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Anatomy and Physiology Lecture Notes 2020-2021**Skip Senses and Lymphatic System if short on time. Unit 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: Study of structure and Physiology: Study of the structure’s function Gross Anatomy (large structures, naked eye)Microscopic Anatomy (small structures, require microscope)Structure and function are interrelated Elbow joint is designed to allow flexion motion. Plasma membranes and chemical compounds. Anatomy and Physiology is all about maintaining homeostasis (stable internal environment)Common Characteristics of Life Made of cells (single or multiple)Organization (cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms)Responsiveness (detect and respond to stimuli)Regulation (homeostasis)Growth and Development Reproduction Metabolism (anabolic and catabolic)Basic Processes in Humans Respiration Oxygen is obtained from the environment and used in chemical processes that release energy for the body to use. Carbon dioxide is released. Digestion Mechanical and chemical process that converts the nutrients in ingested food into simpler substances the body can use. Circulation Internal movement and distribution of oxygen, cellular wastes, and the products of digestion. Excretion Process in which undigested food and the wastes of metabolism are eliminated. Levels of organization Chemical Level Cellular Level Types of Cells Smooth muscle, blood, bone, fat, reproductive, digestive, nerveCell Theory Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animalsCells are produced by divisions of pre-existing cellsCells are the smallest structural units that perform all vital functions. Tissue Level Combinations of cells; study of tissues = Histology 4 primary tissue types Epithelial Tissue (Covers and protects exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways, produces glandular secretions)Connective Tissue (Fills internal spaces, provides structural support, stores energy)Muscle Tissue (Contracts to produce active movement; Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac)Nervous Tissue (Conducts electrical impulses / carries information ; neurons and neuroglia)Organ Level (Collection of Tissues)Organ System Level (Collection of organs)11 Major Body Organ Systems Integumentary System (Skin: protects body and controls temperature)Skeletal System (support, protection, stores minerals, forms blood)Muscular System (Produce movement, provide support, generate heat)Nervous System (Response to stimuli, coordinate all activities)Endocrine System (Directs long term changes in other organ systems)Cardiovascular System (Transport cellular materials including nutrients, wastes, and gases)Lymphatic System (Defends against infection and disease)Respiratory System (Delivers air where gas exchange occurs)Digestive System (Produces food and absorbs nutrients)Urinary System (Eliminates excess water, salts, wastes ; controls pH)Reproductive System (Produces sex cells and hormones ; supports embryonic development)Organismal Level Homeostasis Defined as the presence of a stable internal environment. Vital to survival and failure of it results in illness or death. Homeostatic regulation: adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis in environments that are often inconsistent, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous. Consists of a receptor, a control or integration center, and an effector. (Discuss thermostat example)Maintains a normal range, not a precise mechanism. Two types of Homeostatic Feedback (occurs when receptor stimulation triggers a response that changes the environment at the receptor.)Negative Feedback Effector activated by control center opposes the original stimulus. Primary mechanism Ex: Regulating Body Temperature Positive Feedback Initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the change in the original conditions. Seldom used Positive Feedback Loop: escalating cycle Ex: Blood clotting Anatomical Terms Anatomy is similar to a special language based on Latin or Greek terms. Structures and Conditions used to be named after the discoverer or the most famous victim (eponyms)Replaced by precise terms Achilles tendon = calcaneal tendonBroca’s area = Speech centerEustachian tube = Auditory tubeKrebs cycle = Citric Acid Cycle Anatomy originated in 1088 in Italy. Anatomical Position Hands are at the sides with the palms facing forward, and feet are together. Body is facing forward. Supine: person lying down / Prone: face down Superficial anatomical terms (Anterior view)FrontalAntebrachialHalluxMammary CranialCarpalPedal Thoracic FacialPalmarFemoral Trunk Cephalic PollexPubicCervicalOral Digits (fingers)Inguinal Buccal Mental Patellar ManualOticAxillaryCrural PelvicOcularBrachialTarsal Umbilical Nasal Antecubital Digits (toes)Abdominal Superficial Anatomy (Posterior view)Acromial CalcanealSpinalPlantarDorsalCephalicOlecranalCervicalLumbarUpper LimbGlutealLower LimbPoplitealSuralQuadrants Four abdominopelvic quadrants Right upper quadrant Left upper quadrant Right lower quadrant Left lower quadrant Nine abdominopelvic regions (more precise)Right hypochondriac regionEpigastric regionLeft hypochondriac regionRight lumbar regionUmbilical regionLeft lumbar regionRight inguinal region Hypogastric or pubic regionLeft inguinal region Directional Terms Superior and Inferior Lateral and Medial Proximal and Distal Anterior and Posterior Cranial and Caudal Superficial and Deep Sectional Body Planes Frontal / Coronal Plane: Separates anterior and posterior sections. Sagittal Plane: Separates right and left portions. Transverse Plane: Separates superior and inferior portions. Body Cavities Partially or fully enclosed fluid-filled chambers that protect delicate organs from shocks and impacts AND permit significant changes in the size and shape of internal organs. Viscera Internal organs that are partially or completely enclosed by body cavities (heart and pericardial cavity)Body Cavities of the Trunk Thoracic Cavity Contains the lungs, heart, and other structures. Continues to diaphragm. Each lung is enclosed within a pleural cavity. 3 parts: pleural, mediastinum, and pericardial cavities. Abdominopelvic Cavity Encloses the abdominal and pelvic cavities and runs from the diaphragm to the pelvis. Importance of Water and Organic Compounds Chemical Reactions Crucial for body processes to occur. Many different types of reactions but many occur by reaching a certain amount of energy called an activation energy. Many of our body reactions are activated by temperature or acidity changes. Cells, most often times, use enzymes to perform many bodily functions. Enzymes are proteins that promote reactions by lowering the activation energy required. Known as a biological catalyst because they speed up reactions. Metabolic pathways exist in two forms:Exergonic: release energy (allowing us to maintain body temperature)Endergonic: absorb energy Metabolites Substances that can be synthesized via enzymes or broken down inside our bodies. Nutrients are the essential metabolites obtained from a diet. Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen. Inorganic compounds do not contain those. (normally consist of oxygen, acids, bases, and salts.) WaterCrucial to the body as it accounts for 2/3rds of your body weight. Important properties include:Lubricant Chemical reactantHigh heat capacity Universal solvent Important for breaking down ionic compounds to provide us with electrolytes. (ions that conduct electrical current) Organic Compounds Always contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. Act as the baseline for all living things. Consist of functional groups that can influence the chemical or physical properties of a given organic compound:Amino group (-NH2): Typically found in many amino acids, forms bonds with other molecules. Act as a base. (helps since they build proteins) Carboxyl group (-COOH): Found in fatty acids and amino acids. Act as an acid. Hydroxyl group (-OH): Plays a crucial role in solubility by bonding with water molecules. Makes up carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids, and alcohols. Phosphate group (-PO42-): Stores energy and can link to form larger molecules. Common component of phospholipids, nucleic acids, and high energy compounds. Types of Organic Compounds Carbohydrates (1:2:1 ratio of C, H, and O)Most important function is that they are an energy source that is actively used and not stored. Types Monosaccharides (simple sugars) are carbohydrates with 3-7 carbon atoms. Includes glucose and fructose. Primary function is an energy source and is manufactured in the body and obtained from food. Disaccharides are carbohydrates that consist of two monosaccharides joined together. Includes sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Primary function is an energy source. Must be broken down into monosaccharides to be absorbed. Polysaccharides are carbohydrates with 3+ monosaccharides linked together. Includes glycogen and starch. Primary function is to store glucose. Lipids (1:2 ratio of C and H) Insoluble in water but are crucial for structural and energy functions. Types Fatty acids (long chains attached to a carboxyl group) Main function is an energy source and is absorbed from food or synthesized in cells. Saturated (single bonds), Unsaturated (double bonds) Glycerides Energy source, energy storage insulation, and physical protection. Stored in fat deposits and must be broken down to be used. Steroids Large lipid molecules that have a distinctive carbon-ring. Function as a structural components, hormone functions, and digestive secretions. Includes cholesterol, estrogen, and testosterone. Proteins (most abundant organic compound, 20% of body weight)Consist of long chains of amino acids (20 types) Protein Structure Primary: sequence of amino acids bonded together in a linear chain. Secondary: Results from bond between atoms at different parts of the primary chain. Tertiary: complex coiling and folding gives a 3D shape due to interactions between the chain and surrounding water molecules. Quaternary structure: Further folding due to new bond attractions within the structure. Final 3D shape that determines the essential role of the protein. *Denaturing is the unfolding of the tertiary and quaternary structures due to temperature rise or increase in acidity. Can cause loss of function in protein and potential death to cells and organs. High Energy Compounds Compounds that contain high energy bonds that release large amounts of energy when broken down. ATP is the most common. Adenosine – AMP –ADP – ATPNucleic Acids DNADeoxyribose sugar, double helix shape, stores genetic information and controls protein synthesis. Consists of bases: Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. **A-T, C-G RNARibose sugar, one strand, smaller in size, and performs protein synthesis. Bases include: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil. *A-U and C-GAssessment: Chapter Integration Questions (cut out answers in student books), Terminology review, homeostasis lab, Case Studies (introduce with transplant one)Unit 2: Tissues and Skin Histology: Study of tissues Four Basic Tissue Types Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Muscle Tissue Nervous Tissue Epithelial Tissue Covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms secretory glands. Functions Include:Physical protection (abrasion, dehydration, destruction)Control permeability (calluses)Provide sensation (neuroepithelium)Produce specialized secretions Classifications (Broad)Epithelia (do not have blood vessels and contain secretory cells)Glands (specialized for secretion)Exocrine (secrete onto external surfaces or internal passageways)Endocrine (secrete hormones or prohormones into to interstitial fluids)Epithelial Cell Structure and Types Structure (sketch on board) Apical and Basal surface Microvilli and cilia Cells linked via tight junctions, adhesion belts, gap junctions, and desmosomes. Avascular Cell Types Shape: Squamous, Cuboidal, and Columnar Layers: Simple or Stratified Epithelial Tissues Simple Squamous Epithelium Most delicate tissue Located in regions of absorption, diffusion, or areas of reduced friction. Found in the kidneys, inside the eye, and the alveoli of the lungs. Mesothelium (lines the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal body cavities)Stratified Squamous Epithelium Located where physical or chemical stresses are severe. Form the surface of the skin, line the mouth, throat, esophagus, rectum, anus, and vagina. Keratinized or no keratinized. Keratinized = tough and water resistant. Non keratinized must be kept moist and are found in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, anus, and vagina. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium Provides limited protection and occurs where secretion and absorption are common. Found in kidney tubules and thyroid gland. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Rare Located along ducts of sweat glands and mammary glands. Transitional Epithelium Unusual stratified epithelium. Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching without damage. Found in bladder, uretersSimple Columnar Epithelium Found where absorption or secretion take place. Found in small intestine, gallbladder, uterine tubes, kidneys. Contain microvilli to increase surface area and cilia to move substances. In the stomach it acts to protect from chemicals in the stomach. Pseudostratified columnar Epithelium Includes types of cells with varying shapes and functions. (appears to be layered)Contain cilia Line nasal cavities, trachea, portions of male reproductive tract, and larger airways of the lungs. Stratified Columnar Epithelia Not widely distributed Found in lining of salivary glands and pancreas. Glandular Epithelial Exocrine Gland Types Merocrine Secretion Glands Product is released via exocytosis. Releases mucin (mixes with water to form mucus)Acts as a lubricant, a protective barrier, and a sticky trap for foreign particles. Apocrine Secretion Glands Involves the loss of cytoplasm as well as the secretory product. Milk production via mammary glands. Holocrine Secretion Glands Destroys the gland cells and the entire cells is packed with secretory products and then bursts killing the cell. Includes sebaceous glands that produce oily coating in hair. Connective Tissue Major functions of connective tissues include:Structural framework for the bodyTransportation of fluids and dissolved nutrientsProtect delicate organsSupport, surround, and interconnect other tissuesStore energy (triglycerides)Defend the body from invading organisms Characteristics include:Never exposed to outside environment Highly vascular Contain sensory receptors to sense pain, pressure, temperature, and other stimuli. Classifications of Connective Tissues Connective Tissue Proper (many types of cells in a syrupy ground substance)Loose Connective Tissue: Open framework Ex: Areolar, Adipose, and Reticular Tissue Dense Connective Tissues: Fibers densely packed Ex: Dense regular, Dense irregular, and elastic Fluid Connective Tissue (cells suspended in watery matrix)Blood Lymph Supporting Connective Tissue (Less diverse cells, very densely packed fibers)Cartilage (solid, rubbery) Ex: Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage Bone (solid, crystalline)Loose Connective Tissues Areolar Tissue: Least specialized and most common connective tissue. Packing material in the body. Contains diverse cells that include:Melanocytes (pigment)Macrophages (cell debris and pathogens)Mast cells (inflammation)Fibroblasts (Create fibers)Fibrocytes (Maintain fibers)Adipocytes (Store lipids)Reticular fibers (strength, branching)Collagen fibers (Resist stretching, form bundles)Elastic fibers (allow to reform following stretching)Plasma cellsFree macrophagesMesenchymal cells (stem cells that repair tissue)Neutrophils and eosinophils Lymphocytes Adipose tissue (deep to skin at the flanks, buttocks, and breasts)Provides padding Dense Connective Tissue Types Dense Regular Found in cords or sheets within tendons and ligaments. Forces applied are parallel to the collagen fibers. Dense Irregular Form a meshwork in no pattern. Strengthen and support areas subjected to stress in multiple directions Found in the covering of visceral organs, covering of bones and nerves, and thick supporting layer of the skin. Elastic Tissue Elastic fibers outnumber the collagen fibers. Tolerate cycles of stretching Found between vertebrae, walls of large blood vessels, and in the erectile tissues of the penis. Cartilage Hyaline Cartilage (provides stiff, flexible support and reduces friction between body surfaces)Found in between the tips of ribs and bones of sternum, covers bone surfaces at movable joints, and part of the nasal septum. Elastic Cartilage (Contains numerous elastic fibers that allow it to distort without damage)External earPerichondria Hematoma (Cauliflower Ear): Deformity of the outer ear due to injury that caused blood to collect and was not drained properly. Watch a drain video. Fibrocartilage (extremely durable and tough)Found in the knee joint, between the pubic bones, and in the intervertebral discs. Resists compression, prevents bone to bone contact, and limits relative movement. Response to Tissue Injury 3 Major Steps Injury Body activates a general defense mechanism Mast cells release a variety of chemicals during mast cell activation to stimulate inflammation (histamine, heparin, and prostaglandins)Inflammation Produces swelling, redness, heat, and pain due to injury or infection. Increased blood flow via vessel dilation. Increased vessel permeability = swelling Mast cells stimulate nerve endings that cause pain. Increased phagocytosis. Regeneration Repairs that occur after the damaged tissue has been stabilized and the inflammation has subsided. Fibroblasts move into the area and lay down a network of collagen fibers to stabilize the injury site. Produces scar tissueFibrosis: permanent replacement of normal tissue by scar tissue due to injury, disease, or aging. Skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues and nervous tissues regenerate poorly. Part B: The Integumentary System Consists of 16% of your body weight. Functions include:Protect underlying tissues and organs against impact, abrasion, fluid loss, and chemical attack. Excrete salts, water, and organic wastes. Maintain normal body temperatures via insulation or evaporative cooling. Produce melanin. Produce keratin. Synthesize vitamin D3 which is converted to calcitriol (hormone)Store lipids Detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature stimuli to relay to the nervous system. Two main parts of the integumentary System Cutaneous membrane Consists of the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous layer. Accessory Structures Hair shafts Pores of sweat gland ducts Tactile (Meissner’s corpuscle)Sebaceous glandsArrector pili muscle Sweat gland ductHair follicleLamellar (Pacinian corpuscle)Nerve fibers Sweat gland Epidermis Dominated by keratinocytes that form outer layers of skin. Thin skin (4 layer thick skin covering most body surfaces, thick as a plastic sandwich bag) and Thick skin (5 layer skin covering the palms of the hands and soles of feet, thick as paper towel)Thick skin determines fingerprints Layers of Epidermis Stratum Basale (basement layer of epidermis, dominated by basal cells which are stem cells that replace keratinocytes, also includes Merkel cells to detect touch)Stratum spinosum (8-10 layers of keratinocytes. Contains Langerhan cells that aide in immune response against microorganisms or skin cancers)Stratum granulosum (3-5 layers of keratinocytes. Most cells have stopped dividing at this point, and are making keratin.)Stratum lucidum (only present in thick skin, cells lack organelles are densely packed. Dead and undergoing dehydration)Stratum corneum (exposed surface of the skin 15-30 layers of keratinized cells. Dead cells that take 7 to 10 days to arrive at this layer. Remain in this layer for 2 weeks. Water resistant, but not waterproof.)Skin Color Genetically determined but is influenced by the presence of pigments, the degree of dermal circulation, and thickness and degree of keratinization in the epidermis. Primary Pigments of Skin Coloration Melanin: brown, yellow-brown, or black pigment produced by melanocytes found in the stratum basale and are produced from tyrosine amino acids. Melanosomes transfer pigment to keratinocytes. Skin contains 1,000 melanocytes per square millimeter. Carotene: orange-yellow pigment that accumulates in epidermal cells. Most common in the stratum corneum and fatty tissues. Found in orange vegetables. Skin Color Related Disorders Albinism: condition that results in the absence of melanin production. Normal distribution of melanocytes, but the enzyme needed to distribute melanin is missing. Cyanosis: Bluish coloration of the skin due to sustained reduction in blood flow and depleted oxygen levels. Basal cell carcinoma: Most common skin cancer that originates in the stratum basale due to mutations caused by overexposure to the UV radiation in sunlight/tanning. Virtually never metastasizes. Malignant melanoma: extremely dangerous cancer caused my melanocytes that grow rapidly and metastasize into the lymphatic system. If not caught early 5 year survival rates go from 99% to 14%. ABCDEs of cancerous moles A: Asymmetry B: Border (are they uneven, crusty, or notched)C:Color (variety of colors, especially white or blue)D: Diameter (larger than a pencil eraser)E: Evolving (changes in size, shape, color, or bleeding/scabbing)Dermis and Subcutaneous Layer Dermis lies between the epidermis and subcutaneous layers. Tolerates limited stretching due to collagen and elastic fibers. Aging, hormonal changes, and UV radiation reduce the elasticity of the dermis which results in wrinkles and sagging skin. Touch Receptors of the Skin Free nerve endings: Touch, pressure, and pain. Tactile discs: Detect sensations of texture and steady pressure. Meissner’s Corpuscles: Detect fine touch, pressure, and vibration. Pacinian’s Corpuscles: Detect deep pressure and vibration Ruffini’s Corpuscles: Sensitive to pressure and stretching Tension Lines Arrangement of collagen and elastic fibers in the skin. Clinically significant as a cut parallel to a tension line will remain closed and heal easily while cuts at right angles result in significant scarring. Burns Skin Functions Affected by Burns Fluid and Electrolyte Balance Thermoregulation Protection from Infection leading to Sepsis Types of Burns 1st Degree: Surface of the epidermis is affected leads to redness (erythema) and can be painful. Includes most sunburns. 2nd Degree: Entire epidermis and some parts of the dermis are damaged. Hair follicles and glands are not impacted but blistering, pain, and swelling occur. Healing takes 1-2 weeks and some scar tissue occurs. 3rd Degree: Full thickness burns destroy the epidermis and dermis and extends into the subcutaneous layer. Less painful than 2nd degree burns as sensory nerves are destroyed. Cannot repair themselves as epithelial cells can’t cover the injury and skin grafts are needed. Autograft: skin graft made with a patient’s own undamaged skin. Allograft: using frozen skin from a cadaver. (lasts 7-21 days, temporary)Xenograft: using animal skin (lasts 7-21 days, temporary)Evaluating Burns Rule of Nines allows a doctor to estimate the percentage of the surface area affected by burns. Surface area in adults is divided into multiples of 9. Depth is assessed with a pin to detect sensation. Head: 9%Upper Limp: 9% eachTrunk (front and back): 36%Genitalia: 1%Lower limp: 18% eachAccessory Structures of the Integument: Hair follicles, Exocrine Glands, and Hair Hair and Hair follicles Covers the surface of the skin everywhere except the sides and soles of the feet, the palms of the hands, the sides of the fingers and toes, the lips, and portions of the genitalia. 2.5 million hairs. Hair follicle: complex structure that forms a single hair. 2 types of hair Terminal hairs: large, coarse, and dark found on scalp or armpits. Vellus hairs: smaller, shorter, and more delicate found on body surface. Structures of the hair and hair follicleHair bulb: Expanded base of hair follicle where hair formation begins. Hair papilla: peg filled with blood vessels and nerves. Hair matrix: Actively dividing cells that produce the hair. Medulla: Consists of daughter cells formed at the center of the hair matrix. Cortex: Intermediate layer of daughter cells. Cuticle: Outer layer or surface of the hair. Hair root: portion of hair that anchors the hair into the skin. Hair shaft: portion of the hair we see on the surface. Arrector pilli muscles: smooth muscle that causes hair to stand erect causing goose bumps. Hair Growth Grows 2-5years at a rate of 0.33 mm per day. Healthy adults tend to lose about 100 head hairs a day. Nails Protect the exposed dorsal surfaces of the tips of the fingers and toes. Structures of the nail Nail body: visible portion of the nail made up of dead, tightly compressed cells packed with keratin. Lateral nail grooves and folds: keep nail in place. Lunula: pale, crescent shape of the nail that cover the dermal blood vessels. Nail bed: surface of the epidermis deep to the nail body. Nail root: epidermal fold not visible to the surface where nail production occurs. Cuticle: portion of the stratum corneum that extends over the exposed nail. Psoriasis: Condition marked by rapid stem cell division in the stratum basale that can impact skin and nails giving them a pitted and distorted appearance. Age-related changes to the skinFewer melanocytes Drier epidermis Thinning epidermis Diminished immune responseThinning dermis Decreased perspiration Reduced blood supply Slower skin repair (3-4 weeks for a blister compared to 6-8 weeks)Fewer active follicles Altered hair and fat distribution Integument Response to Damage 4 phases Inflammation Mast cells trigger inflammatory response Bleeding occurs Migration Blood clot / scab forms at the surface to restore epidermal integrity and restricts the entry of microorganisms. Macrophages patrol damaged area of debris and pathogens. Stratum basale divides rapidly and migrates along the edges of the wound. New capillaries grow. Proliferation 1 week after the injury the clot dissolves and capillaries decline. Collagen fibers form, but original condition is not restored. Scarring Scab has shed and epidermis is complete. Fibroblasts in the dermis create a scar tissue to elevate damaged overlying epidermis. Inflexible, no hair growth, and no sweat glands. (not repaired)Keloid: Scar tissue formation continues beyond the requirements creating a raised, thickened mass of scar tissue. Assessments: skin lab, tissues practical exam, case studies, chapter integration questions. Unit 3: Skeletal System Section1 : Bones and Bone Structure Structure and Growth of Bones Two divisions Axial Skeleton: 80 bones Includes skull, thorax, and vertebral column. Appendicular Skeleton: 126 bones Includes limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles. Functions of the skeletal system Support Stores minerals (calcium and phosphate) and store fat in the form of adipose tissue. Produce blood cells (hematopoiesis) via bone marrow Protection (ribs, skull, etc.)Leverage (change the magnitude and direction of the forces skeletal muscles generate. Classification of Bones Flat Bones (skull, sternum, ribs, scapula)Sutural Bones (irregular bones between the flat bones of the skull)Long Bones (longer than wide and include femur, humerus, etc.)Irregular Bones (complex sharps and includes vertebrae, pelvic bones)Sesamoid Bones (small, flat, and shaped like a sesame seed, commonly found near joints including patella)Short Bones (small and boxy includes carpal and tarsal bones)Bone Markings (Print off a copy of markings page)Sinus: chamber within a bone filled with airForamen: rounded passageway for blood vessels or nerves to pass through Fissure: elongated cleft or gap. Canal/meatus: large passageway through a bone. Process: projection or bump. Head: proximal end of a bone. Tubercle: small rounded projection. Sulcus: Deep, narrow groove. Turberosity: small, projection that occupies a broad area. Diaphysis: Shaft of elongated boneCondyle: smooth, rounded articular process. Trochanter: large, rough projection. Neck: narrow connection between head and diaphysis of a bone. Facet: small, flat articular surface. Crest: prominent ridge. Fossa: shallow depression in the surface of a boneSpine: pointed or narrow processRamus: thick projection that makes an angle with the body of the bone. Anatomy of a Long Bone3 regions Epiphysis: expanded regions at each end of the bone. Consists of spongy (trabecular) bone. Open framework. Metaphysis: narrow zone that connects the epiphysis to the diaphysis. Diaphysis: long and tubular end of bone. Consists of dense, compact bone, Sturdy. Contains the medullary cavityRed bone marrow (highly vascular, involved in blood cell formation)Yellow bone marrow (adipose tissue for energy storage)Four types of cells in the skeletal system (2% of a bone’s weight)Osteogenic cells: stem cells that divide to form osteoblasts (pre- bone cells) and are crucial for the repair of a fracture. Osteoblasts: make and release proteins and organic components of the bony matrix. Increase concentrations of calcium phosphate to help form bone. Osteocytes: mature bone cells that maintain bony matrix. Continually recycle proteins and minerals. Osteoclasts: cells that remove bone matrix. Large and contain 50+ nuclei. Secrete acids and protein-digesting enzymes to dissolve bony matrix via osteolysis. Regulate calcium phosphate ion concentrations. Bony Matrix (Coloring sheet)Osteon: basic, functional unit of compact bone Lamella form concentric rings with a central canal (Haversian canal) containing blood vessels and nerves. Volkmann’s canals: connect Haversian canals and run perpendicular to bone. Think of a straw: these run parallel to the bone to withstand the most force. (Femur can withstand 10-15 times body weight) Lamellae: thin layers of bony matrix. Lacuna: pocket between bony matrix layers where osteocytes are located. Canaliculi: narrow passageways that connect lacunae and allow nutrient diffusion. Periosteum: outer, protective layer of the bony matrix. Bone Growth Appositional GrowthDiameter of a bone enlarges at the outer surface. Occurs in the inner layer of the periosteum. Osteoclasts remove and recycle lamellae at the inner surface. DOES NOT form original bone, only increases size. Bone formation starts 6 weeks after fertilization via endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification. Endochondral OssificationStep 1: Formation of bone collar around hyaline cartilage. Step 2: Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage. Step 3: Spongy bone begins forming at the primary ossification center. Blood vessels invade. Step 4: Medullary cavity forms, secondary ossification occurs in the epiphysis. Step 5: ossification of the epiphysis. Epiphyseal Line: Former location of the epiphyseal plate (growth plate). Narrows with age. Bone Growth Conditions Pituitary Growth FailureInadequate production of GH leads to abnormally short bones. Achondroplasia Abnormal epiphyseal activity and long bones grow very slow. Marfan Syndrome Very tall and have long, slender limbs due to excessive cartilage formation. Congenital talipes equinovarus Boys affected twice as often. One or both feet involved results in distorted bones and joints due to muscle growth. Gigantism Overproduction of GH. Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressive (FOP)Rare, single gene mutation that results in bone deposits around skeletal muscles. No treatment. Life expectancy: 40s. AcromegalyGH levels rise after bone growth is complete so bones get abnormally thick. Fractures Steps in Fracture Repair Fracture Hematoma Formation Extensive bleeding Large blood clot occurs to close off the injured vessels and leaves a fibrous meshwork on the damaged area. Callus Formation Cells undergo rapid cell division in the fracture zone to form an internal callus of spongy bone.An external callus of cartilage and bone encircles and stabilizes the outer edge of the fracture. Spongy Bone Formation Osteoblasts replace the cartilage in the external callus with spongy bone to unite broken ends. Dead bone is removed. Can now withstand normal stresses from muscle contractions. Compact Bone Formation Swelling occurs following a fracture and is then filled with compact bone formation. Types of Fractures Open (bone pierces skin: Kevin Ware)Closed (fracture is internal)Transverse: bone shaft breaks across its long axisSpiral: produced by twisting stresses that spread along length of bone. Displaced: fracture that produces new and abnormal bone alignments. Compression: Extreme stresses (tailbone)Greenstick: most common in children, bone doesn’t break completely. Comminuted: shatter of the bone. Epiphyseal: fracture in the epiphyseal line can inhibit growth. Pott’s: only occurs at the ankle. Colles: break that occurs in the radius if you fall with an outstretched arm. Part B: Utilize Chapter 7 and Review bones and special functions (Use the book to discuss location of bones on skeleton and indicate function…use practical list.)Part C: Joints (Ch. 8)Joints are classified via:Type and amount of movement Need for strength Need for mobility ROM Functional Categories for Joints SynarthrosisNo movement occurs….bony edges are close or interlock. Extremely strong joints. Amphiarthrosis Little movement occurs, but still offers strength. Connected by collagen fibers or cartilage. Ex: joint between fibula and tibia. Diarthrosis Permits widest ROM and is the least strong. Ex: knee joint. Structural Categories for JointsFibrous (sutures of the skull and gomphosis joints between jaw and teeth)Cartilaginous (synchondrosis joints of ribs and sternum)Synovial (located at the ends of long bones and are filled with synovial fluid)Synovial Joints Components Articular cartilage Joint capsule Synovial membrane (secretes synovial fluid)Joint cavity Accessory Structures in the Knee JointBursa: thin, fluid-filled pockets that contain synovial fluid. Meniscus: pad of fibrocartilage between opposing bones within a synovial joint. Channel flow of synovial fluid. Fat pads: protect articular cartilage. Ligaments: support, strengthen, and reinforce synovial joints. Include cruciate and patellar ligaments. Functions Lubrication, Nutrient distribution, and shock absorption (viscosity increases with pressure) Types of Synovial Joints Plane Joint (allow gliding motion, found between clavicle and manubrium)Hinge Joint (allows angular motion, found in knee, ankle, and elbow joints)Pivot Joint (allows rotation, found in joint between atlas and axis)Condylar Joint (allows angular motion, found in joints in wrist and ankle)Saddle Joint (allows angular motion, found in the thumb)Ball-and-socket Joint (allows angular motion, found in shoulder and hip)Anatomical references to motion Flexion: movement in the anterior-posterior plane that decreases the angle between articulating bones. Extension: Opposite of flexion and increases the angle. Abduction: movement away from the longitudinal axis of the body. Adduction: movement toward the longitudinal axis of the body. Circumduction: circular motion Rotation (medial or lateral vs left or right)Pronation (motion to turn back of palm facing forward)Supination (opposite of pronation)Major Joints in the Body Elbow Joint Radial and ulnar collateral ligaments Knee Joint Cruciate Ligaments ACL Repair Video Assessments: Case Studies, Practical Exam, Chicken bone lab, Exam Unit 4: Muscular System Functions of Skeletal Muscle Tissue Produce body movements Maintain posture and body position Support soft tissues Guard body entrances and exits (sphincters)Maintain body temperature Store nutrients Types of muscle tissue Skeletal Muscle Voluntary control, move the bodyCardiac Muscle Involuntary, beats the heart Smooth Muscle Involuntary, controls organs Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function Structure Consists of individual muscle cells called skeletal muscle fibers. Epimysium is the dense collagen fiber that surrounds the entire muscle. Muscle faciae is a bundle of muscle fibers. Perimysium is a fibrous layer that divides the skeletal muscle into a series of compartments. Vascularized. Endomysium is a thin layer of connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fiber. Contains a protein called myofibrils. Myosatellite cells: stem cells that repair damaged muscle tissue. Tendons: connect muscle to a specific point on a bone. Myofibrils Cylindrical structures that run the length of a muscle fiber giving it a striated appearance. Contain bundles of protein filaments Thin filaments made of actinThick filaments made of myosin Myofilaments are arranged in repeating contractile units called sarcomeres. H line: lighter region in resting sarcomere that contains no thin filaments. M-line: connects the central portion of each thick filament. A band: Region that contains thick filaments that also overlaps thin filaments. I band: Contains thin filaments that don’t overlap thick filaments. Z lines: Boundary between adjacent sarcomeres. Transverse tubules: narrow tubes that connect with the sarcolemma and extend into the sarcoplasm Sliding Filament Theory Theory of what occurs when skeletal muscle contracts as thick and thin filaments slide past each other. The H and I bands get smaller Zones of overlap grow larger Z lines move closer together A band width remains constant. Skeletal Muscle fibers contract when stimulated: StepsNMJ is made up of an axon terminal of a motor neuron called a motor end plate and a synaptic cleft. Vesicles contain acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) Electrical impulses or action potentials will stimulate the release of Ach into the synaptic cleft. Ach diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on sarcolemma and allow sodium ions to rush into the sarcoplasm. Rush of sodium ions generates an action potential in the sarcolemma to cause contraction. Acetylcholinesterase enzymes breakdown acetylcholine to close membrane to sodium ions. Action potential runs to T tubules and causes calcium ions to flow into the sarcomeres and triggers the contraction of the muscle fiber. Calcium ions bind to troponin allowing actin to form a cross bridge with myosin. ATP (energy stored in the resting state) is released causing the myosin heads to pivot towards the M line in a motion called the power stroke. Causes muscle tension. Everything recocks and resets as long as calcium ions and ATP levels remain constant. Measuring Muscle Fiber Tension Myograms are graphical representations of tension development in muscle fibers. Twitch (single stimulus contraction relaxation sequence in a muscle fiber)Vary in duration via muscle type, location, internal and external environmental conditionsFasciculation: involuntary muscle twitch of a motor unit via a single motor neuron3 phases Latent period: 2 msec phase at the beginning of stimulation. Action potential goes to sarcolemma and releases calcium ions. No tension. Contraction phase: tension rises to a peak, takes about 15 msec. Cross bridges are occurring. Relaxation phase: Lasts 25 msec, calcium ions fall, active sites are being covered back up, and tension returns to resting levels. Frequency of stimulation and muscle fiber tension Two factors determine amount of tension Amount of tension produced by each muscle fiberTotal number of muscle fibers stimulated Muscle Tone Resting tension in skeletal muscle. Regulated at subconscious level Greater muscle tone, the higher the resting rate of metabolism Increases resting energy consumptionTypes of Contractions Isotonic Contractions (tension rises to a constant level, normal activity)Concentric ContractionThe muscle tension exceeds the load and the muscle shortens. Ex: curls Eccentric Contractions Peak tension developed is less than the load and the muscle elongates. Ex: curls Isometric Contractions Muscle as a whole does not change length and tension never exceeds the load. Muscles that allow you to stand upright and keep posture. Energy sources for muscle contraction Glycolysis Source of energy via mitochondria. Generates 2 ATP per glucose molecule Anaerobic Generates 670 twitches per molecule130 seconds of isometric contraction Aerobic metabolism Provides 95% of the ATP of a resting cell. Aerobic processGenerates 15 ATP per pyruvate (organic substance)Generates 12,000 twitches for 2,400 seconds of contraction. Creatine Phosphate High energy compound stored in muscle fibers. Generates 70 twitches per moleculeSupports 15 sec of isometric contractions Free ATP Generates 10 twitches for 2 seconds of contractions. Demand for energy during phases of contraction Resting phase Demand for ATP is low and mitochondria produce a surplus of ATP Extra ATP builds up reserves of CPModerate levels of activity ATP demand increases Relies primarily on aerobic metabolism of pyruvate Peak activity levels Rely heavily on glycolysis to generate ATP because mitochondria can’t obtain enough oxygen. Accumulate of lactate in the muscle (by-product of glycolysis)Lowers intracellular pH that causes fatigue and muscle soreness. Muscle Fatigue Active muscle becomes fatigued when it can no longer continue to perform. During the recovery period, the conditions in muscle fibers are returned to pre-exertion levels. Oxygen debt (excess postexercise oxygen consumption)Amount of oxygen required during the recovery period to restore the muscle to its normal condition. Muscle Fiber Types Fast fibersLarge in diameter and contain densely packed myofibrilsLarge glycogen reserves, few mitochondria Contract rapidly and powerfully Supported by anaerobic metabolism and fatigue easily White in appearance Ex: eye muscles Slow fibers Smaller in diameter Slower in contraction speed Contain more capillaries, mitochondria, and myoglobin. Longer time to fatigue Dark red in appearance Ex: Leg muscles Intermediate fibers Similar to fast fibers but have greater resistance to fatigue Pale in appearance Muscular Conditions Hypertrophy Enlargement of the stimulated muscle due to increase in myofibrils. Achieved by training and steroid hormonesAtrophy Reduction in muscle size, tone, and power. Becomes flaccid and muscle fibers become smaller and weaker. Can occur due to lack of use, paralysis, or aging. Muscular Dystrophy Inherited diseases that produce muscle weakness and deterioration. Duchenne muscular dystrophy and Becker muscular dystrophy Typically impact males 1 in 3,500 to 5,000 worldwide. Progressive muscle weakness and death occurs due to respiratory paralysis. Skeletal muscles impacted. Sex-linkedPolio Virus that attacks motor neurons in the spinal cord and brain. Causes muscular atrophy and paralysis. Tetanus Bacteria, Clostridium tetani, thrives in tissues with low oxygen levels. Release toxin that suppresses the mechanism that inhibits motor neuron activity. 40-60% percent mortality rateBotulism Caused by consuming food contaminated with toxins. Paralyzes skeletal muscles by preventing Ach release at neuromuscular junctions. Myasthenia gravis Autoimmune disorder characterized by the loss of Ach receptors at the neuromuscular junctions Results in progressive muscular weaknessRigor Mortis Occurs shortly after death in the body. Begins in the face and works its way down the body. Muscles become locked as ATP reserves are exhausted. Begins 2-7 days after death and disappears after 1-6 days. Chapter 10: The Muscular System Divisions of the muscular system Axial: support and position of the axial skeleton. Appendicular: support, move, and brace the limbs. Makes of 44% of your body weight. Contains approximately 700 muscles. Fascicle Organization of Muscles Parallel muscles: fascicles are parallel to the long axis of the muscle. Ex: biceps brachii Shortens 30% when contraction occurs. Convergent muscles: muscle fascicles extending over a broad area converge on a common attachment site. Ex: Pectoralis majorVersatile, but limited in tension produced. Pennate muscles: fascicles form a common angle with the tendon. Produces the most tension, contains more myofibrils. Shortens less when contracted. Ex: Deltoids, rectus femoris. Circular muscles (sphincters): fascicles are concentrically arranged to encircle a duct, tube, or opening. Diameter decreases when contracting. Muscle Movements and Attachments Muscles act as a lever!Origin: place where the fixed end of a muscle attaches. Insertion: Moveable end of a muscle attaches to another structure. Type of movement Agonist (prime mover): muscle whose contraction is responsible for producing a particular movement. Synergist: provide additional pull near insertion or stabilizes the joint. Assist the agonist muscles. Antagonist: muscle whose action opposes that of a particular agonist. Muscle Terminology (pg. 397 in the book) *Print!!!Muscles of the Body (Pg. 398-399)Utilize practical exam sheet to go over muscles and main functions. Head and Neck Muscles Epicranius frontalis: allows wrinkling of forehead and raising eyebrows. Epicranius occipitalis: allows for tensing and retracting scalpOribularis occuli: allows for closing of the eyeOribularis oris: allows for you to compress and purse lipsBuccinator: compress cheeks Zygomaticus: Retract and elevate corners of mouth and upper lips. Platysma: Tense skin of neck, depress mandible and pulls lower lip inferiorly. Nasalis: compres bridge of nose and elevate corners of nostrilsMasseter: Elevates mandible and closes the jaws. Temporalis: Elevates mandible. Sternocleidomastoid: Flexes the neck; bends head toward shoulder. Splenius capitis: endtends neck, rotates neck to the side. Eye Muscles Inferior rectus: eye looks inferiorly Medial rectus: eye looks mediallySuperior rectus: eye looks superiorly Lateral rectus: eye looks laterally Inferior oblique: Eye rolls superiorly and laterally Superior oblique: Eye rolls inferiorly and laterally. Shoulder, Chest, and Abdomen External oblique: compresses abdomen, flexes or bends spine, depresses ribs. Internal oblique: same function. Transversus abdominus: Compresses abdomenRectus abdominus: depresses ribs, flexes vertebral column. Bulbospongiosus: Compresses and stiffens clitoris or penis. Narrows vaginal opening in females and ejects urine or semen in males. External urethral sphincter: Closes urethra. Compresses vagina in females and prostate in males. Levator ani: tenses floor of pelvis, elevates and retracts anus. External anal sphincter: closes anal opening. Levator scapulae: elevates scapula Pectoralis minor: Rotates scapula inferiorly. Rhomboideus major: Adducts scapula and performs downward rotation. Serratus anterior: Rotates scapula superiorly. Trapezius: Can move the scapula, elevate clavicle, or extend neck. Deltoid: Abduction at shoulder. Supraspinatus: Abduction at shoulder. *Rotator cuff muscle. Infraspinatus: Lateral rotation of the shoulder. **Rotator cuffTeres major: Extension, adduction, and medial rotation of the shoulder. Teres minor: Lateral rotation of shoulder. **Pectoralis major: Flexion, adduction, and medial rotation at shoulder. Latissimus dorsi: Extension adduction, and medial rotation at shoulder. Arms Biceps brachii: flexion at elbow and shoulder. Supination. Brachialis: Flexion at elbowBrachioradialis: same Triceps brachii: extension at elbow Pronator teres: pronation. Palmaris longus: flexion at wrist Flexor carpi radialis: flexion and abduction at wrist. Flexor carpi ulnaris: same. Extensor carpi radialis longus: extension and abduction at wristExtensor carpi ulnaris: sameExtensor digitorum: extension at finger joints and wristLegs and Pelvis Gluteus maximus: extension and lateral rotation at hipGluteus medius: abduction and medial rotation at hipTensor fasciae latae: Extension of the knee and lateral rotation of the leg. Adductor longus: Adduction, flexion, and medial rotation at hip. Gracilis: Flexion at knee; adduction and medial rotation at hip. Biceps femoris: Flexion at kneeSemimembranosus: sameSartorius: same Popliteus: medial rotation of tibiaRectus femoris: Extension at knee **Part of quadsVastus medialis: same **Vastus lateralis: same ** (The fourth is just the vastus intermedius)Tibialis anterior: flextion at ankleSoleus: extension at ankle Gastrocnemius: extension at ankle, flexion at kneeAssessment: Personal Trainer project, Muscle Practical exam, muscle fatigue lab, case studies, chapter integration, exam Unit 5: Nervous System **See Nervous System PPT (Former unit designed on PPT) Assessments: Brain practical exam with functions, Exam, Chapter integration questions, case studies, Brain Game project, Reflex labUnit 6: Special Senses Olfaction and Gustation 5 special senses Olfaction Gustation Vision Equilibrium Hearing How are they triggered?Olfactory Receptors Dissolved odorants bind to olfactory receptors causing a generator potential to occur. Triggers action potential (if strong enough) to travel up the axon to the CNS. Taste, Vision, Equilibrium, and Hearing Receptors Specialized cells that have inexcitable membranes and form synapses with sensory neurons. When stimulated, the membrane depolarizes and releases a neurotransmitter which depolarizes the sensory neuron inducing a generator potential that produces an action potential to the CNS. Olfaction Made possible by paired olfactory organs located in the nasal cavity on each side of the septum. Consists of two layersOlfactory epithelium (contain olfactory receptor cells)Lamina propria (contains areolar tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and olfactory glands which produce pigmented mucus)Olfactory Pathway to the Cerebrum Chemicals in the air stimulate olfactory receptor cells in the olfactory organ. Axons collect into 20 or more bundles that penetrate the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. First synapse occurs in the olfactory bulb superior to the cribriform plate. Axons continue along the olfactory tract to the olfactory cortex and the hypothalamus. Olfactory information is distributed to explain how certain smells trigger emotional and behavioral responses as well as memories. Odorants Dissolved chemicals that stimulate olfactory neurons by interacting with membrane receptors called odorant binding proteins. Steps Binding of an odorant to its receptor protein leads to the activation of adenylate cyclase (enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP). cAMP opens sodium ion channels in the plasma membrane and it begins to depolarize. Once depolarization occurs an action potential is triggered in the axon and information is sent to the CNS. Gustation Sense of taste via taste receptors distributed over the superior surface of the tongue and portions of the pharynx and larynx. Most receptors decrease in the pharynx, larynx, and epiglottis by adulthood. Adults have 5,000 taste buds. Lingual papillae Epithelial projections. Four types:Vallate Papillae: large, eraser shaped projections that contain up to 100 taste buds. Foliate Papilae: found on the lateral margins of the posterior region of the tongue. Fungiform Papillae: shaped like mushrooms and contains about 5 taste buds. Filiform Papillae: provide friction that helps the tongue move objects and contains no taste buds. Taste Sensations Primary taste sensations Sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. No difference in taste bud structure and all portions of the tongue provide all four primary taste sensations. Other taste sensations UmamiPleasant, savory taste characteristic to beef and chicken broth as well as Parmesan cheese. Present in vallate papillae. Water receptors Concentrated in pharynx. Affects water balance and regulation of blood volume. Taste Buds Each taste bud contains 40-100 gustatory receptor cells Contain slender microvilli called taste hairs that extend into fluids via a taste pore. Lifespan is 10 days. Basal stem cells produce transitional cells that mature into gustatory receptor cells. Respond to unpleasant stimuli more than pleasant stimuli. 100,000 times more sensitive to bitter and 1000 times more sensitive to sour than we are to sweet or salty. Due to survival. Tasting ability changes with age as we lose taste buds. Gustation and Nerves Gustatory reception is stimulated by chemicals. Two pathways:Salt and Sour Channels Diffusion of sodium ions from salt solutions or hydrogen ions from acids/sour solutions via Na+ leak channels. Increase in cations leads to depolarization and release of neurotransmitters. This release causes depolarization of sensory neurons and generates an action potential. Sweet, Bitter, and Umami Receptors All are linked to G proteins called gustducins that used second messengers to produce their effects. Sweet, bitter, or umami receptors bind and activate a G protein. Activated G protein depolarizes the membrane and activates a 2nd messenger proteins that releases neurotransmitters and the action potential is generated. Gustatory Pathway Begins in the gustatory receptors and channels as mentioned above. Cranial nerves carry gustatory information Facial nerve interprets all taste buds located on the anterior 2/3rds of the tongue. Glossopharyngeal nerve interprets the taste buds located on the posterior 1/3rd of the tongue. Vagus nerve interprets taste buds scattered on the surface of the epiglottis. Trigeminal nerve interprets texture of food and taste related sensations such as “burning hot”.Sensory afferents from the previous cranial nerves synapse into the solitary nucleus in the medulla oblongata. Cross over and enter the medial lemniscus of the medulla oblongata. Synapse a final time in the thalamus and information is projected to the gustatory cortex. Vision Accessory Structures of the EyeIncudes eyelids, eyelashes, superficial epithelium of the eye, and structures associated with the production, secretion, and removal of tears. Exterior Structures Cornea: transparent area on the anterior surface of the eye where light enters the eye. Pupil: Opening at the center of the eye. Iris: Colored portion of the eye. Lacrimal caruncle: small, reddish body at the medial angle of the eye that produces thick secretions that cause gritty deposits that can occur in the eyes. Eyelids and EyelashesEyelashes: robust hairs that prevent foreign matter from reaching surface of eye. Eyelid or palpebral: Continuation of the skin that connects at the lateral angle of the eye. Keeps eye lubricated and removes dust. Primary function is protection. Tarsal glands secrete a lipid-rich product that keeps the eyelids from sticking together. Inner Structures Conjunctiva: epithelium covering the inner surfaces of the eyelids and outer surface of eye. Mucous membrane. Palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva. Conjunctivitis (Pinkeye): inflammation of the conjunctiva. Lacrimal Apparatus Produces tears that reduce friction, remove debris, prevent bacterial infection, and provides nutrients and oxygen. Structures of the Lacrimal Apparatus include:Lacrimal gland and ductsProduces about 1 mL of watery, alkaline tears. Contain lysozyme enzymes and antibodies to attack pathogens. 10-12 tear ducts. Lacrimal puncta: 2 small pores that drain the “lake of tears”. Lacrimal canaliculi: small canals that connect the lacrimal puncta to the lacrimal sac. Lacrimal sacNasolacrimal duct: duct that delivers tears to the nasal cavity. Walls of the Eye or TunicsFibrous Layer Consists of the cornea and the white sclera (whites of the eye). Supports and protects the eye, attachment site of extrinsic eye muscles, and contains the transparent cornea where curvature aids in focusing. Vascular LayerIncludes iris, ciliary body, and choroid. Provides a route for blood vessels to supply eye tissues (choroid), regulates amount of light that enters the eye (iris), secretes and reabsorbs the fluid called the aqueous humor, and controls the shape of the lens (ciliary body).Inner Layer or RetinaConsists of a thin, outer deep layer that absorbs light and a thick, inner superficial layer that contains the photoreceptors sensitive to light. Cavities of the Eye Anterior Cavity Anterior chamber that extends from the cornea and to the iris. Eye color is determined by the density and distribution of melanocytes on the anterior surface of the iris. Posterior chamber extends between the iris and the ciliary body and lens. Aqueous Humor Fluid that circulates within the anterior cavity. Provides a route for nutrient and waste transport, forms a fluid cushion, and creates a pressure to retain the eye’s shape. Tonometry measures the fluid pressure. Normal pressures are 12-21 mm Hg. Posterior Cavity Vitreous humor: gelatinous substance that takes up most of the eye’s volume. Optic Nerve carries visual information to the occipital lobe. Focusing via the Eye Amount of light entering the eye and passing through the lens is controlled via two pupillary muscles. Dilator pupillae enlarge the pupil due to decreased light intensity. Sphincter pupillae cause the diameter of the pupil to decrease due to increased light intensity. Controlled via autonomic nervous system. Macula or fovea centralis Highest concentration of photoreceptors. Point of sharpest vision. Refractions Light is bent when it passes from the air into the cornea and then again when it passes from the aqueous humor to the lens. Lens refracts light to focus the light rays towards a focal point. Distance between the center of the lens and its focal point is the focal distance. Closer the light source, greater the angle of arriving light rays, and the longer the focal distance. Rounder the lens, the shorter the focal distance. Image is inverted and reversed in the eye and the brain orients the image the correct way. Learned via experience. Accommodation is the process of changing the lens shape to focus images on the retina. For close Vision Ciliary muscles contracted, lens rounded. For Distant Vision Ciliary muscles relaxed, lens flattens. Near Point of Vision Inner limit of clear vision for close objects. Children: 7-9 cm. Young adults: 15-20 cm. Age 60: 83 cm. Photoreceptors Ganglion cells Innermost cell layer in the retina and converge at the optic disc to form the optic nerve. Optic disc contains no photoreceptors and is our natural blind spot. Photoreceptors of the Retina Rods: Provide vision in black and white. Enable vision in dimly lit rooms, at twilight, and in pale moonlight. Most dense in periphery of the retina. Cones: provide us with color vision, sharper and clearer images than rods. Requires intense light. Most dense at the fovea centralis. Horizontal and Amacrine cells Facilitate or inhibit communication between photoreceptors and ganglion cells. Alter the sensitivity of the retina and allow eye to adjust to dim or brightly lit environments. Wavelengths of Light Rods Contain the same type of opsin (protein synthesized from Vitamin A). Most sensitive to blue-green wavelengths of light. 400-625 nm. Cones (all differ in opsin)Blue cones (16%): sensitive to blue light from about 420-550 nm. Green cones (10%): sensitive to green light from 460-630 nm. Red cones (74%): sensitive to red light from 490-700 nm. If all cones are stimulated we perceive white or if only rods are stimulated. Color blindness occurs when one or more types of cones are nonfunctional due to being absent or they are unable to manufacture visual pigments. Most common is red-green colorblindness. Sex linked trait: 10% of males and 0.67% of females. Visual Pathways Photoreceptors in the retina monitor specific receptive fields of vision and pass information via ganglion cells. Optic nerve carries information from ganglion cells via optic disc to the diencephalon. Optic chiasma represents the point where the two optic nerves meet the diencephalon. Optic tracts carries half of the nerve fibers toward the lateral geniculate body of the same side of the brain while the other half crosses to the other side. Visual information travels via optic radiation to the occipital cortex. Visual information from each eye is perceived in the occipital lobes. Depth perception is completed by interpreting three dimensional relationships among images in view. Medical conditions of the Eye Glaucoma: increased intraocular pressure. Emmetropia: normal vision. Myopia: Nearsightedness caused if the image of a distant object is projected in front of the retina due to the resting curvature of the lens being too great. Hyperopia: Farsightedness caused by the lens being too flat. Focus of distant objects cannot be done. Equilibrium and Hearing Sensory receptor cells are located within epithelia and are exposed to the external environment in olfaction and gustation, however sensory receptors for equilibrium and hearing are protected within the internal ear. Called hair cells due to their surfaces being covered in specialized processes similar to cilia. Mechanoreceptors sensitive to contact or movement. Movement distorts plasma membrane and alters rate at which neurotransmitters are released. Structure of the Ear External Ear Visible portion of the ear that collects and directs sound waves towards the middle ear. Auricle or Pinna: flexible exterior portion of the ear made of elastic cartilage. External acoustic meatus: passageway within the temporal bone lined with tiny hairs that trap debris and provide tactile sensitivity. Also contains ceruminous glands. Ceruminous glands: Glands that secrete cerumen or earwax to keep foreign objects out and slows growth of microorganisms.Middle Ear Tympanic cavity that is air-filled and is separated by the tympanic membrane or eardrum. Connects to the pharynx by the auditory tube. Auditory tube is known as the Eustachian tube. Permits pressure equalization on each side of eardrum. Susceptible to infection. Auditory ossicles: three tiny bones in the middle ear that connect to the tympanic membrane. Malleus, Incus, Stapes (connects to oval window). Arriving sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane and convert sound waves into mechanical movements. The auditory ossicles conduct those vibrations to the internal ear. Amplifies sounds so that we can hear faint sounds. Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles contract to protect the tympanic membrane and ossicles from violent and damaging movements during very loud conditions. Inner Ear Contains the sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium. Referred to as a bony labyrinth. Bony LabyrinthShell of dense bone that protects the membranous labyrinth. Contains a liquid known as perilympth similar to CSF. Consists of semicircular canals, Vestibule, and the cochlea. Membranous Labyrinth Contains receptors for equilibrium and hearing. Contains a liquid called endolymph. Semicircular ducts contain receptors that are stimulated by rotation of the head. EQUILIBRIUM.Vestibule contains utricle and saccule. Sacs that provide sensations of gravity and linear acceleration. EQUILIBRIUM.Cochlea and Cochlear ducts: movement of the stapes at the oval window generates pressure waves that stimulate hair cells and generate hearing. HEARINGHair Cells Ampulla Expanded regions in the semicircular ducts that contain the receptors. Changes in the movement of the head causes the endolymph to move and trigger hair cells in this area. “No” stimulates hair cells of the lateral semicircular ducts, “Yes” stimulates the anterior duct, and “Side to Side” stimulates the posterior duct. Utricle and Saccule of the vestibule Hair cell processes are embedded in a gelatinous structure called the otolithic membrane. Contains calcium carbonate crystals called otoliths. As your head tilts, those crystals fall in relation to gravity and pull hair processes with them triggering a stimulation of the CNS. Vestibulocochlear nerve carries information to the CNS. Process of Hearing Sound waves arrive at the tympanic membrane via funneling from the pinna. Movement of the tympanic membrane displaces the auditory ossicles. Movement of the stapes at the oval window produces pressure waves in the perilymph. Pressure waves distort the organ of Corti (structure containing hair cells in cochlear duct). Vibration of the organ of Corti causes more hair cells to vibrate throughout the cochlea. Information about the region and the intensity of the stimulation is relayed to the CNS over the cochlear nerve of the cranial nerveLocation of the vibration is pitch and number of stimulated hair cells is volume. Sensory Conditions VertigoFeeling that you are dizzily spinning or that things are dizzily turning about you. Caused by conditions that alter the function of the internal ear receptor complex, the vestibulocochlear nerve, or sensory pathways of the CNS. Caused by drug uses and motion sickness as well. Tinnitus: ringing of the ears due to constant stimulation of hair cells. Conductive hearing loss: due to a problem conducting sound waves through the external ear due to impacted earwax, infection, or perforated tympanic membrane. Sensorineural hearing loss: damage to the cochlea or to nerve pathways due to exposure to loud noise, head trauma, or aging.Assessments: Eye practical / dissection, case studies, taste lab, smell lab, chapter integration questions Unit 7: Cardiac and Blood Units Part A (Ch. 17) Blood Cardiovascular system includes Fluid (blood)Conducting tubes (blood vessels)Arteries, Capillaries, Veins Pump (heart)Functions of blood Transport dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones, and metabolic wastes throughout the body. Regulate the pH and ion composition of interstitial fluids. Restrict fluid losses at injury sites (clotting)Defend against toxins and pathogens (WBCs)Stabilize body temperatureAbsorbs heat and redistributes to other tissues of importance. Properties of Blood Temperature is about 38 degrees C or 100 degrees F. 5x as viscous as water. Slightly alkaline..pH of 7.4. Components of Blood 55% Plasma 7% of that is plasma proteins Albumins: Most abundant and contribute to osmotic pressure of plasma. Globulins: Contain antibodies called immunoglobulins and transport ions, hormones, lipids, and other compounds. Fibrinogen: Important in blood clotting process to make fibrin. 1% Solutes Electrolytes: maintain ion composition Organic nutrients: Lipids, carbohydrates, and amino acids. Organic wastes: Urea, uric acid, creatinine, bilirubin, and ammonium ions. 92% Water 45% Blood Solids <0.1% Platelets Small cell fragments that contain enzymes important for the clotting process. AKA Thrombocytes. <0.1% White Blood Cells AKA Leukocytes and play a role in the body’s defense mechanism. Includes neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. 99.9% Red Blood Cells AKA erythrocytes and are most abundant blood cells. Specialized for transport of oxygen in the blood. Biconcave in shape. Hematocrit: percentage of formed elements in a sample of blood. AKA packed cell volume. Averages 47 in males and 42 in females due to the hormone androgen simulates RBC production and estrogen does not. Formation of Blood Solids HematopoiesisProcess of forming formed elements of blood in the red bone marrow. Hemocytoblasts form from hematopoietic stem cells and divide to form two other types of cells:Lymphoid stem cells: responsible for the production of WBCs. Myeloid stem cells: responsible for platelets and RBCs. Erythropoietin is released into plasma to stimulate stem cells to form RBCs. During anemiaWhen blood flow to kidneys decreases Oxygen content of air in lungs decreases Respiratory surfaces of the lungs are damaged. Hematology Study of blood, blood forming tissues, and blood disorders. Complete blood count: determines the RBC count, WBC count, erythrocyte indices (hemoglobin count), hematocrit, and platelet count. Conditions based on CBCPolycythemia: increased red blood cell mass due to increase in hemoglobin, hematocrit, and number of RBCs. Anemia: condition in which blood doesn’t have enough healthy red blood cells. Hypochromic/Hyperchromic: Hemoglobin count in low and high respectively. Red Blood Cells Functional Aspects of RBCsLarge surface area to volume ration: faster the exchange of materials such as oxygen. RBCs can form stacks: Ease flow through narrow blood vessels. Flexibility: allows entry into small capillaries. Anucleate: lack nucleus, ribosomes, and all other organelles. Lifespan is less than 120 days….no repair mechanism. Hemoglobin Consists of heme: pigment complex Oxyhemoglobin: Heme unit that allows iron to interact with oxygen molecules. Bright red in appearance. Deoxyhemoglobin: Heme unit that does not allow iron to bound to oxygen. Dark red in appearance. Life Cycle Stage 1: Events that occur in Red Bone Marrow Developing RBCs absorb amino acids and Fe2+ ions to make new Hb molecules. After four days erythroblasts shed their nucleus and become a reticulocyte. 2 days later they enter the blood stream as RBCs. Stage 2: Events occurring in Macrophages (spleen, liver, and bone marrow)Macrophages monitor RBCs and engulf them before they hemolyze (rupture). Remove Hb molecules. Each heme unit is stripped of its iron and converted to bilibrubin and released into bloodstream where it binds with albumin to move to the liver. Stage 3: Events occurring in the liverBilirubin moves to the liver for excretion via bile. If bile ducts are blocked or the liver is not functioning correctly, bilirubin can build up and cause jaundice. (yellowish color in skin and eyes)Stage 4: Events occurring in the large intestine Bacteria converts bilirubin to urobilins and stercobilins. Give feces their yellow-brown or brown color. Stage 5: Events occurring in the kidney Excrete some hemoglobin and urobilins which results in urine having a yellow color. Hematuria: presence of intact RBCs in urine due to urinary tract damage. Blood Types Antigens: substances that can trigger an immune response. Blood type is determined by specific surface antigens and antibodies. Types (Genetically determined) **Practice sheet Type A: contain antigen A and anti-B antibodies. Type B: contain antigen B and anti-A antibodies Type AB: contains A and B antigens and neither antibodies. Universal recipient. Type O: contains no antigens and both antibodies. Universal donor Rh blood groupRh surface antigen that was discovered in the Rhesus monkey. Either you have it or not. Rh positive or Rh negative (responsible for the positive and negative on blood types)Blood transfusions Agglutination: Clumping that occurs when antigens of one blood type are exposed to the corresponding antibodies of another type. Can plug blood vessels. Used to ID blood types as well. Example: Blood is dropped in petri dishes containing anti-A antibodies, anti-B antibodies, and anti-Rh antibodies. It only clumps in the anti-A and anti-Rh dishes. Would blood type would it be? A+White Blood Cells Shared Properties WBCs circulate only for a short time and mainly stay in lymphatic tissues. Emigrate: Once activated can squeeze through cells in vessel walls to enter surrounding tissue. Positive chemotaxis: attract to specific chemical stimuli. Most utilize phagocytosis. Types Granular leukocytes (contain cytoplasmic granules)Neutrophils: engulf pathogens and debris via phagocytosis. Eosinophils: engulf antibody labeled materials, release enzymes, reduce inflammation, and increase in abundance during allergies and parasitic infections. Basophils: Release histamine to promote inflammation. Agranular leukocytes (lack or have very few cytoplasmic granules)Monocytes: enter tissues to become macrophages to engulf pathogens and debris. Lymphocytes: provide defense against specific pathogens or toxins. Cells of lymphatic system. Clotting ProcessKnown as hemostasis. 3 phases Vascular Phase Lasts 30 minutes. Release chemical factors that stimulate smooth muscle contraction and promote vascular spasms. Also stimulate the division of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts. Platelet Phase Platelets attach to stick endothelial surface. Release ADP, platelet factors to stimulate clotting, platelet derived growth factor to promote vessel repair, and calcium ions for clotting. Coagulation Phase Starts 30 seconds after blood vessel damage. Thrombin causes fibrinogen to turn to fibrin which traps platelets and blood cells forming a blood clot. Blood clot retracts over 30-60 minutes to pull cut edges together. Fibrinolysis causes blood clot to dissolve. Blood Disorders Nutritional Blood Disorders Iron deficiency anemia: Normal hemoglobin synthesis does not occur due to low iron levels. Congenital Blood Disorders Sickle Cell Disease: inherited RBC that causes mutations in the Hb molecules causing it to be sickle shaped. Get stuck in capillaries and block the flow of blood and oxygen. Thalassemias: Caused by inability to produce adequate amounts of normal subunits of hemoglobin. Hemophilia: Most common in males and is caused by reduced production of clotting factors leading to excessive bleeding. Blood Infections Bacteremia and Viremia: conditions where bacteria or viruses circulate through the blood. Septicemia: blood poisoning due to pathogens present in blood. Malaria: parasitic disease caused by Plasmodium. Transmitted via mosquito. Cause RBCs to burst and block blood vessels causing tissue death, fever, and chills. Others Leukemia: blood cancer in white blood cells. Part B: The Heart and Cardiovascular Function (Ch. 18)Overview of the Heart Located near the anterior chest wall mainly on the left side. Base is the superior border and Apex is the inferior pointed tip reaching to the 5th rib. Four muscular chambers: atria and septa. Atria contract first and then the ventricles to eject equal volumes of blood. Location of the Heart Located in the mediastinum (cavity between lungs)Pericardium: fibrous and serous pericardium that protects the heart and prevents wear on the heart via pericardial fluid. Excess fluid can cause a cardiac tamponade: restriction of the movement of the heart. Heart Wall 3 layers Epicardium: covers the outer surface of the heart. Myocardium: muscular wall of the heart. Middle layer that forms the atria and ventricles. Endocardium: inner surface of the heart, including the valves. Anatomy of the Heart Exterior View Left and Right Atria: appear like flattened flaps called auricles. Sulci: shallow grooves that mark the boundary between the atria and ventricles. Fatty tissue: yellow covering of the heart. Acts as padding. Inferior and Superior Vena CavaAorta Pulmonary veins and arteries (trunk)Coronary arteriesInterior View Interventricular septum: thick wall that separates the ventricles. Atria Right atria receives blood from vena cava. Left atria: receives blood from pulmonary veins. VentriclesRight ventricle: only pumps blood to the lungs to be re-oxygenated. Left ventricle: much thicker as it must pump blood through the entire body. A-V Valves (Both prevent backflow)Tricuspid valve: valve between right atria and ventricle. Contains three cusps or flaps. Bicuspid valve: valve between left atria and ventricle. Contains two cusps. AKA mitral valve. Semilunar Valves Pulmonary valve: valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk. Aortic valve: valve between the left ventricle and the aorta. Other Structures Fossa ovalis: oval depression in the right atrium that is a remnant of the opening between atria during the fetal stage. Pectinate muscles: muscular ridges in the atria. Chordae tendineae: known as heart strings that attack to valves allowing them to open and close. Papillary muscles: muscular projections that pull on heart strings. Trabeculae carneae: muscular ridges in the ventricles. Pathways of Blood FlowBlood goes from the body through the vena cava into the right atrium through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle. Blood is pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve and into the pulmonary trunk/artery to the lungs to by oxygenated. Blood then travels from the lungs through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. Blood flows through the mitral valve into the left ventricle and from the left ventricle through the aortic valve out the aorta to the body for circulation. Heart Related Conditions Arteriosclerosis: thickening and toughening of arterial walls and can lead to coronary artery disease and strokes. Arthrosclerosis: formation of lipid deposits in arterial layers or simply plaque that restricts blood flow. Treated by removal or balloon angioplasty. Coronary ischemia: partial or complete blockage of coronary arteries caused by a clot. Stents are used to treat vessel wall. Cardiac Cycle The period between the start of one heartbeat and the beginning of the next. Measured in bmp. Systole: contraction phase of heart chambers. (top number on blood pressure)Diastole: relaxation of heart chambers. (bottom number of blood pressure)Cardiac Cycle (800 msec)Atrial systole (100 msec) This stage ends when mitral valve closes and we hear the “lubb” of the heart beat. (Listen to heart beats on Youtube)Atrial diastole (700 msec)Ventricular systole (270 msec)This stage ends when semilunar valves close and we hear the “dub” sound. Ventricular diastole (430 msec)Cardiovascular Regulation Goal is to maintain adequate blood flow and is measured by cardiac output or CO. Amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle into the aorta each minutes. Depends on heart rate and stroke volume (amount of blood pumped out of the ventricle during a single heartbeat)CO = HR x SV (normal HR is 75 bpm and normal SV is 80 mL/beat)HR can increase by 250% and SV can double to adjust cardiac output when needed. Conducting System Sinoatrial (SA) node: embedded in the posterior wall of the right atrium and generates an action potential to start a heartbeat. Contains pacemaker cells and is known as the pacemaker of the heart. Impulse is sent through intermodal pathways to the muscular walls of the heart chambers. Atrioventricular node (AV): node at the boundary between atria and ventricles. Backup system to beat the heart if SA node fails, however it will beat much slower. Purkinje Fibers: Large conducting cells that link the ventricles to the SA and AV nodes to trigger ventricular systole. Bundle of His (AV bundle): The only electrical connection between atria and ventricles as it is located in the septum. Electrocardiogram Recording of the electrical events of the heart. Parts of an EKGP wave: represents depolarization of the atria = atrial contraction QRS complex: represents depolarization of the ventricles = ventricular contraction. T wave: represents repolarization of the ventricles. Cardiac arrhythmias (abnormal patterns of cardiac electrical activity)Atrial Fibrillation (A-fib): atria quiver and do not produce a contraction due to impulse moving too fast. Ventricles can make up for it so it can go unnoticed. Ventricular Fibrillation (V-fib): Ventricles quiver and stop pumping blood and can lead to cardiac arrest. Tachycardia: faster than normal heart rate. Bradycardia: Slower than normal heart rate. Myocardial infarction: heart attack Factors that can impact cardiac output Factors affecting HRBody temperature Exercise Sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation Hormones (epinephrine)Factors affecting SVExercise Blood volume Blood flow Venous return Autonomic nervous system Contractility Hormones Vasodilation or Vasoconstriction Stroke Volume = End-Diastolic Volume – End Systolic Volume Part C: Blood Vessels and Circulation Functional Anatomy of Blood Vessels Pulmonary Circuit: blood vessels that carry blood to and from the lungs for gas exchange. Systemic Circuit: blood vessels that transports blood to and from the rest of the body. Anatomical Features of Blood Vessels Walls consist of three layers (Arteries are round and thick while veins are flattened or collapsed)Tunica intima: inner layer of blood vessels. Rippled in arteries and smooth in veins. Tunica media: Middle layer containing smooth muscle tissue. Undergoes vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Thick in arteries and thin in veins. Tunica externa: outermost layer that stabilizes and anchors the blood vessels. Contains collagen and elastic fibers in arteries and collagen elastic, and smooth muscle cells in veins. Lumen: opening of blood vessel through which blood flows. Classes of blood vessels Arteries: carry blood away from the heart. Oxygenated. Arterioles: Small arterial branches that are distributed to and throughout tissues. Capillaries: Smallest blood vessels that lack a tunica externa and tunica media. Permit diffusion through their walls to distribute blood. Venules: Small vessels that carry deoxygenated blood from the capillaries. Veins: large, flattened vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the lungs. Venous System Low pressure system as it returns blood that has no use to the body. Cannot overcome gravity so veins contain valves that facilitate movement in one direction. Varicose veins: occurs when valves weaken and no longer work properly allowing blood to pool in veins. Common in thighs and legs. Hemorrhoids: pooling of blood in veins that cause painful distortion of adjacent tissues in anal canal. Blood Vessels of the Body Aorta: all arteries of systemic circuit originate here. Largest artery in the body. Superior and inferior vena cava: Collects blood from head, chest, upper limbs and structures inferior to diaphragm respectively. Aortic Arch and Branches Left subclavian artery Left common carotid artery Right subclavian artery Right common carotid artery Assessment: Blood typing lab, Blood microscope lab, Blood typing genetics, Heart practical / dissection, HR lab, BP lab, Chapter integration questions, Exam Unit 8: Lymphatic System Overview of the Lymphatic System Includes cells, tissues, and organs responsible for providing immunity. In addition, it maintains normal blood volume and the composition of interstitial fluid. (Immune System only includes those that help to provide immunity.)Lymphocytes are the primary cells and respond to the presence of invading pathogens, abnormal body cells, and foreign proteins. Circulate in lymph which is simply fluid (similar to plasma) in lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic System ComponentsLymphatic vesselsLymphoid tissues and lymphoid organsPrimary: sites where lymphocytes are formed and mature such as red bone marrow and the thymus. Secondary: Where lymphocytes are activated and cloned including lymph nodes, tonsils, appendix, and spleen. Lymphatic Vessels Carry lymph from peripheral tissues to the venous system. Lymphatic capillaries exist in every tissue and organ. Differ from blood capillaries as they are closed at one end, larger, and thinner walls. Capillaries lead to lymphatic vessels which move in relation to blood vessels. Valves prevent back flow giving it a bulging, pearl-like appearance. Blocked lymphatic vessels can lead to lymphedema. Lymphedema is a condition in which interstitial fluids accumulate and the affected area gradually becomes swollen and distended. (pg. 797)Lymphocytes 3 classes of lymphocytes that are sensitive to antigens. Antigens stimulate the immune system and induce an immune response. T cells80% of lymphocytes. Many types. Cytotoxic T cells: Attack foreign cells or body cells infected with viruses. Produce cell-mediated immunity. Help T cells: stimulate the responses of both T cells and B cells (another lymphocyte)Regulatory T cells: moderate immune response and control the sensitivity of the immune response. Memory T cells: respond to antigens that they have already encountered. B cells Stimulated and turn into plasma cells to produce and secrete antibodies. Antibodies circulate in body fluids and attack targets throughout the body. NK Cells Natural killer cells that attack foreign cells, body cells infected with viruses, and cancer cells. Immune surveillance. Lifespan of Lymphocytes All originate from lymphoid stem cells in the red bone marrow in a process called lymphocytopoiesis. A division of the stem cells move to the thymus where they become T cells. (98% are deselected before being released to body and undergo apoptosis) **Driven by the hormone thymosin. The remaining mature in the red bone marrow and form B and NK cells. All mature cell types move to the peripheral tissues to monitor for immune response. Lymphoid TissuesLymphoid nodules Lymphocytes are densely packed in an area of areolar tissue. Tonsils are large nodules in the pharynx. Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) Palatine tonsils and lingual tonsils. Tonsillitis is an inflammation of the tonsils (mainly the palatines). Lymph nodes Small lymphoid organs similar to a kidney bean shape. Function like a filter and purify lymph before it reaches the venous circulation and vital organs. (Remove up to 99% of the antigens)Appendicitis (inflammation of the lymphoid tissue of the appendix) Thymus Produces several hormones important for the development of functional T cells and maintains normal immunological defenses. Shrinks throughout life. Weights 40 g just before puberty and less than 12 g by the age of 50. Reason why older ages are more susceptible to disease. Located posterior to the sternum and appears pink and grainy. Spleen Contains the largest collection of lymphoid tissue in the body. Performs the same function for blood that lymph nodes perform for lymph. Functions include:Remove abnormal blood cells and other blood componentsStore iron recycled from RBCsInitiating immune responses by B cells and T cells in response to antigens in circulating blood. Location Lies along the lateral border of the stomach between the 9th and 11th ribs on the left side. Weighs on average 160 g and is dark red in appearance. Damage Ruptured spleen in a medical emergency. Tears easily and is easily damaged and not easily repaired. Splenectomy: surgical removal of the damaged spleen. (Person would be at an increased risk of bacterial infection.)Innate Immunity Uses defense mechanisms that either prevent or slow the entry of infectious organisms or attack them if they do enter. Do not distinguish one threat from another. Same response. Present at birth. Responses include:Physical barriers, phagocytes, immune surveillance via NK cells, interferons (chemicals that coordinate defense), complement proteins (assist antibodies), inflammation (driven by histamine and heparin from mast cells), and fever (caused by fever inducing proteins called pyrogens.Immune Surveillance Steps Step 1: Recognition and Adhesion NK cells recognize unusual cell components in plasma membrane. Adheres to unusual target cell. Step 2: Realignment of Golgi Apparatus Moves to the side toward the target cell and produces a flood of secretory vesicles containing perforins. Step 3: Secretion of Perforins Released vi exocytosis and diffuse onto the surface of the target cell. NK cell separates. Step 4: Lysis of Abnormal Cell Pores are made by perforin molecules and the target cell can no longer maintain homeostasis and disintegrates. Immunological escape can occurCancer cells often mutate and avoid detection by NK cells. Adaptive Immunity Coordinated and produced by T cells and B cells. Four general properties:Specificity (bind to specific antigens)Versatility MemoryTolerance (ignores normal tissues, also develops due to prolonged exposure to antigens) Two methods of adaptive immunity by being exposed to that antigen or receive antibodies from another source. Active Immunity (due to exposure to an antigen) Naturally due to exposure in the environment. Artificially acquired via vaccination. Vaccines are preparations designed to induce an immune response and contain a dead or inactive pathogen or antigens derived from the pathogen. Passive Immunity (transferring antibodies from another source)Naturally via maternal antibodies being passed across placenta or in breast milk. Artificially via administration of antibodies to combat infection via antibiotics. Antibodies and Antigens Antigen recognition relies on proteins called CD markers. The first time T cells encounter a specific antigen, the response takes 2 days or more. (Normally why the first time exposed can be the most damaging) Antibodies bind to antigens forming a complex. This tags the antigen for destruction / removal. Responses Primary response: Initial response to antigen response. Antibodies peak 1-2 weeks after initial exposure. Takes time for B cells to be activated and differentiate into antibody secreting plasma cells. Secondary response: occurs when an antigen is encountered a second time. Antibodies appear quicker and in a larger amount due to memory cells. Hypersensitivities Otherwise known as allergies. Excessive immune responses to antigens. Allergens are antigens that trigger allergic reactions. Types Localized: allergen is at the body surface leading to localized inflammation, pain, and itching. Ex: Hives Systemic: allergen is in the bloodstream leading to itching, swelling, and difficulty breathing. Leads to anaphylaxis and anaphylactic shock. Other Immune Disorders Autoimmune Disorders (disorders where a malfunction occurs causing B cells to attack normal body cells/tissues)Thyroiditis: inflammation due to autoantibodies against the thyroid. Rheumatoid arthritis Type 1 diabetes mellitusTransplant Rejection T cells are activated by contact with proteins in the donated tissues. Often patients take immunosuppressant to completely or partially reduction of immune response. Immunodeficiency Diseases Result from problems with embryonic development of lymphoid organs and tissues, an infection with a virus that depresses immune function, or treatment with, or exposure to, immunosuppressive agents such as radiation or drugs. HIV leads to AIDS causing the gradual destruction of T cells and over time the entire immune response. Assessments: Lab (maybe), Contagion film, Chapter Integration, Case Study Unit 9: Respiratory System Anatomy of the Respiratory System The respiratory system is composed of structures involved in breathing and gas exchange. System is divided into two parts:Upper Respiratory Tract Filters, warms, and humidifies incoming air protecting the more delicate surfaces of the lower tract. Also reabsorbs heat and water from outgoing air. Includes the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx. Lower Respiratory Tract Conducts air to and from the gas exchange surfaces. Includes the larynx, trachea, lungs, bronchus, bronchioles, and respiratory bronchioles / alveoli. Major Functions of the Respiratory System Provide an extensive SA for gas exchange. Moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs. Protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes, and invasion of pathogens. Produce sounds for communication. Detect odors via olfactory receptors. Respiratory Defense System A series of filtration mechanisms that protect the tissues of the lower respiratory tract. Done by the respiratory mucosa that lines the conducting portions of the pharynx, nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Discharge mucous that traps pathogens and debris and sweeps them to the pharynx to be coughed out or swallowed. (pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium tissue **Review) Cystic Fibrosis Genetic disease that causes the respiratory mucosa to produce a thick mucus that RDS cannot transport. Breathing becomes difficult and infections become frequent. Lifespan is about 37 years. Upper Respiratory Tract Structures We will ignore the nose and nasal cavities as we have discussed much of their function before. Paranasal sinuses Produce mucous via tear drainage to keep the surfaces of the nasal cavity moist and clean. Pharynx Chamber shared by digestive and respiratory systems The glottis is a narrow opening where inhaled air leaves the pharynx and enters the larynx. Lower Respiratory Tract Structures Larynx A cartilaginous tube that surrounds and protects the glottis. Glottis is the “voicebox” of the larynx. The glottis is covered during swallowing by the epiglottis. The anterior and lateral walls of the larynx are protected by the thyroid cartilage which is our Adam’s Apple. Sound is produced by air vibrating vocal folds or vocal cords. (phonation) Pitch is controlled by the tension in these cords. Articulation occurs via tongue, teeth, and lips. Cavities and sinuses act as amplification. Trachea Known as the windpipe. Tough, flexible tube and runs from your C6 to T5 vertebrae. Covered in tracheal cartilages and help protect your airway by preventing collapse or overexpansion due to pressure changes as you breathe. Branches into the left and right bronchi into the lungs. (Right side is larger to most foreign particles end up here.)Bronchioles are smaller branches of the bronchi that spread into the lung tissue. Bronchodilation enlarges diameter while bronchoconstriction reduces diameter. Asthma results from swelling and bronchoconstriction thus severely restricting or preventing flow. Lungs The branching pattern of the bronchi and bronchioles is referred to as the bronchial tree. Each specific branch supplies air to a single bronchopulmonary segment of the lung. Segments (surrounded by pleural cavities)Left and right superior lobeLeft and right inferior lobeRight middle lobe (left only has 2 lobes)Pulmonary Alveoli Thin-walled, sac-like structures at the end of the respiratory tract. Each lung contains about 150 million alveoli giving the lung a spongy appearance. Main site of oxygen transport with blood. Occurs at the blood air barrier via diffusion. CO2 and O2 are exchanged. Respiratory Physiology Respiration refers to two integrated processes:External Respiration Includes all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood, lungs, and the external environment. Maintain alveolar ventilation or the movement of air into and out of the alveoli to prevent buildup of CO2 and continuous supply of oxygen. Internal Respiration Absorption of oxygen from blood and the release of CO2 by tissue cells. Abnormalities with respiration Hypoxia is low tissue oxygen levels which places limits on metabolic activities. Anoxia is a complete cutoff of oxygen resulting in severe damage. Can lead to strokes and heart attacks. What drives pulmonary ventilation?Driven by pressure changes. Specifically, Boyle’s Law which states that if you decrease the volume of a gas, its pressure will increase. P = 1/ V Diaphragm and rub cage drive volume change in the thoracic cavity. Inhalation occurs when the volume of the thoracic cavity increases so the pressure decreases. **Pressure flows from high to low. During inhalation the pressure inside is less than the pressure outside. Exhalation is the opposite of inhalation. Measuring pulmonary ventilation to determine lung performance (pg. 857..print off for kids) Tidal volume is the amount of air you move into or out of your lungs during a single respiratory cycle (inhalation, exhalation) during resting conditions. (500 mL on average)Total lung capacity: total volume of your lungs. (6,000 mL for males and 4,200 mL for females) Residual volume: amount of air that remains in your lungs even after maximal exhalation. (1,200 mL for males, 1,100 mL for females)Expiratory reserve volume: Amount of air that you can voluntarily expel after you have completed a normal respiratory cycle. (1,000 mL for males and 700 for females.)Respiratory rate: number of breaths you take each minutes. (avg: 12-18 breaths per minute) Volume of air moved each minute = respiratory rate x tidal volumePulmonary DiseasesTypically pulmonary disease affect two components of the lungsCompliance: measure of their expandability Resistance: indication of how much force is required to inflate or deflate them. **Both worsen with aging and smoking. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)Progressive disorder of the airways that restricts airflow and reduces alveolar ventilation. Can include asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Lung CancerAggressive class that affects the epithelial cells that line conducting passageways, mucous glands, or alveoli. Increases with age or smoking and is greater in men. Smoking brings carcinogens into the body damaging cells and leading to cancerous cells developing. Respiratory reflexes and Homeostasis Hypoventilation (too slow of breathing) leads to low supply of oxygen and accumulation of CO2 in the blood. This causes an increase in arterial pressure of CO2. Receptors: chemoreceptors are stimulated by increased pressure of CO2 and decreased pH. Control: medulla oblongataEffector: Respiratory muscles are stimulated leading to increased respiratory rates and increased elimination of CO2. Leads to a decrease in pressure due to CO2. Hyperventilation leads to an abnormally low arterial pressure from CO2. Can lead to blackouts because of oxygen starvation to the brain. Receptors: Chemoreceptors are stimulated by decreased pressure of CO2 and increased pH. Control: Medulla oblongataEffector: Respiratory muscles inhibited resulting in decreased respiratory rates and increased arterial PCO2Assessment: Lung Capacity lab, case studies, Everest film (possibly), Lung dissection (if possible)Unit 10: Digestive System, Metabolism, Nutrition, and Urinary SystemThe Digestive System Consists of a muscular tube known as the GI tract. Major organsOral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Lining of the GI tract Lined by mucous membrane with ridges and folds that increase SA for absorption of nutrients. Consists of villi (increase SA), lamina propria (BV), and secretory glands. Mesenteries stabilize the positions of attached organs in order to prevent the intestines from becoming entangled in other organs. Movement of Food Two types of movementPeristalsis Wave contractions due to circular and longitudinal muscles push the food bolus along the GI tract. Segmentation Cycles of contraction that churn and fragment the bolus, mixing it with intestinal secretions. Movement is triggered in two ways: neural control mechanisms (myenteric reflexes) and hormonal control mechanisms Digestive Tract Main Functions Ingestion Mechanical digestion and propulsionChemical digestion SecretionAbsorption Defecation Major organs Oral Cavity No absorption takes place here, only digestion of carbohydrates and lipids. Uvula prevents food from entering the pharynx prematurely and then swings upwards to prevent food from entering the nasopharynx when swallowing. Tongue manipulates materials inside the mouth and is coated in secretions that include water, mucin, and the enzyme lingual lipase. Held to the flood of the oral cavity by the frenulum of the tongue. Ankyloglossia is a condition where the frenulum is too short and people have difficulty sticking out their tongue. Teeth Structure Teeth are made up of dentin. Dentin differs from bone in that it does not contain cells. 3 regions of a toothCrown: portion that projects into the oral cavity. Neck: Marks the boundary between the crown and root. Root: Portion that sits in the bony cavity called the tooth socket. Components of a Tooth Enamel: covers the dentin of the crown and contains calcium phosphate. Hardest biologically manufactured substance. Gingival sulcus: shallow groove that surrounds the neck of each tooth and prevents bacteria from entering deeper root tissues. Root canal: A narrow tunnel within the root that carriers blood vessels and nerves. Types of Teeth Incisors: blade shaped used for clipping or cutting. Canines: conical, sharp ridgeline and a pointed tip. Used for tearing or slashing. Premolars: flattened crowns with ridges. Useful for crushing, mashing, and grinding. Two roots. Molars: Very large, flattened crowns adapted for crushing and grinding. Upper jaw has 3 roots, while lower jaw has two roots. Appearance of Teeth Deciduous teeth are the first teeth to appear and are eventually replaced by permanent teeth. (32 total) Pg. 893 (Print diagram) Impacted teeth result when they fail to erupt due to overcrowding or twisting/tilting within the jaw bone. (Surgery video) Pharynx and Esophagus PharynxOtherwise known as the throat and is a passageway for food, liquids, and air. Esophagus Hollow, muscular tube that actively moves food and liquids to the stomach. Moves posteriorly to the trachea and through an opening in the diaphragm. Consistently active in contraction to prevent backflow of materials. Sphincters prevent air to enter the esophagus. Complex Process of Swallowing Buccal phase Compression of the bolus and retraction of the tongue. Completely voluntary. Pharyngeal Phase Elevation of the larynx and the pharyngeal muscles force the bolus into the pharynx. Esophageal Phase Bolus is pushed toward the stomach via peristalsis. Entire process takes about 9 seconds. Stomach Stomach varies in shape. When empty, the stomach is a muscular tube with a narrow constricted lumen. When full, it can contain 1-1.5 liters of material. Material is called chyme, which is a viscous, acidic, and soupy mixture of food combined with saliva and gastric gland secretions. Anatomy of the Stomach Fundus: portion of the stomach that is superior to the attachment with the esophagus and contacts the diaphragm. Cardia: superior, medial portion of the stomach that coats the junction with the esophagus to protect the tube from acids and enzymes of the stomach. Body (largest region of the stomach that functions to mix ingested food and gastric secretions)Pyloric part: forms the shape curve of the J. Frequently changes shape and empties into the duodenum. Rugae: prominent, but temporary folds that allows the lumen to expand and contract. Gastric GlandsSecrete about 1,500 mL of gastric juice daily. Secrete hydrochloric acid with a pH of 1.5-2. However, this pH would destroy the gland cells so they secrete H+ and Cl- independently. Secrete an enzyme called pepsin that digests protein. Small and Large Intestine Small IntestineKnown as the small bowel and plays the key role in nutrient digestion and absorption. 90% of absorption occurs here. 3 segmentsDuodenum: segment closes to the stomach. Receives chyme from the stomach and digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. Acts as a mixing bowl. Produces several hormones to regulate digestion including:Gastrin: increases stomach motility and stimulates gastric acid and enzyme production. (especially when receiving large amounts of undigested proteins)Secretin: Increase in secretion of buffers which increase pH. Jejunum: middle portion where the bulk of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption occurs. Ileum: final and longest segment (avg: 11.5 ft). Controls flow of material into the cecum of the large intestine. Large Intestine Major functions include:Reabsorbing water and compacting the intestinal contents into feces. Absorbing important vitamins generated by bacterial action. Storing fecal material prior to defection. 3 segments CecumCollects and stores materials from ileum and begins compaction. (formation of feces) Appendix is attached to the cecum and contains lymphatic tissues. Colon Subdivided into four regions: ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, and sigmoid colon. Rectum Expandable organ that temporarily stores feces. Movement into rectum triggers urge to defecate. If venous pressure becomes to high veins can become distended leading to hemorrhoids. Physiology of the Large Intestine Wall lacks villi and secrete no enzymes. Absorption that occurs Prevents dehydration by absorbing waterAbsorbs Vitamin K, Vitamin B5, and Biotin. Defecation Driven by defecation reflexes and consists of positive feedback loops. The response relaxes the sphincters. Accessory Digestive Organs Liver Structure Largest visceral organ that is firm and reddish-brown. Weighs about 3.3 lbs and extends from T11 to T12 vertebrae. Four lobes Right and left lobes. Caudate lobe (posterior side and is on the lateral side of the vena cava)Quadrate lobe (posterior side between the left lobe and the gallbladder)Functions Synthesize and secrete bile. Store glycogen, lipids, iron, and fat soluble vitamins. Maintain normal concentrations of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids. Synthesize and convert nutrient types. Synthesize and release cholesterol. Inactivate toxins. Synthesize plasma proteins and clotting factors. Phagocytizing damaged RBCsStore bloodAbsorb and breakdown hormones and lipid-soluble drugs. SalivaProduced by glands triggered by having something in your mouth. Saliva is a clear, watery substance, most of which comes from the gland below the mandible. Produce 1-1.5 L of saliva daily. 99.4% is water while the remaining percentage includes electrolytes, buffers, proteins, antibodies, enzymes, and wastes. Gallbladder and Pancreas Gallbladder Hollow, pear-shaped organ that stores and concentrates bile. Located on the posterior side of the liver’s right lobe. Consists of a fundus, body, and neck. Pancreas Lies posterior to the stomach and extends laterally from the duodenum toward the spleen. Slender and pink in appearance. Secretes about 1,000 mL of pancreatic juice daily which contains enzymes. Major enzymes include:Pancreatic alpha-amylase (breaks down starches)Pancreatic lipase (breaks down lipids)Nucleases (breaks down RNA and DNA)Proteolytic enzymes (break proteins apart) Disorders of the Digestive System Mumps: an infection of the salivary glands due to the mumps virus. Prevented with a vaccine but is common between 5-9 years of age. Esophagitis: inflammation of the esophagus due to stomach acid that leaks into it. Known as heartburn. Ulcers: Eroding of the stomach lining due to gastritis. Caused by ingesting drugs, severe stress, bacterial infection, or ingestion of strong chemicals. Pancreatitis: inflammation of the pancreas. Enteritis: inflammation of the intestine that can cause watery bowel movements. Colitis: inflammation of the colon. Colorectal cancer: polyps form in the large intestine, often the rectum. (Much more common in males) Urinary System Major Organs Kidneys **Coloring sheets for both with self-guided research on additional structures. Major excretory organs that produce urine. Urine is a fluid containing water, ions, and small soluble substances. Located on each side of the vertebrate between T12 and L3. Consist of nephrons which are microscopic functional units of the kidney. Essentially acts as a filtration system that produces urine. 3 stepsFiltration, reabsorption (water, ions, and organic nutrients), and secretion (ions, acids, drugs, toxins.)Renal failure results when kidneys cannot filter wastes from the blood and can no longer maintain homeostasis.BP rises, acidosis, anemia develops due to decreased RBC production, and CNS problems arise. Chronic or acute Treatment involves dialysis, which is the artificial filtration of the blood using a machine. (Video) Ureters Receive urine from the kidneys and conduct it to the bladder. Bladder Receives and stores urine. Urination is driven by the contraction of smooth muscle in the bladder. Urethra Passageway that conducts urine from the bladder to the exterior. Major Functions Adjusting blood volume and blood pressureRegulating blood plasma concentrations of Na, K, Cl, and other ions. Stabilize blood pHConserve valuable nutrients. Remove drugs and toxins from bloodstream. Maintain homeostasis. Excretion of solutesUrea: most abundance waste, by product of breakdown of amino acids. Creatinine: waste of the breakdown of creatine phosphate. Uric acidAssessments: Digestive System Demo, Case Study, Amusement park (maybe), Urine lab, Nutrition tracking activity (pg. 956-959), chapter integration questions, test.Unit 11: Reproductive System Male Reproductive System Only system not essential for sustaining life. Male gametes are sperm. Male External Genitalia Penis: contains erectile tissue, deposits sperm, and produces pleasure sensations during sexual activities. 3 parts Glans penis, body, root. Erectile Tissues Corpora cavernosa: extend along the length of the anterior portion of the penis. Corpus spongiosum: surrounds the urethra. During erection the penis stiffens become the contraction of these tissues allows increased blood flow. Neural reflexes coordinate sexual functions Arousal Sensory nerve stimuli trigger increases in sensation in pelvic nerves. Nitric oxide (treatment for ED) is released in neurons of the penis leading to increased blood flow and erection. Emission Sperm is pushed into the urethra. Contractions in the seminal glands and prostate trigger secretions and form semen. Ejaculation Contractions in two muscles: ischiocavernosus(stiffens penis) and bulbospongiosus (pushes semen) leads to the ejaculation. Urethra: conducts semen to the exterior. Scrotum: surrounds the testes. Male Internal Genitalia Ductus deferens or sperm ducts: conducts sperm between the epididymis and prostate. Ascends through the inguinal canal (site of hernia) and passed into the abdominal cavity going posterior to the bladder to the prostate. Stores sperm for months. (Structure that is cut during a vasectomy)Seminal gland: secretes fluid that makes up much of semen. Sperm are activated when mixed with secretions from the seminal gland. Sperm become motile. 2-5 mL of semen is released during ejaculation. Prostate: secretes fluid and enzymes. Encircles the urethra as it leaves the bladder. Produces 20-30% of the volume of semen. Also releases an antibiotic protein to help prevent UTI. Bulbo-urethral gland: secretes fluids that lubricate tip of penis. Neutralizes an urinary acids that may remain in the urethra. Epididymis: site of sperm maturation. Coiled tube bound to the posterior portion of each teste. Takes 2 weeks for sperm to pass through this structure. Testes: produces sperm and hormones. Sperm travels from the testes to the epididymis along the ejaculatory duct and urethra before leaving the body. Testes originally form adjacent to kidneys and gravitate down to the scrotum by birth to protect from body heat. Cremaster muscle contracts during sexual arousal or cool temperatures to pull testes closer to the body to maintain a safe temperature. Sperm production occurs in the seminiferous tubules within the lobules of the testes. Eventually connect with the epididymis. Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm production Mitosis – Meiosis – Spermiogenesis (maturation of sperm) 64 days to complete. Sperm Structure Acrosome: compartment with enzymes needed for fertilization. Head: contains chromosomes. NeckMiddle piece: contains mitochondria with ATP needed for movement. Tail: moves the sperm. Female Reproductive System Female gonads are called ovaries and produce oocytes which mature into ova. External Genitalia Mons pubis: pad of fatty tissue overlying the symphysis pubis. Clitoris: located at the most anterior part and contains erectile tissue. Erectile tissue is similar to that of the penis. Labia: borders the vagina. Majora and minora. Are folds on either side of the clitoris and act as protection. Major Structures of the Internal Genitalia Ovary: produces oocytes and hormones. Almond-shaped organs that have 2 major functions Produce oocytesSecrete sex hormones such as estrogen and progesteroneOogenesis is the formation and development of the oocyte. Mitosis – MeiosisOccurs during the ovarian 28 day cycle. Uterine tube: delivers an oocyte or embryo to the uterus. Normal sites of fertilization. Often the structure fixed during the “tubes tied” procedure. Uterus: site of embryonic and fetal development. Layers of the Uterine Wall Perimetrium (outer), Myometrium (middle, provides much of the force needed to move a fetus), Endometrium (inner layer, tissue that changes during the monthly uterine cycle.) Regions Fundus: upper portion that connects with uterine tubes. Body: largest portionCervix: inferior portion and projects into the vagina. Menstrual Cycle (28 days) Menstrual Phase Degeneration and shedding of the inner uterine layer. Leads to destruction of arterial walls causing bleeding to occur (menstruation). 1-7 days, 35-50 mL of blood lost. Proliferative Phase Estrogen secretes during this phase. Begin laying a new endometrium layer and mucous glands producing glycogen-rich mucus. Secretory Phase Uterine glands enlarge and increase secretion. Progesterone and estrogen are triggered. Begins at the time of ovulation. (Best time for pregnancy) When the hormones are stopped, the cycle restarts. Menarche is the term for the first cycle at the age of 11-12 and menopause is the end of menstruation at 45-55. Vagina: muscular tube leading to the cervix. An organ of sexual intercourse, birth canal, and passage of menstrual fluids. Tube runs from the cervix to the vestibule (opening). During childhood the vagina and vestibule are separated by the hymen. Typically torn during first sexual intercourse, tampon use, pelvic exam, or even physical activity. Vestibular glands secrete fluid into the vestibule and vaginal canal to keep it moist and acidic for lubrication and protection. Mammary Glands Milk-secreting structure within each breast. Surrounded by adipose tissue. Each lobule of a mammary gland contains a secretory alveoli similar to that in the lungs. Condense to form a single lactiferous duct in each lobe. Each duct then meets at the nipple to form a lactiferous sinus. (15-20 per nipple) Areola: darker skin around the nipple that contains large sebaceous glands. Birth Control Methods Male condoms (only one to protect against STDs)Birth Control Pills (estrogen and progesterone) IUD (Intrauterine device) Small plastic loop or a T that is inserted into the uterine cavity. Function in several ways: block sperm from reaching oocytes, prevent ovulation, and thickens cervical mucus blocking sperm entry. Diaphragm with Spermicide Shallow, dome-shaped silicone cup with a flexible rim inserted into the vagina. Must be coated with spermicide. Progesterone only forms of birth control Only available by prescription. Known as the Deop-Provera shot. Risks with the shot are increased weight gain and slow return to fertility. Rhythm Method Abstaining from sexual intercourse on the days ovulation might be occurring. Post-Coital Contraceptives (Plan B) Taking pills up to 72 hours after unprotected sex. Prevents or delays ovulation or fertilization. Surgical Sterilization Vasectomy or tubal ligation. Hysterectomy (removes the uterus)Reproductive System Disorders Enlarged prostate (BPH)Occurs spontaneously in men over 50 due to testosterone production decreasing. Small amounts of estrogen are released as well. Can be an indicator of prostate cancer. (2nd cause of death in males) Prostate check (video) Testicular cancer Average age is 33 and is not common. Survival rate is high. Treatment typically includes chemo or orchiectomy. Cysts / Blocked Mammary Gland Ducts Inflammation of tissues can cause lobules to be walled off. Breast cancer Malignant, mestastizing tumor. Risk factors include:Family history of breast cancerFirst pregnancy after 30Early menarche or late menopauseTreatment includes chemo, tumor removal, removal of breasts. Ovarian Cancer Begins in ovaries and spreads. More deaths than any other cancer of the female reproductive system. Remission is tough, but survival rate is high. Cervical CancerStarts in the cervix and tends to occur in women younger than 50. Death has decreased due to the PAP test. Caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) (75% of cases)PAP tests remove cells from around the cervix and examine them for abnormalities. Pregnancy and Development Gestation Time that a developing embryo and fetus spends within the uterus or womb. 9-10 months. Fertilization **Takes place in uterine tubes. Fusion of 2 haploid gametes to forma zygote consisting of 46 chromosomes. Six steps Oocyte is released during ovulation and is surrounded by a structure called the corona radiata. Sperm’s acrosomal enzymes create gaps in the corona radiata in order to make contact with the oocyte membrane. Membrane fusion occurs triggering oocyte activation. Sperm is absorbed and each form a pronucleus containing their respective genetic materials. Chromatin condense into chromosomes. Cleavage begins. Male and female pronuclei fuse, completing fertilization. First cleavage forms two blastomeres. (two daughter cells) Repeated mitosis occurs until a blastocyst forms (ball of cell) 6 days later. Becomes implanted in the uterine wall by day 10. **Process takes about 30 hours. Gastrulation Cells for 3 distinct layers by day 15. Gastrulation is the movement of cells to form these three layers. **Highlight importance on pg. 1,085. Ectoderm (integumentary, skeletal, nervous, endocrine, respiratory, digestive)Endoderm (endocrine, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive)Mesoderm (integumentary, skeletal, muscular, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, urinary, reproductive)Prenatal Development Embryonic development occurs first and comprises the events that occur during the first 2 months after fertilization. Fetal development begins at the start of the 9th week and continues until birth. Formation of Yolk and Placenta Yolk sac forms as an important site of blood cell formation. Amnion begins to form amniotic fluid. Surrounds and cushions the embryo or fetus. The allantois begins to form which eventually forms the urinary bladder. Chorion forms and becomes part of the fetal portion of the placenta. Placenta forms Primary support structure of the embryo/fetus. Site of nutrient, gas, and waste exchange. Connected via umbilical cord and is birthed after the fetus. Trimesters First trimesterTime of embryonic and early fetal development. Beginning structures of all major organ systems appear. During this time determines if you will have multiple births. Second trimester Dominated by the development of organs (organogenesis) and organ systems. Completed by the end of the 6th month. Body shape and proportions change, looks human by the end of this stage. Third trimesterCharacterized by the largest gain in fetal weight. Most organ systems become fully functional. Postnatal DevelopmentBegins at birth and continues to maturity. Changes in the Mother Respiratory rate and tidal volume increase Mammary glands fully develop and clear secretions come from the nipple. Uterus grows 7.5 cm in length, 40 g in weight, and contains 2 liters of fluid. = 13-15 lb weight gainKidneys increase filtration rate by 50%Nutrient requirements increase 30%Urination increases Maternal blood volume increases 50%Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): This hormone rises rapidly during early pregnancy. (believed to be the culprit for morning sickness) Labor Early in pregnancy progesterone is released by the placenta to inhibit the smooth muscle contractions of the uterus. Later in pregnancy, women experience spasms known as Braxton Hicks contractions. Factors inducing labor (positive feedback) Placental estrogen increases making the smooth muscle for sensitive to make contractions more likely. Relaxin is also released to relax pelvic articulations and dilate the cervix. Placental estrogen and the dilation of the cervix stimulate the release of oxytocin which stimulates prostaglandin. All of these hormones make the smooth muscle even more sensitive allowing labor contractions to occur. Stages of Labor (Video)Dilation Stage Onset of true labor as the cervix dilates and fetus shifts toward the cervical canal. (8+ hours)Contractions occur once every 10-30 minutes for 30 second bursts. The amnion breaks towards the end of this stage. (Water breaks)Expulsion Stage Begins as the cervix completes dilation (10 cm). Contractions reach maximum intensity and occur every 2-3 minutes. Continues until fetus has emerged from the vagina. Typically less than 2 hours. Placental Stage Placenta is ejected as the uterus decreases in size. There typically is some blood loss associated. Some people have been known to make the placenta into pills due to its high nutrition. BreastfeedingDriven by the milk ejection reflex. Two types of secretions occur in breasts:Colostrum (contains antibodies) is first produced during the first few days of breastfeeding. Breast milk: After colostrum is used up, breast milk is produced which is much higher in fat and lysozymes, which have antibiotic properties. Disorders during LaborPremature labor/birthTypically refers to birth at 28-36 weeks. Birth weight typically has to reach 2.2 lbs. Placenta Previa Placenta is not attached to the top of the uterus and partially or fully blocks the cervix. Typically solved with a C-section. (C-section video)Episiotomy Surgical incision to open the perineum. (tissue between anus and vagina). Typically repairs a vaginal tear that occurs during childbirth. Breech Birth Baby is rear or feet first. Doctors will attempt to turn the baby or do an emergency C section. Dangerous because head can get stuck or umbilical cord can strangle the baby. Ectopic Pregnancy Fertilized egg attaches someplace other than the uterus. Pregnancy cannot be allowed to continue. Embryo is removed. Gestational Diabetes Pregnancy hormones can block insulin from doing its job so glucose levels may increase in pregnant woman’s blood. Fertility Problems Can arise due to a number of issues. Typically solved via IVF. Abortions Procedures completed for a number of reasons but are done early and involve removing the fetus from the uterus. (Vacuum aspiration abortion)Assessments: Discussion activities, Case Studies, STD pamphlets, Chapter Integration Questions, Assessment ................
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