conflict of interest. Arguments From Ignorance Just because a claim has not been proved doesn’t mean its opposite has. We still don’t know. Our position is still ignorance. Examples:God can be proved to exist; therefore, God does not exist.God cannot be shown to be non-existent; therefore, God does exist. Scientists are unable to disprove my horoscope; therefore, it must be accurate. The Band Wagon When a claim is made and justified on the basis of its popularity, we have reason to be suspicious and call for further rationale. Examples:Columbus is crazy; everyone knows the world is flat. Shakespeare is stupid; nobody in class likes him.The teacher is terrible; nobody likes her. Richard Cory is the ideal man; everyone admires him. Beginning the Question/ Circular Reasoning This is the argument whose rationale is no more certain than its claim. In fact, the rationale is usually a restatement of the claim. When you beg the question, you assume that something is acknowledged to be true when, in fact, it is not. In a logical argument, a writer commits the fallacy of begging the question whenever an idea that needs to be proven or developed further is simply assumed to be true. The difference between begging the question and circular argument is that the claim in begging the question is suspect, and this illogical claim is simply repeated as the grounds for the claim. In a circular argument the claim may be sound, but the grounds given are just a repeat of some form of the claim. Examples: Cigarette smoking is harmful because it is bad for you. She is lying; she never tells the truth. God is just because He is incapable of injustice. Post Hoc When two things, “A” and “B” are related, there is sometimes tendency to suppose that “A” causes “B” when, in truth; there may be some other kind of correlation. Also, if “B” follows “A,” there may be the same tendency to suppose that “B” is actually caused by “A.” In other words, the Post Hoc reasoning makes the mistake of claiming that one event caused another just because the second occurred after the first. Examples:Saccharin causes cancer in rats; therefore, it causes cancer in people too. The giraffe grew a long neck to reach leaves in tall trees. I didn’t do well on the math test in first period because I had French toast for breakfast.Let’s not take Bill on our picnic. Every time we take him it rains.Hasty Inductive Generalization In order for inductive generalizations to be useful, they must be based upon enough data to substantiate themselves appropriately. When the data base is too small or too selective, the resulting conclusions have been drawn prematurely. Examples:Because I saw a wolf killing a caribou, I conclude that the great decrease in the herd size of caribou is due to wolves. Judging from the number of students who failed Mrs. Jones’ writing class, sophomores must not be very good students. The Great Depression proves that capitalism doesn’t work. The Straw Man Sometimes when we argue, we show a tendency to dilute or oversimplify our opponent’s argument; we are guilty of arguing with a “straw” man. We are attempting to make our own argument look strong by unfairly making the other argument appear weak or “lifeless.” Examples:Darwin was a fool; my relatives aren’t monkeys. The rationalizations of environmentalists all boil down to the fact that they love animals more than people.Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that.Two Wrongs Make a Right Arguments sometimes seek to excuse deplorable situations simply for the reason of consistency. This approach suggests that because “A” is bad, it is acceptable that “B” also be bad. This approach discounts the possibility that perhaps “B” can be reformed or improved. Instead, a symmetrical pattern of evil is advocated through this fallacy. Examples:a) The passenger pigeon is gone and I don’t miss it; I doubt if I’ll miss the whale when it goes.b) People have been starving in Africa for centuries; there is no reason to be concerned now. c) Bill Clinton wasn’t the only president who did those things; he just got caught. False Analogy An analogy is a comparison. Analogies are often used in expository and persuasive writing to help clarify a point. An analogy can never prove a point; however, an argument that rests completely on an analogy is not a sound one. Examples: Taking an honors course is like being forced to take three full-course dinners every day. You are expected to do so much that you lose your appetite for learning the subject. Schools are students’ homes during the day. Since people should always feel comfortable in their own homes, students should have more comfortable chairs to sit in. Students should be allowed to look at their textbooks during examination; after all, surgeons have X-rays to guide them during an operation. Either-Or Fallacy With the Either/Or fallacy, you try to force your reader into choosing between two conflicting alternatives by suggesting that there are no options. Examples:If we do not lift price controls on gasoline, we will have less oil at higher prices. If you love America, you will take up arms and fight for her. Either you support LHS and join the football team, or transfer schools and be an East Thunderbird.Slippery SlopeThe Slippery Slope is a fallacy in which a person asserts that some event must inevitably follow from another without any argument for the inevitability of the event in question. In most cases, there are a series of steps or gradations between one event and the one in question and no reason is given as to why the intervening steps or gradations will simply be bypassed. This "argument" has the following form: 1.Event X has occurred (or will or might occur). 2.Therefore event Y will inevitably happen. This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious because there is no reason to believe that one event must inevitably follow from another without an argument for such a claim. This is especially clear in cases in which there are a significant number of steps or gradations between one event and another. Examples:a) We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!b) The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die. c) You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over you. d) We've got to stop them from banning pornography. Once they start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next thing you know, they will be burning all the books!Dicto Simplicter (oversimplication) The argument is based on an unqualified generalization.Examples:Exercise is good; therefore, everyone should exercise. Capital punishment boils down to the question of protecting society. The affordable care act simply comes down to whether or not you want access to health care.Ad Misericordiam An argument made from pity or misery; this fallacy avoids the questions through a sympathetic appeal. Examples: Though I do not have typing skills, you should hire me because I am a single mother with two small children.May I have an extension on this paper? I worked on it all weekend but it’s still not done.I know I was speeding, officer, but I recently found out I have cancer, can you give me a break?Non Sequitur Non sequitur is a Latin expression that means” it does not follow.” When a conclusion does not follow logically from a premise (or premises), the writer has committed a non sequitur fallacy. Examples:Fifty people signed a petition asking for more pep rallies. Let’s cancel all further pep rallies for the reason. Since the park has raised its entrance fee from $1.00 to $1.50, park attendance has dropped to almost nothing. Let’s raise the fee to $5.00. None of you have turned in your homework for the past week, therefore, I will triple the amount this week.Contradictory Premises When the premises of an argument contradict each other, there can be no argument. This fallacy usually occurs in the context of an argument where one premise is a general rule, and the other premise is an exception to that rule. If there’s a rule, you can’t also have an exception to that rule and then go on to “prove” something based on those two contradictory premises. Examples: If God can do anything, can He make a stone so heavy that He won’t be able to lift it?... But if He can do anything, He can lift the stone. A father is trying to convince his child that no one should be trusted is obviously making an exception of himself. If he really were making incompatible claims ('since you should trust no one, and you should trust me'), no rational conclusion could or should be drawn by the child. However, the contradictory premises are only apparent; the father has carelessly overstated the first premise. If he had said, 'Don't trust most people' or 'Trust very few people,' or 'Don't trust anyone except me,' he would have had no trouble avoiding the contradiction.Nobody should have guns…except for government agents. After all, government agents use guns responsibly because they’re trained and supervised in the use of firearms. No matter what your “after all” consists of, your argument is already fatally flawed because of the incompatible premises.Hypothesis Contrary to Fact You can start with a hypothesis that is not true and then draw any supportable conclusions from it. This fallacy consists of offering a poorly supported claim about what might have happened in the past or future if circumstances or conditions were other than they actually were or are. The fallacy also involves treating hypothetical situations as if they were fact.Examples: If you had only tasted the stewed snails, I'm sure you would have liked them.If Hitler had not invaded Russia and opened up two military fronts, the Nazis would surely have won the war.If I hadn't goofed around my first year in college, I would have been accepted to medical school.If only I had practiced a little more on my backhand, I could have won that tennis tournament. Poisoning the Well/ Attacking the Opponent. This fallacy biases the listener against the opponent before the opponent has spoken, or when she/he is not there to defend herself/himself. Examples: Two men are having a debate. The first one gets up and says, “My opponent is a notorious liar. You can’t believe a word he says.” Don’t pay any attention to what Martha has to say about changes in student council; you now she’s only interested in power for herself. Mom, when you talk to the principal don’t believe anything she says, she got fired from her last job!Red Herring /Ignoring the Question This label comes from a time when hunting dogs were led from the scent of the fox because someone had dropped food with a very strong ascent across a trail. The hounds would be diverted to a stronger scent, thus losing the scent of the fox. In giving your opinion on a specific matter, you use this fallacy when you introduce an irrelevant point to direct the audience’s attention from the main issue, or when a person avoids answering questions altogether which one has no good response for.Examples: Because television is a great technological advancement, and because the history of the invention is fascinating, teenagers should watch it. I should not have to take the test today; I was up late attending a concert last night. Officer: Sir, do you know why I pulled you over? Driver: You know, my cousin is a cop and boy does he have some crazy stories!Texas SharpshooterCherry-picking data clusters to find patterns that support ones argument. The name comes from a joke about a Texan who fires some shots at the side of a barn, then paints a target centered on the biggest cluster of hits and claims to be a sharpshooter. Examples: The makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks point to research showing that of the five countries where Sugarette drinks sell the most units, three of them are in the top ten healthiest countries on Earth, therefore Sugarette drinks are healthy. determined that Sally and Billy are a great match because they both like pizza, movies, junk food, Janet Jackson, and vote republican. What did not take into consideration were the 245 other likes and dislikes that were very different for both Sally and Billy—such as the fact that Billy is gay. So…it's never a good idea to ignore the differences in the data while only focusing on the similarities.After assessing your papers, you are obviously outstanding writers given that 62% of you did not misspell a single word, and 84% of you put your name at the top of the paper.Part 3: Show me the Money—I mean the candy. Aka Stumping your classmates!We will look at some commercials to decipher how they used some of these propaganda terms. 515302543815000Then, with the same small group or a new one, after we have received your illustrated study guide contributions, we are going to create a commercial for a fake product. You are going to use as many of the 20 propaganda terms as possible. Then, you will play a video or act out the skit of this commercial. Participants will try to guess what propaganda terms were used. If they get one right—they get candy. (Make sure to give everyone a chance to get candy—by the way participants—you are cut off after 2 candies until everyone gets candy.) Everyone must participate in this. If you stump your classmates with your brilliant use of persuasive propaganda, your group gets candy and also extra points. YAY! Doubly sweet! ................
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