Supporting Online Material for



Global change in microcosms: environmental and societal predictors of land cover change on the Atlantic Ocean Islands (Appendix)This PDF file includes:Tables A.1 to A.10Figures A.1 to A.5References Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 1. Sources for historic and modern demographic data per archipelago. AzoresMadeiraCanary IslandsCape VerdeGulf of GuineaSourcesADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sousa","given":"Paulo Silveira E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"A demografia das sociedades insulares Portuguesas. 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Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 2. Data on topography, climate, and society for the 30 Eastern Atlantic Islands. These data were used in the statistical analysis. Popdens: population density, landmod: landscape modification, natveg: native vegetation. Data sources are explained in the main text.islandarchipelagoruggednessareaelevationtemperatureprecipitationpopdenslandmodnatvegCorvoAzores10.291771817.11405.9250.1551.3FaialAzores4.56173104317.01325.3870.419.4FloresAzores7.1714391416.81646.5270.1832.9GraciosaAzores3.876140217.31132.0720.470.4PicoAzores4.75446235116.71357.9320.2313.7S. MariaAzores4.489758717.2823.0570.457.8S. JorgeAzores6.81246105316.81323.5370.2914.7S. MiguelAzores4.98757110316.71071.61820.478.7TerceiraAzores3.31401102117.31199.21410.3914.2El HierroCanary Islands7.81278150118.2294.5380.2853.0FuerteventuraCanary Islands4.06172580720.0128.6640.3113.0Gran CanariaCanary Islands7.971532195018.0265.45500.4548.0La GomeraCanary Islands11.39378148717.9309.2550.3170.0La PalmaCanary Islands9.51729242316.2402.71120.3069.0LanzaroteCanary Islands3.3879667119.5145.71850.3936.0TenerifeCanary Islands6.342058371816.0359.04350.4155.0Boa VistaCape Verde2.2862039023.471.1250.1617.5BravaCape Verde10.066497620.2280.4880.5348.4FogoCape Verde7.17476282918.9360.0750.3042.0MaioCape Verde1.9526943624.3160.4260.2032.9SalCape Verde1.6121640623.270.01630.263.7SantiagoCape Verde7.26991139222.9268.53010.4744.4S. AntaoCape Verde10.64779197920.6300.3510.2446.2S. NicolauCape Verde8.53343130421.9198.3360.2938.6S. VicenteCape Verde6.1722777423.5125.23610.3510.6AnnobónGulf of Guinea10.651759818.32063.63080.2947.5PríncipeGulf of Guinea6.6313694724.62167.3540.2261.1S. ToméGulf of Guinea8.05854202422.62518.52010.2557.8MadeiraMadeira11.47741185015.2716.13380.4242.0Porto SantoMadeira5.834351718.3431.51200.620.0Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 3. Biodiversity Change and Current Status per Archipelago.Azores. The Azorean Islands were largely covered by dense forests at the time of discovery ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frutuoso","given":"G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1589"]]},"number-of-pages":"432","publisher":"Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada","publisher-place":"Ponta Delgada, A?ores, Portugal","title":"Livro sexto das saudades da terra (Edi??o 1978)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frutuoso","given":"G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1589"]]},"number-of-pages":"397","publisher":"Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada","publisher-place":"Ponta Delgada, A?ores, Portugal","title":"Livro quarto das saudades da terra - II (Edi??o 1981)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frutuoso","given":"G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1589"]]},"number-of-pages":"461","publisher":"Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada","publisher-place":"Ponta Delgada, A?ores, Portugal","title":"Livro quarto das saudades da terra - III (Edi??o 1987)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-4","itemData":{"ISBN":"9789720841636","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dias","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"?rvores e Florestas de Portugal: A?ores e Madeira","id":"ITEM-4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"page":"137-164","title":"A chegada dos Portugueses às ilhas—o antes eo depois - A?ores","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Dias, 2007; Frutuoso, 1589a, 1589b, 1589c)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Dias, 2007; Frutuoso, 1589a, 1589b, 1589c)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Dias, 2007; Frutuoso, 1589a, 1589b, 1589c)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Dias, 2007; Frutuoso, 1589a, 1589b, 1589c). Laurel forest (lowland and sub montane forests), with tall trees was likely the most dominant forest type ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1127/phyto/2016/0132","ISSN":"0340269X","abstract":"Aims: (1) To present a statistically based classification of Azorean natural zonal vegetation; (2) to characterize the main features of this vegetation and (3) to present the first model of its potential distribution in the nine Azorean Islands. Study area: Azores (S?o Miguel, Pico, Terceira and Flores islands). Methods: Information from 139 plots set up in the best preserved vegetation patches was used. Ward’s agglomerative clustering meth- od was applied in order to identify community types. Potential distribution of these community-level entities was modeled in relation to climatic predictors, using MAXENT. Results: Eight vegetation belts were identi- fied: Erica-Morella Coastal Woodlands, Picconia-Morella Lowland Forests, Laurus Submontane Forests, Juni- perus-Ilex Montane Forests, Juniperus Montane Woodlands, Calluna-Juniperus Altimontane Scrublands, Cal- luna-Erica Subalpine Scrublands and Calluna Alpine Scrublands. Modeling results suggest that Picconia-Morella and Laurus forests (Laurel forests) are the potential dominant vegetation in the Azores. With the possible exception of Juniperus woodlands, Pico could have all vegetation types, in contrast with Santa Maria, Graciosa and Corvo with only three. Conclusions: Most of Azorean natural vegetation has been trans- formed or degraded by human action, with a greater impact on Laurel forests. The best preserved vegetation belts are located above 600 m a.s.l., including Juniperus-Ilex Forests and Juniperus Woodlands, perhaps the only example of island montane cloud forests existing outside the tropics. In the present work, for the first time we used a statistical method to classify zonal vegetation, gave it a bioclimatic foundation and applied it to the whole archipelago, thus defining and describing the main vegetation belts of the Azores. This work also gives the first potential distribution maps of the zonal vegetation for each island. This information may be used for landscape planning and management, selection of sites and species for ecological restoration and evaluation of climate change effects. Keywords:","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Elias","given":"Rui B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gil","given":"Artur","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silva","given":"Luís","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernández-Palacios","given":"José M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Azevedo","given":"Eduardo B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Reis","given":"Francisco","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Phytocoenologia","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"107-123","title":"Natural zonal vegetation of the Azores Islands: Characterization and potential distribution","type":"article-journal","volume":"46"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Costa","given":"C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Comiss?o Reguladora dos Cereais do Arquipélago dos A?ores","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1950"]]},"page":"45-60","title":"Arvoredos dos A?ores: algumas achegas para a sua história","type":"article-journal","volume":"11"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/jbi.13083","ISSN":"13652699","abstract":"This paper discusses the concept of potential natural vegetation (PNV) in the light of the pollen records available to date for the Macaronesian biogeographical region, with emphasis on the Azores Islands. The classical debate on the convenience or not of the PNV concept has been recently revived in the Canary Islands, where pol-len records of pre-anthropic vegetation seemed to strongly disagree with the existing PNV reconstructions. Contrastingly, more recent PNV model outputs from the Azores Islands show outstanding paral-lelisms with pre-anthropic pollen records, at least in qualitative terms. We suggest the development of more detailed quantitative studies to compare these methodologies as an opportunity for improving the performance of both. PNV modelling may benefit by incorporating empirical data on past vegetation useful for calibration and validation purposes, whereas palynology may improve past reconstructions by minimizing interpretative biases linked to differ-ential pollen production, dispersal and preservation.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rull","given":"Valentí","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Connor","given":"Simon E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Elias","given":"Rui B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Biogeography","id":"ITEM-3","issue":"11","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"2437-2440","title":"Potential natural vegetation and pre-anthropic pollen records on the Azores Islands in a Macaronesian context","type":"article-journal","volume":"44"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Costa, 1950; Elias et al., 2016; Rull et al., 2017a)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Costa, 1950; Elias et al., 2016; Rull et al., 2017a)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Costa, 1950; Elias et al., 2016; Rull et al., 2017a)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Costa, 1950; Elias et al., 2016; Rull et al., 2017a). Human activities, including burning, cattle ranging, and land conversion, caused a rapid shift in native vegetation from dense forests to open scrublands ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02671.x","ISSN":"03050270","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Connor","given":"Simon E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Leeuwen","given":"Jacqueline F.N.","non-dropping-particle":"van","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rittenour","given":"Tammy M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Knaap","given":"Willem O.","non-dropping-particle":"van der","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ammann","given":"Brigitta","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bj?rck","given":"Svante","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Biogeography","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012","6","23"]]},"page":"1007-1023","title":"The ecological impact of oceanic island colonization - a palaeoecological perspective from the Azores","type":"article-journal","volume":"39"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.01.021","ISBN":"0277-3791","ISSN":"02773791","abstract":"The Azores archipelago has provided significant clues to the ecological, biogeographic and evolutionary knowledge of oceanic islands. Palaeoecological records are comparatively scarce, but they can provide relevant information on these subjects. We report the palynological reconstruction of the vegetation and landscape dynamics of the S?o Miguel Island before and after human settlement using the sediments of Lake Azul. The landscape was dominated by dense laurisilvas of Juniperus brevifolia and Morella faya from ca. 1280 CE to the official European establishment (1449 CE). After this date, the original forests were replaced by a complex of Erica azorica/Myrsine africana forests/shrublands and grassy meadows, which remained until ca. 1800 CE. Extractive forestry, cereal cultivation (rye, maize, wheat) and animal husbandry progressed until another extensive deforestation (ca. 1774 CE), followed by the large-scale introduction (1845 CE) of the exotic forest species Cryptomeria japonica and Pinus pinaster, which shaped the present-day landscape. Fire was a significant driver in these vegetation changes. The lake levels experienced a progressive rise during the time interval studied, reaching a maximum by ca. 1778–1852 CE, followed by a hydrological decline likely due to a combination of climatic and anthropogenic drivers. Our pollen record suggests that S?o Miguel were already settled by humans by ca. 1287 CE, approximately one century and a half prior to the official historically documented occupation of the archipelago. The results of this study are compared with the few palynological records available from other Azores islands (Pico and Flores).","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rull","given":"Valentí","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lara","given":"Arantza","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rubio-Inglés","given":"María Jesús","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Giralt","given":"Santiago","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gon?alves","given":"Vítor","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Raposeiro","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hernández","given":"Armand","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sánchez-López","given":"Guiomar","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vázquez-Loureiro","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bao","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Masqué","given":"Pere","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sáez","given":"Alberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Quaternary Science Reviews","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"155-168","title":"Vegetation and landscape dynamics under natural and anthropogenic forcing on the Azores Islands: A 700-year pollen record from the S?o Miguel Island","type":"article-journal","volume":"159"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Connor et al., 2012; Rull et al., 2017b)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Connor et al., 2012; Rull et al., 2017b)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Connor et al., 2012; Rull et al., 2017b)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Connor et al., 2012; Rull et al., 2017b). On the Azores, native forests are currently restricted to less than 5% of the archipelago area, completely absent in Graciosa and Corvo and with larger areas being mostly present in Terceira, Pico and Flores, that include also the fragments with the highest index of biotic integrity ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10841-010-9365-4","ISBN":"1366-638X","ISSN":"1366638X","abstract":"The largest standardised database available to date for arthropods in native forests of the Azores archipelago was used to determine the minimum optimal set of native forest fragments needed to accomplish four different targets of species occurrence (presence-absence) and abundance (20, 50 and 80%) using different groups of arthropods and all data combined. The results showed that occurrence and 20% abundance targets gave similar optimal solutions for most of the groups considered. At least one fragment on each of the seven studied islands was required to accomplish any occurrence and abundance target. To achieve 80% of abundance for all species, all fragments were necessary and to guarantee 50% of the overall abundance of endemics, 17 out of 18 native forests were needed. A suggestion is made to apply a measure of biotic integrity related to disturbance to select, among alternative optimal solutions, the set of areas that will help to guarantee the viability of populations. Some guidelines for the selection of priority areas for conservation in the Azores are presented.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gaspar","given":"Clara","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gaston","given":"Kevin J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"V","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cardoso","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Insect Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"671-684","title":"Selection of priority areas for arthropod conservation in the Azores archipelago","type":"article-journal","volume":"15"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Gaspar et al., 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Gaspar et al., 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Gaspar et al., 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Gaspar et al., 2011). Although the trees in these remaining forest patches do not seem to be able to reach their maximum height, the canopy biota is still dominated by native non-endemic and endemic arthropods ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"9788130802978","abstract":"Until now the mechanisms of how recent historical land-use (hereafter called “habitat”) changes in island ecosystems shape the distribution of individual insect species have been poorly understood in the field of conservation biology. In the present study we concentrate on the delicate equilibrium of the contribution of habitat island composition (i.e. habitat resource availability) with respect to island insect distribution patterns. In this context we study in detail the distribution patterns of four functional groups (herbivorous sucking insects, herbivorous chewing insects, spiders and other arthropod predators) of endemic, native and exotic arthropod species in a well-studied island of the Azores archipelago (Terceira). Within the bigger context of a standardized sampling program both for epigean and canopy insects and spiders we want to find out which species are truly rare and which are pseudo-rare species in each target habitat. Two dimensions of rarity were measured: abundance and habitat specialization. Two domains of rarity were identified: “among habitats” and “geographic”. Some interesting patterns emerged. The high dispersal abilities of many insect and spider species together with the fact that many species from islands tend to be generalists imply that many species tend to be vagrants in several habitats and consequently are locally habitat pseudo-rarities. Two types of local pseudo- rare species were identified: “habitat (or land-use)” and “host plant” pseudo- rarities. Some species are rare in one habitat type whilst they are more common in another, often related habitat, or they are relatively rare in many habitats. This is a consequence of a “mass effect”, with many species demonstrating a “source-sink” dynamics. Truly regionally rare species are those that are habitat specialists and many of them are threatened endemic species or recently introduced exotic species. We suggest several hypotheses for the patterns found, based on the former larger distribution and disturbance regimes of the native Laurel forest. Insufficient spatial replication in sampling can lead to the conclusion that numerous species appear to be rare because they were sampled in marginal sites or in the edge of their distribution. Since habitat occurrence is a less reliable predictor of the rarity status, more attention should be given to the standardized sampling of many habitats before extracting conclusions about the threatened status of a particular insect or …","author":[{"dropping-particle":"V.","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ugland","given":"Karl I","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dinis","given":"Francisco O","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gaspar","given":"Clara S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Insect Ecology and Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]},"page":"1-23","title":"Insect and spider rarity in an oceanic island (Terceira, Azores): True rare and pseudo-rare species","type":"article-journal","volume":"661"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Borges et al., 2008)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Borges et al., 2008)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Borges et al., 2008)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Borges et al., 2008), with large number of endemic spiders ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10530-016-1162-x","ISSN":"15731464","abstract":"Understanding the processes that lead to successful invasions is essential for the management of exotic species. We aimed to assess the comparative relevance of habitat (both at local and at regional scale) and plant features on the species richness of local canopy spiders of both indigenous and exotic species. In an oceanic island, Azores archipelago, we collected spiders in 97 transects belonging to four habitat types according to the degree of habitat disturbance, four types of plants with different colonisation origin (indigenous vs. exotic), and four types of plants according to the complexity of the vegetation structure. Generalised linear mixed models and linear regressions were performed separately for indigenous and exotic species at the local and regional landscape scales. At the local scale, habitat and plant origin explained the variation in the species richness of indigenous spiders, whereas exotic spider richness was poorly correlated to habitat and plant structure. The surrounding landscape matrix substantially affected indigenous spiders, but did not affect exotic spiders, with the exception of the negative effect exerted by native forests on the richness of exotic species. Our results revealed that the local effect of habitat type, plant origin and plant structure explain variations in the species richness observed at a regional scale. These results shed light on the mechanistic processes behind the role of habitat types in invasions, i.e., plant fidelity and plant structure are revealed as key factors, suggesting that native forests may act as physical barriers to the colonisation of exotic spiders.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Florencio","given":"Margarita","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rigal","given":"Fran?ois","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A.V.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cardoso","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Santos","given":"Ana M.C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobo","given":"Jorge M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biological Invasions","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"8","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"2309-2324","title":"The role of plant fidelity and land-use changes on island exotic and indigenous canopy spiders at local and regional scales","type":"article-journal","volume":"18"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Florencio et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Florencio et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Florencio et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Florencio et al., 2016). Owing to the high humidity, large parts of the islands are covered with mosses and liverworts ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s11258-005-2243-6","ISBN":"1385-0237","ISSN":"13850237","abstract":"In order to characterize the main areas of natural forest on Terceira Island (Azores), some of the most interesting European forests due to their rich and diverse flora of endemic as well as relict species, six forest stands were studied and their flora inventoried using 226 randomized quadrats, which revealed one anthocerote, 64 liverworts, 41 mosses and 16 macrolichen taxa. The alpha-diversity of the samples is particularly species-rich, some quadrats (30 x 30 cm) including more than 25 bryophyte species. A quantitative analysis of the vegetation-environment relationships consistently showed that the distributions of the native forest bryophytes and lichens of Terceira are governed by a complex set of factors related to water availability, the status of the substrata and the influences of the vascular plant community. Considering the generally high values of the Sorensen indices and the low number of specialist species found with Lloyd's index, the differences are more in terms of dominance of species than in terms of species composition. In fact, substratum type was clearly important in the DCA and TWINSPAN analysis using species cover abundance values, largely explaining the distribution of bryophyte species between Juniperus brevifolia (Seub.) Antoine and Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco bark. The eight putative plant community type groupings achieved with these multivariate methods were able to elucidate some major bryophyte - substratum relationships, that had not previously been considered and they offer a framework for future research.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gabriel","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bates","given":"J. W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Plant Ecology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]},"page":"125-144","title":"Bryophyte community composition and habitat specificity in the natural forests of Terceira, Azores","type":"article-journal","volume":"177"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sj?gren","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Memórias da Sociedade Broteriana","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1978"]]},"page":"1–273","title":"Bryophyte vegetation in the Azores islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"26"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Gabriel and Bates, 2005; Sj?gren, 1978)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Gabriel and Bates, 2005; Sj?gren, 1978)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Gabriel and Bates, 2005; Sj?gren, 1978)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Gabriel and Bates, 2005; Sj?gren, 1978). In contrast to the other archipelagos, large peat formations are also present on the Azores ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mendes","given":"C","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dias","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Mires and peatlands of Europe: Status, distribution, and nature conservation","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joosten","given":"H","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tanneberger","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moen","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"282-288","publisher":"Schweizerbart Science Publishers","publisher-place":"Stuttgart","title":"Azores","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Allorge","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Allorge","given":"V","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Mémoires de la Societé de Biogéographie","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1946"]]},"page":"369–386","title":"Les étages de la végétation muscinale aux ?les A?ores et leurs elements","type":"article-journal","volume":"8"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Allorge and Allorge, 1946; Mendes and Dias, 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Allorge and Allorge, 1946; Mendes and Dias, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Allorge and Allorge, 1946; Mendes and Dias, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Allorge and Allorge, 1946; Mendes and Dias, 2017). The majority of the introduced plant species on the Azores are ornamental or have a non-food use value (aromatic, animal fodder, or hedge-plants), only a small fraction is suitable for human consumption ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silva","given":"Luís","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Smith","given":"Clifford W","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biological Invasions","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]},"page":"193-204","title":"A characterization of the non-indigenous flora of the Azores Archipelago","type":"article-journal","volume":"6"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Silva and Smith, 2004)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Silva and Smith, 2004)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Silva and Smith, 2004)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Silva and Smith, 2004). With exception of bats, all the remaining mammals from Azores are introduced. Confirmed extinctions of invertebrates in Azores ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02264.x","ISBN":"0305-0270","ISSN":"03050270","abstract":"Aim To identify the biogeographical factors underlying spider species richness in the Macaronesian region and assess the importance of species extinctions in shaping the current diversity. Location The European archipelagos of Macaronesia with an emphasis on the Azores and Canary Islands. Methods Seven variables were tested as predictors of single-island endemics (SIE), archipelago endemics and indigenous spider species richness in the Azores, Canary Islands and Macaronesia as a whole: island area; geological age; maximum elevation; distance from mainland; distance from the closest island; distance from an older island; and natural forest area remaining per island - a measure of deforestation (the latter only in the Azores). Different mathematical formulations of the general dynamic model of oceanic island biogeography (GDM) were also tested. Results Island area and the proportion of remaining natural forest were the best predictors of species richness in the Azores. In the Canary Islands, area alone did not explain the richness of spiders. However, a hump-shaped relationship between richness and time was apparent in these islands. The island richness in Macaronesia was correlated with island area, geological age, maximum elevation and distance to mainland. Main conclusions In Macaronesia as a whole, area, island age, the large distance that separates the Azores from the mainland, and the recent disappearance of native habitats with subsequent unrecorded extinctions seem to be the most probable explanations for the current observed richness. In the Canary Islands, the GDM model is strongly supported by many genera that radiated early, reached a peak at intermediate island ages, and have gone extinct on older, eroded islands. In the Azores, the unrecorded extinctions of many species in the oldest, most disturbed islands seem to be one of the main drivers of the current richness patterns. Spiders, the most important terrestrial predators on these islands, may be acting as early indicators for the future disappearance of other insular taxa.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cardoso","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arnedo","given":"Miquel A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Triantis","given":"Kostas A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A.V.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Biogeography","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"page":"1034-1046","title":"Drivers of diversity in Macaronesian spiders and the role of species extinctions","type":"article-journal","volume":"37"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1098/rsbl.2015.0273","ISSN":"1744-9561","abstract":"Oceanic islands host a disproportionately high fraction of endangered or recently extinct endemic species. We report on species extinctions among endemic Azorean beetles following 97% habitat loss since AD 1440. We infer extinctions from historical and contemporary records and examine the influence of three predictors: geographical range, habitat specialization and body size. Of 55 endemic beetle species investigated (out of 63), seven can be considered extinct. Single-island endemics (SIEs) were more prone to extinction than multi-island endemics. Within SIEs restricted to native habitat, larger species were more extinction-prone. We thus show a hierarchical path to extinction in Azorean beetles: species with small geographical range face extinction first, with the larger bodied ones being the most threatened. Our study provides a clear warning of the impact of habitat loss on island endemic biotas.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Terzopoulou","given":"Sofia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rigal","given":"Fran?ois","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"R. J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"V.","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Triantis","given":"Kostas A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biology Letters","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"20150273","title":"Drivers of extinction: the case of Azorean beetles","type":"article-journal","volume":"11"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Cardoso et al., 2010; Terzopoulou et al., 2015)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Cardoso et al., 2010; Terzopoulou et al., 2015)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Cardoso et al., 2010; Terzopoulou et al., 2015)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Cardoso et al., 2010; Terzopoulou et al., 2015) and the high percentage of currently threatened beetles ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3897/BDJ.5.e14557","ISSN":"1314-2828","abstract":"Island biodiversity is under considerable pressure due to the ongoing threats of invasive alien species, land use change or climate change. The few remnants of Azorean native forests harbour a unique set of endemic beetles, some of them possibly already extinct or under severe long term threat due to the small areas of the remaining habitats or climatic changes. In this contribution we present the IUCN Red List profiles of 54 forest adapted beetle species endemic to the Azorean archipelago, including species belonging to four speciose families: Zopheridae (12 species), Carabidae (11 species), Curculionidae (11 species) and Staphylinidae (10 species). Most species have a restricted distribution (i.e. 66% occur in only one island) and a very small extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO). Also common to most of the species is the severe fragmentation of their populations, and a continuing decline in EOO, AOO, habitat quality, number of locations and subpopulations caused by the ongoing threat from pasture intensification, forestry, invasive species and future climatic changes. Therefore, we suggest as future measures of conservation: (1) a long-term monitoring plan for the species; (2) control of invasive species; (3) species-specific conservation action for the most highly threatened species.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lamelas-López","given":"Lucas","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Amorim","given":"Isabel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Danielczak","given":"Anja","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nunes","given":"Rui","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Serrano","given":"Artur R.M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Boieiro","given":"Mário","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rego","given":"Carla","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hochkirch","given":"Axel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vieira","given":"Virgílio","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biodiversity Data Journal","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"e14557","title":"Conservation status of the forest beetles (Insecta, Coleoptera) from Azores, Portugal","type":"article-journal","volume":"5"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Borges et al., 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Borges et al., 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Borges et al., 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Borges et al., 2017) are good indicators of massive biodiversity erosion in Azores. However, there are also examples of native insects which were able to successfully colonize anthropogenic habitats as is the case of native flower-visiting insects that are also pollinating exotic plants ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/icad.12216","ISSN":"1752458X","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pican?o","given":"Ana","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rigal","given":"Fran?ois","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Matthews","given":"Thomas J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cardoso","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"V.","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Insect Conservation and Diversity","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"title":"Impact of land-use change on flower-visiting insect communities on an oceanic island","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Pican?o et al., 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Pican?o et al., 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Pican?o et al., 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Pican?o et al., 2017), promoting their spread. In contrast, there are also situations in which introduced pollinators provide ecological “insurance” helping the pollination of native plants ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Weissmann","given":"Julie A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Schaefer","given":"Hanno","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Arquipelago. Life and Marine Sciences","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"23-40","title":"The importance of generalist pollinator complexes for endangered island endemic plants","type":"article-journal","volume":"35"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Weissmann and Schaefer, 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Weissmann and Schaefer, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Weissmann and Schaefer, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Weissmann and Schaefer, 2017). Madeira. Early descriptions of Madeira mention dense laurel forests composed mostly by trees which covered almost the entire islands ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gomes","given":"Diogo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1500"]]},"number-of-pages":"29","title":"As rela??es do descobrimento da Guiné e das ilhas dos A?ores, Madeira e Cabo Verde - Portuguese translation of \"De prima inventione Guineae\" found on leaves 270-291 of the Valentim Fernandes manuscript. Originally published around 1500. Translated in 1899","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frutuoso","given":"G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1589"]]},"number-of-pages":"473","publisher":"Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada","publisher-place":"Ponta Delgada, A?ores, Portugal","title":"Livro segundo das saudades da terra (Edi??o 1998)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Frutuoso, 1589d; Gomes, 1500)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Frutuoso, 1589d; Gomes, 1500)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Frutuoso, 1589d; Gomes, 1500)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Frutuoso, 1589d; Gomes, 1500). Madeira and Porto Santo forests possibly included several vegetation belts more or less similar to the ones described by ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Capelo","given":"Jorge","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes De Sequeira, M Jardim","given":"R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Costa","given":"J. C","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Paisagem vegetal da ilha da Madeira","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Capelo","given":"J. A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]},"page":"5 -45","publisher":"Quercetea","title":"Guia da excurs?o geobot?nica dos V Encontros ALFA 2004 à ilha da Madeira","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Capelo et al., 2004)","manualFormatting":"Capelo et al. (2004)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Capelo et al., 2004)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Capelo et al., 2004)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}Capelo et al. (2004): a Mediterranean vegetation belt (lower part dominated by Olea maderensis, Dracaena draco, Syderoxylon mirmulans and other small trees, and an upper part dominated by laurel and barbusano forest), a temperate vegetation belt (with a lower part dominated by laurel and Apollonias barbujana forest and a upper part dominated by Ocotea foetens), the upper summits were possibly dominated by a tall forest of Juniperus cedrus and Erica arborea. Madeira archipelago forests contained at least 20 species of trees but possibly there have been some extinctions during the first centuries of human colonization ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"9789720841636","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes de Sequeira","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Capelo","given":"Jorge","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"?rvores e Florestas de Portugal: A?ores e Madeira","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"page":"165-196","title":"A chegada dos Portugueses às ilhas—o antes eo depois - Madeira","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"ISBN":"9789899579002","abstract":"1. The Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary Islands and Cape Verde are among the richest regions in Fungi, plant and animal diversity in Europe. The main objectives of the EU INTERREG IIIB projects ATL?NTICO and BIONATURA have been, since 2004, to carry out a detailed inventory of the terrestrial Fungi, Flora and Fauna of these archipelagos. This book, encompassing a checklist of all the known terrestrial and freshwater Fungi, Flora and Fauna of Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos is the latest contribution towards that goal. 2. The geographic scope of this checklist includes the Madeira archipelago, composed of two large islands (Madeira and Porto Santo) and three small islands, which are globally named Desertas (Ilh?u Ch?o, Deserta Grande and Bugio), and the archipelago of Selvagens with two small islands (Selvagem Grande and Selvagem Pequena) and one islet (Ilh?u de Fora). 3. The list of \u0010taxa \u0011(Chapters 3 to 11) is based on the \u0010taxa \u0011recognized in primary published literature sources, compiled by a vast group of experts. In this chapter the current estimates of the total number of species and subspecies presently known in Madeira (Madeira, Porto Santo, Desertas) and Selvagens archipelagos are summarized. The most important terrestrial taxonomic groups were studied: Fungi, Lichens, Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts and hornworts), Pteridophyta (ferns), Spermatophyta (gymnosperms and angiosperms), Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Nematoda (roundworms), Annelida (earthworms), Mollusca (slugs and snails), Arthropoda (millipedes, centipedes, mites, spiders, insects, etc.) and Vertebrata (freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals). 4. The total estimated number of terrestrial species and subspecies of the above -mentioned taxonomic groups in the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos was about 7,571 (7,452 species and 421 subspecies). 5. Fungi and plants represent about 42% of the terrestrial diversity. However, animals dominate, arthropods being the majority (51%) of all recorded \u0010taxa\u0011. 6. The total number of endemic species and subspecies from the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos is about 1,419 (1,286 species and 182 subspecies), which represents 19% of the overall species diversity. The animal \u0010Phyla \u0011are the most diverse in endemic \u0010taxa\u0011, namely Mollusca (210) and Arthropoda (979), comprising about 84% of the Madeiran endemics. The percentage of endemism within Mollusca is particularly remarkable, reaching 71%. Within vascular plants there are …","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes de Sequeira","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"A list of the terrestrial fungi, flora and fauna of Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A.V.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Abreu","given":"Cristina","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aguiar","given":"António M. Franquinho","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carvalho","given":"Palmira","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Melo","given":"Ireneia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Oliveira","given":"Paulo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sérgio","given":"Cecília","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Serrano","given":"Artur R. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vieira","given":"Paulo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]},"page":"157-178","title":"The vascular plants (Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta) of the Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes de Sequeira","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Capelo","given":"Jorge","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"?rvores e Florestas de Portugal. A?ores e Madeira. A Floresta das Ilhas.","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silva","given":"J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"page":"255-298","publisher":"Público, Comunica??o Social SA e Funda??o Luso Americana para o Desenvolvimento","title":"Madeira","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jardim et al., 2007; Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008; Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jardim et al., 2007; Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008; Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jardim et al., 2007; Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008; Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Jardim et al., 2007; Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008; Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007). On Madeira archipelago, the remaining native vegetation is almost exclusively located on the island of Madeira (737.5 km2) while the much smaller island of Porto Santo (42 km2) has virtually no remaining natural vegetation ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"9789720841636","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes de Sequeira","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Capelo","given":"Jorge","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"?rvores e Florestas de Portugal: A?ores e Madeira","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"page":"165-196","title":"A chegada dos Portugueses às ilhas—o antes eo depois - Madeira","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007). The main drivers for removal of native vegetation were deforestation, and herbivory by rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), feral goats (Capra hircus), and cattle ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frutuoso","given":"G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1589"]]},"number-of-pages":"473","publisher":"Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada","publisher-place":"Ponta Delgada, A?ores, Portugal","title":"Livro segundo das saudades da terra (Edi??o 1998)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eanes da Zurara","given":"G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1473"]]},"publisher":"Pariz, J.P. Aillaud","publisher-place":"Lisboa","title":"Chronica - Descobrimento e conquista de Guiné (edtion 1841)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Eanes da Zurara, 1473; Frutuoso, 1589d)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Eanes da Zurara, 1473; Frutuoso, 1589d)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Eanes da Zurara, 1473; Frutuoso, 1589d)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Eanes da Zurara, 1473; Frutuoso, 1589d). On Porto Santo, several tree species known from historical descriptions were already extinct prior to scientific (Linnaean) descriptions of the island’s vegetation. Although on Madeira island there is a lack of evidence for tree extinctions/extirpations, six extirpations (native and Macaronesian endemics) are registered. In addition, historical documents prior to 1753 seem to support the pre-Linnean extinction of one tree species ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"9789899579002","abstract":"1. The Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary Islands and Cape Verde are among the richest regions in Fungi, plant and animal diversity in Europe. The main objectives of the EU INTERREG IIIB projects ATL?NTICO and BIONATURA have been, since 2004, to carry out a detailed inventory of the terrestrial Fungi, Flora and Fauna of these archipelagos. This book, encompassing a checklist of all the known terrestrial and freshwater Fungi, Flora and Fauna of Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos is the latest contribution towards that goal. 2. The geographic scope of this checklist includes the Madeira archipelago, composed of two large islands (Madeira and Porto Santo) and three small islands, which are globally named Desertas (Ilh?u Ch?o, Deserta Grande and Bugio), and the archipelago of Selvagens with two small islands (Selvagem Grande and Selvagem Pequena) and one islet (Ilh?u de Fora). 3. The list of \u0010taxa \u0011(Chapters 3 to 11) is based on the \u0010taxa \u0011recognized in primary published literature sources, compiled by a vast group of experts. In this chapter the current estimates of the total number of species and subspecies presently known in Madeira (Madeira, Porto Santo, Desertas) and Selvagens archipelagos are summarized. The most important terrestrial taxonomic groups were studied: Fungi, Lichens, Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts and hornworts), Pteridophyta (ferns), Spermatophyta (gymnosperms and angiosperms), Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Nematoda (roundworms), Annelida (earthworms), Mollusca (slugs and snails), Arthropoda (millipedes, centipedes, mites, spiders, insects, etc.) and Vertebrata (freshwater fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals). 4. The total estimated number of terrestrial species and subspecies of the above -mentioned taxonomic groups in the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos was about 7,571 (7,452 species and 421 subspecies). 5. Fungi and plants represent about 42% of the terrestrial diversity. However, animals dominate, arthropods being the majority (51%) of all recorded \u0010taxa\u0011. 6. The total number of endemic species and subspecies from the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos is about 1,419 (1,286 species and 182 subspecies), which represents 19% of the overall species diversity. The animal \u0010Phyla \u0011are the most diverse in endemic \u0010taxa\u0011, namely Mollusca (210) and Arthropoda (979), comprising about 84% of the Madeiran endemics. The percentage of endemism within Mollusca is particularly remarkable, reaching 71%. Within vascular plants there are …","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"R.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes de Sequeira","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"A list of the terrestrial fungi, flora and fauna of Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A.V.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Abreu","given":"Cristina","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aguiar","given":"António M. Franquinho","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carvalho","given":"Palmira","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Melo","given":"Ireneia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Oliveira","given":"Paulo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sérgio","given":"Cecília","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Serrano","given":"Artur R. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vieira","given":"Paulo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]},"page":"157-178","title":"The vascular plants (Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta) of the Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Jardim and Menezes de Sequeira, 2008). Habitat destruction has resulted in the extinction of nine land snails since human settlement ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.2307/2845532","ISSN":"03050270","abstract":"The Madeiran islands, located at 33 degrees N in the eastern Atlantic, were colonized early in the 15th century, and perhaps up to a century earlier. The woodland and scrub cover was rapidly reduced and the amount of grassland and disturbed ground increased. The effect on the land snail population has been assessed by analysis of fossil assemblages from a deposit in eastern Madeira. Dates were obtained by measurement of amino acid epimer ratios (D- alloisoleucine/L-isoleucine) of individual shells, calibrated against radiocarbon-dated samples. Because this method allows dating of individual shells, it was possible to reconstruct the chronology of various species from mixed-age assemblages. It also permits dating of shells too young for radiocarbon dating (post-AD 1650). Fifteen land snail assemblages were analysed from deposits of post-settlement age (c. 420-50 yr sp). Of the thirty-four species of land snails present in the samples, nine have become extinct over the period. In contrast, only five species became extinct on the island during the previous c. 300,000 years. The majority of the extinctions have occurred within the last two centuries, as a result of habitat destruction. A major decline in the abundance of woodland species took place during the 20th century. The extinction of the endemic Caseolus bowdichianus, abundant in middle Holocene deposits, occurred about a century after colonization of the island. Theba pisana, a snail of similar size and shape, was introduced around the time of colonization, and is now abundant in grassy areas. Two endemic grassland species, Discula polymorpha and Heterostoma paupercula, have also become more abundant and thus apparently benefited from the arrival of man.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Goodfriend","given":"G.A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cameron","given":"R.A.D.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cook","given":"L.M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"J. Biogeogr.","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1994"]]},"page":"309-320","title":"Fossil Evidence of Recent Human Impact on the Land Snail Fauna of Madeira","type":"article-journal","volume":"21"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Goodfriend et al., 1994)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Goodfriend et al., 1994)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Goodfriend et al., 1994)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Goodfriend et al., 1994).Canary Islands. Of the Canary archipelago, 99% was covered by vegetation; although potential vegetation models suggest that only 40% was forest ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10531-010-9881-2","ISBN":"0960-3115","ISSN":"0960-3115","abstract":"The main vegetation units of the Canary Islands are briefly described and their current surface area established. The area of potential natural vegetation remnants is compared with the supposed original area, and expressed also as percent persistence, (area now/potential) 9 100. We state that although the islands have between 40 and 50% of their surface under protection, several units of the most representative vegetation (e.g. like Euphorbia scrubs, thermo-sclerophyllous woodland and laurel forest) have retreated greatly, sometimes with little possibility of recovery. Willow, palm, tamarisk, and Plocama pendula communities, sandy beach vegetation, and small-area littoral ecosystems are also severely diminished in area. Comments are made about the conservation status of the most representative communities.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arco Aguilar","given":"Marcelino-José","non-dropping-particle":"del","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González-González","given":"Ricardo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garzón-Machado","given":"Víctor","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pizarro-Hernández","given":"Bernardo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biodiversity and Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"11","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"page":"3089-3140","title":"Actual and potential natural vegetation on the Canary Islands and its conservation status","type":"article-journal","volume":"19"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010). The native ecosystems include, from coast to summit, coastal scrublands, thermophilous woodlands, evergreen laurel forests, pine forests and summit scrublands. On average, the Canary Islands have a large remaining native vegetation cover, although from the first centuries after the Castilian conquest most forests experienced a sharp reduction. Intensive forest exploitation with no systematic management, along with intentional fires, expansion of monocultures and overgrazing, resulted in composition changes and strong fragmentation ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/126199a0","ISBN":"1853837504","ISSN":"0028-0836","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parsons","given":"James J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Geographical Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]},"page":"253-271","title":"Human influences on the pine and laurel forests of the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"71"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Parsons, 1981). In the last centuries the pine forest has been largely reforested, while the abandonment of agricultural land has prompted a steady recovery of the laurel forest and the expansion of the coastal scrubland in old fields. The exception is the thermophilous woodland with less than 10% of its original area remaining ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10531-010-9881-2","ISBN":"0960-3115","ISSN":"0960-3115","abstract":"The main vegetation units of the Canary Islands are briefly described and their current surface area established. The area of potential natural vegetation remnants is compared with the supposed original area, and expressed also as percent persistence, (area now/potential) 9 100. We state that although the islands have between 40 and 50% of their surface under protection, several units of the most representative vegetation (e.g. like Euphorbia scrubs, thermo-sclerophyllous woodland and laurel forest) have retreated greatly, sometimes with little possibility of recovery. Willow, palm, tamarisk, and Plocama pendula communities, sandy beach vegetation, and small-area littoral ecosystems are also severely diminished in area. Comments are made about the conservation status of the most representative communities.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Arco Aguilar","given":"Marcelino-José","non-dropping-particle":"del","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González-González","given":"Ricardo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Garzón-Machado","given":"Víctor","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pizarro-Hernández","given":"Bernardo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biodiversity and Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"11","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"page":"3089-3140","title":"Actual and potential natural vegetation on the Canary Islands and its conservation status","type":"article-journal","volume":"19"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(del Arco Aguilar et al., 2010). Many endemic plant species are endangered and survive on isolated and inaccessible areas away from human pressure and introduced herbivores. The introduction of commensal species in (pre-) historic times, especially the house mouse, rats and cats, were among the main causes of (local) extinction of endemic rodents, birds, and possibly lizards ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rando","given":"Juan Carlos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"El Indiferente","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]},"page":"4–15","title":"Protagonistas de una catástrofe silenciosa: los vertebrados extintos de Canarias","type":"article-journal","volume":"14"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0959683611430414","ISBN":"0959-6836","ISSN":"09596836","abstract":"The Lava mouse (Malpaisomys insularis), and the Canarian shrew (Crocidura canariensis) are endemic of the Eastern Canary Islands and islets. The former is extinct while Canarian shrew survives in the two main islands and two islets. In order to provide insights regarding causes and processes contributing to the extinction of these endemic mammals: (i) we established last occurrence dates for Lava mouse, and first records for two exotic species - House mouse (Mus musculus) and Black rat (Rattus rattus) - through direct C-14 AMS dating of collagen from bones; (ii) we analysed recent material from Barn owl (Tyto alba gracilirostris) roosting sites to evaluate its impact on Canarian shrew in the presence of introduced rodents. The new data strongly suggest that the extinction of Lava mouse was the result of an accumulative process of independent disappearances (or 'local extinctions') affecting the isolated populations. The timing of the introduction of the Black rat on the main islands (before Middle Age European contact in Lanzarote and after Middle Age European contact in Fuerteventura) matches with the last occurrence dates for the presence of Lava mouse on these islands, and are very probably their cause. The losses of these Lava mouse populations occurred in an asynchronous way, spreading across at least six centuries. On small islands, hyperpredation emerges as the most plausible process to explain the disappearance of the Lava mouse in the absence of rat populations, although stochastic processes can not be definitively excluded.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rando","given":"Juan Carlos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Alcover","given":"Josep Antoni","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Michaux","given":"Jacques","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hutterer","given":"Rainer","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Navarro","given":"Juan Francisco","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Holocene","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"7","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"801-808","title":"Late-Holocene asynchronous extinction of endemic mammals on the eastern Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"22"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1098/rspb.2013.3126","ISBN":"1471-2954 (Electronic)\r0962-8452 (Linking)","ISSN":"0962-8452","PMID":"24523273","abstract":"Owing to the catastrophic extinction events that occurred following the Holocene arrival of alien species, extant oceanic island biotas are a mixture of recently incorporated alien fauna and remnants of the original fauna. Knowledge of the Late Quaternary pristine island faunas and a reliable chronology of the earliest presence of alien species on each archipelago are critical in understanding the magnitude and tempo of Quaternary island extinctions. Until now, two successive waves of human arrivals have been identified in the North Atlantic Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canary and Cape Verde Islands): 'aboriginal', which is limited to the Canary Islands around two millennia ago, and 'colonial', from the fourteenth century onwards. New surveys in Ponta de S?o Louren?o (Madeira Island) have allowed us to obtain and date ancient bones of mice. The date obtained (1033 ± 28 BP) documents the earliest evidence for the presence of mice on the island. This date extends the time frame in which the most significant ecological changes occurred on the island. It also suggests that humans could have reached Madeira before 1036 cal AD, around four centuries before Portugal officially took possession of the island.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rando","given":"J. C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pieper","given":"H.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Alcover","given":"J. A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences","id":"ITEM-3","issue":"1780","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"20133126-20133126","title":"Radiocarbon evidence for the presence of mice on Madeira Island (North Atlantic) one millennium ago","type":"article-journal","volume":"281"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Rando, 2003; Rando et al., 2014, 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Rando, 2003; Rando et al., 2014, 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Rando, 2003; Rando et al., 2014, 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Rando, 2003; Rando et al., 2014, 2011), by hyper-predation, competition, acting as a vectors of diseases and direct predation. Some of the bird extinction events may have been initiated by hunting during prehistoric settlement, however, most bird extinctions concluded upon the arrival of Europeans ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.07.013","ISBN":"0277-3791","ISSN":"02773791","abstract":"Understanding the age, origins and extinction of oceanic island biota has captivated the interest of evolutionary biologists since Darwin and Wallace. Because oceanic islands are discrete entities of small geographical size but with considerable habitat diversity, they provide ideal templates within which to study evolutionary processes. The peripheral North Atlantic islands, collectively referred to as Macaronesia, are considered a hot spot of biodiversity due to the fact that they contain a large proportion of endemic taxa (ca 25%). Recent molecular studies are providing insight into the patterns of colonization and radiation within the extant avifauna, while paleontological studies have described many extinct avian species, sometimes identifying the causes and chronology of extinction. The aim of this review is to develop an understanding of the evolutionary and biogeographic history of the macaronesian avifauna, combining information from phylogenetic and paleontological studies. We then compare patterns for Macaronesia with those of other oceanic archipelagos to evaluate to what extent patterns may be generalised across regions. Phylogenetic analyses have confirmed the close relationships between endemic macaronesian avifauna and the closest mainland areas (Europe and Africa), however, in contrast to other archipelagos of a similar age, we show that most extant birds appear to have colonized macaronesian archipelagos relatively recently, within the last four million years, despite some islands being approximately 30 million years old. Fossil records support the idea that higher species richness previously existed, with recent dating on bone collagen of selected extinct species suggesting that their extinction coincided with the arrival of aboriginal people ca 2500 years ago in the Canary Islands, or the arrival of Europeans across all the macaronesian islands in the 14th century. It is plausible that these human mediated extinctions may have selectively acted upon older lineages, but there is little evidence available to evaluate this. ? 2012 Elsevier Ltd.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Illera","given":"Juan Carlos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rando","given":"Juan Carlos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Richardson","given":"David S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Emerson","given":"Brent C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Quaternary Science Reviews","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"page":"14-22","publisher":"Elsevier Ltd","title":"Age, origins and extinctions of the avifauna of Macaronesia: A synthesis of phylogenetic and fossil information","type":"article-journal","volume":"50"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Illera et al., 2012)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Illera et al., 2012)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Illera et al., 2012)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Illera et al., 2012). Goats and sheep, brought by the first settlers and rabbits later by Europeans, greatly affected the native vegetation by grazing and browsing. In addition, the decline and disappearance of some trees (e.g. Carpinus and Quercus from Tenerife) was likely also caused by the first settlers ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.02012.x","ISBN":"0305-0270","ISSN":"03050270","abstract":"Aim : We report the first analysis of the long-term ecology of Tenerife, in order to establish a pre-colonization base-line and to assess the effect of human activity and the role of climatic variation on vegetation during the Late Holocene. Location : A former lake bed in the city of La Laguna (Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain). Methods : A sedimentary sequence of over 2 m was obtained from the former lake bed. Fossil pollen and microfossil charcoal concentrations were analysed. Radiocarbon dating of the sequence indicates that it spans approximately the last 4700 years. The pollen diagram was zoned using optimal splitting within psimpoll 4.25. Results : Three pollen zones were differentiated: (1) in Zone L1 (c. 4700-2900 cal. yr bp) a mixed forest was dominated by Quercus, Carpinus, Myrica and Pinus; (2) in Zone L2 (c. 2900-2000 cal. yr bp) the laurel forest taxa increased, while Pinus, Juniperus and Phoenix declined; and (3) Zone L3 (c. 2000-400 cal. yr bp) was characterized by the decline of Carpinus and Quercus and the abundance of laurel forest taxa (e.g. Myrica). Neither Carpinus nor Quercus was hitherto considered to be native to the Canary Islands. Their decline started c. 2000 years ago, coinciding with microfossil charcoal evidence of increased burning and with archaeological evidence for the first human settlement on Tenerife. Main conclusions : Between c. 4700 and 2000 cal. yr bp, the composition of the forest in the valley of La Laguna was very different from what it is at present. In particular, Quercus and Carpinus appear to have been significant components, alongside components of the present-day laurel forest, and the native pine (Pinus canariensis) forest and thermophilous woodland were also more prevalent in the region (but probably not within the lake basin itself) until 3000 cal. yr bp. The subsequent decline of Quercus and Carpinus led to the establishment of the present laurel forest in the region and a shift to more open vegetation types. These changes indicate that the aboriginal inhabitants of the islands, the Guanches, had a far more profound impact on the vegetation of Tenerife than hitherto realized. -? 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nascimento","given":"Lea","non-dropping-particle":"de","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Willis","given":"Katherine J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernández-Palacios","given":"J. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Criado","given":"Constantino","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"Robert J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Biogeography","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"499-514","title":"The long-term ecology of the lost forests of la Laguna, Tenerife (Canary Islands)","type":"article-journal","volume":"36"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1177/0959683615596836","ISBN":"0959683615","ISSN":"14770911","abstract":"We provide the first fossil pollen and charcoal analysis from the island of Gran Canaria (Canary Islands). The pollen record obtained from Laguna de Valleseco (870 m a.s.l.) spans the late Holocene (c. 4500-1500 cal. yr BP) and thereby captures the impact of human colonization. During the earliest period, pollen composition resembled contemporary thermophilous communities, with palms (Phoenix canariensis) and junipers (Juniperus cf. turbinata) being the dominant trees, suggesting that these elements were more widespread in the past. Vegetation in Valleseco began to change at around 2300 cal. yr BP, 400 years before the earliest archaeological evidence of human presence in the island (c. 1900 cal. yr BP). Our data show an increased frequency of fires at that time, coinciding with the decline of palms and the increase of grasses, indicating that humans were present and were transforming vegetation, thus showing that the demise of Gran Canaria's forest began at an early point in the prehistoric occupation of the island. In the following centuries, there were no signs of forest recovery. Pollen from cultivated cereals became significant, implying the introduction of agriculture in the site, by 1800 cal. yr BP. The next shift in vegetation (c. 1600 cal. yr BP) involved the decrease of grasses in favour of shrubs and trees like Morella faya, suggesting that agriculture was abandoned at the site.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nascimento","given":"Lea","non-dropping-particle":"de","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nogué","given":"Sandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Criado","given":"Constantino","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ravazzi","given":"Cesare","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"Robert J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Willis","given":"Kathy J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernández-Palacios","given":"José María","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Holocene","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"113-125","title":"Reconstructing Holocene vegetation on the island of Gran Canaria before and after human colonization","type":"article-journal","volume":"26"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(de Nascimento et al., 2016, 2009)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(de Nascimento et al., 2016, 2009)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(de Nascimento et al., 2016, 2009)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(de Nascimento et al., 2016, 2009). In order to preserve the remaining natural areas and their biodiversity, various forms of protection have been established: the Canarian Network of Natural Protected Areas, including four National Parks, and covering around 40% of the territory, the European Union Natura 2000 Network, several UNESCO protection figures, and National Marine Reserves, and the catalogues of endangered species.Cape Verde. Early descriptions of the Cape Verde Islands following human colonization mention the scarce number of trees and the limited productivity of the land ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pereira","given":"D.P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1533"]]},"publisher":"Academia Portuguesa da História","publisher-place":"Lisbon","title":"Esmeraldo de situ orbis. Published around 1533. This edition compiled by D.A. Peres in 1988 with an introduction and historical annotations","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Pereira, 1533)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Pereira, 1533)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Pereira, 1533)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Pereira, 1533). Although few trees grew on the islands, early descriptions also mention the presence of productive fig trees (Ficus spp.) and of dragon trees (Dracaena draco subsp. caboverdeana) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gomes","given":"Diogo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1500"]]},"number-of-pages":"29","title":"As rela??es do descobrimento da Guiné e das ilhas dos A?ores, Madeira e Cabo Verde - Portuguese translation of \"De prima inventione Guineae\" found on leaves 270-291 of the Valentim Fernandes manuscript. Originally published around 1500. Translated in 1899","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Gomes, 1500)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Gomes, 1500)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Gomes, 1500)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Gomes, 1500). Since the islands were colonized in the 15th century, cattle-raising, agricultural practices, and wood collection have affected the extent and composition of native scrublands, and two plant species possibly went extinct ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Romeiras","given":"M.M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Catarino","given":"Silvia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gomes","given":"Isildo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernandes","given":"Claudia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Costa","given":"Jose C","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Caujapé-castells","given":"Juli","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duarte","given":"Maria Cristina","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"413-425","title":"IUCN Red List assessment of the Cape Verde endemic flora: towards a global strategy for plant conservation in Macaronesia","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Romeiras et al., 2016). In the highlands of Santiago, overgrazing and native vegetation removal led to sustained erosion and soil degradation, a context in which invasive species spread ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.03.033","ISSN":"0031-0182","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Castilla-beltrán","given":"Alvaro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"De","family":"Nascimento","given":"Lea","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"María","given":"José","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fonville","given":"Thierry","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"Robert J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nogué","given":"Sandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"#pagerange#","publisher":"Elsevier B.V","title":"Late Holocene environmental change and the anthropization of the highlands of Santo Ant?o Island, Cabo Verde","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019). Presently, the mountain areas are dominated by exogenous tree species introduced for afforestation (e.g. Pinus canariensis), a dense endemic scrublands (e.g. Euphorbia tuckeyana) and some scattered endemic (e.g. Sideroxylon marginatum and Dracaena draco subsp. caboverdeana) and native trees (e.g. Ficus spp.), while in the lowlands, herbaceous species and some native xeric trees (e.g. Faidherbia albida and Tamarix senegalensis) occur ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.12705/633.37","ISSN":"19968175","abstract":"This paper reviews the development of knowledge of the flora of the Cape\\nVerde archipelago, the only portion of Macaronesia located in the\\ntropics, from the discovery of the islands in the 15th century until the\\nend of the 18th century. The first settlers of the islands came from\\nPortugal and their accounts recorded that the dense forests and lush\\nvegetation found in neighbouring regions of Africa were not present on\\nthese dry islands. Claims for John Kirckwood and Vespasien Robin\\ncollecting in the Cape Verdes during the 17th century are doubtful and\\nit is likely that they refer to the Cape Verde promontory located in\\nSenegal. Lotus jacobaeus (Fabaceae) is the earliest documented record\\nfor the endemic flora (year 1699). The first documented systematic plant\\nhunting expedition was conducted by Johann R. Forster and his son George\\nForster during the second voyage of Captain Cook around the world. The\\nForsters visited Santiago on 14 August 1772, collected herbarium\\nspecimens, provided records for 39 species and described four new\\nspecies based on this material. James Robertson and George Staunton also\\ncollected plant material in the Cape Verde Islands in the late 18th\\ncentury. However, it was Joao da Silva Feijo who undertook the first\\nextensive plant exploration of the archipelago between 1783 and 1789,\\nunder the patronage of the Portuguese government. His material was the\\nbasis for 14 new species descriptions made by Philip Barker Webb in\\n1849. The growth of knowledge of the Cape Verde flora contrasts markedly\\nwith that of the Canary Islands and Madeira, the floras of which were\\nmuch more extensively documented by the mid-18th century.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Romeiras","given":"Maria M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duarte","given":"Maria Cristina","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Santos-Guerra","given":"Arnoldo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carine","given":"Mark","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Francisco-Ortega","given":"Javier","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Taxon","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"625-640","title":"Botanical exploration of the Cape Verde Islands: From the pre-Linnaean records and collections to late 18th century floristic accounts and expeditions","type":"article-journal","volume":"63"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/BF00045611","ISSN":"00423106","abstract":"The vegetation of the intermediate altitudes of the Macaronesian island Santo Antao is divided into eight floristically defined types. Differentiation between these vegetation types is related to precipitation zone and altitude. One vegetation type is determined mainly by land use. Lithology, soil properties and exposure, contrary to what can be expected, do not contribute to variety in vegetation types.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gils","given":"H.","non-dropping-particle":"van","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Vegetatio","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]},"page":"33-38","title":"Mid-altitudinal vegetation of the Macaronesian island Santo Antao (Cabo Verde)","type":"article-journal","volume":"74"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2014; van Gils, 1998)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2014; van Gils, 1998)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2014; van Gils, 1998)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Romeiras et al., 2014; van Gils, 1998). Studies on Cape Verde are generally biased towards specific taxa with many of them still understudied, especially among the insects. Most studies focused on reptiles and plants ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/ijms20112782","ISSN":"14220067","abstract":"Over the previous decades, numerous studies focused on how oceanic islands have contributed to determine the phylogenetic relationships and times of origin and diversification of different endemic lineages. The Macaronesian Islands (i.e., Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canaries, and Cabo Verde), harbour biotas with exceptionally high levels of endemism. Within the region, the vascular plants and reptiles constitute two of the most important radiations. In this study we compare relevant published phylogenetic data and diversification rates retrieved within Cabo Verde endemic lineages and discuss the importance of choosing appropriate phylogeny-based methods to investigate diversification dynamics on islands. From this selective literature-based review, we summarize the software packages used in Macaronesian studies and discuss their adequacy considering the published data to obtain well-supported phylogenies in the target groups. We further debate the importance of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS), to investigate the evolutionary processes of diversification in the Macaronesian Islands. Analysis of genomic data provides phylogenetic resolution for rapidly evolving species radiations, suggesting a great potential to improve the phylogenetic signal and divergence time estimates in insular lineages. The most important Macaronesian reptile radiations provide good case-studies to compare classical phylogenetic methods with new tools, such as phylogenomics, revealing a high value for research on this hotspot area.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Romeiras","given":"Maria M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pena","given":"Ana Rita","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes","given":"Tiago","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vasconcelos","given":"Raquel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Monteiro","given":"Filipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Paulo","given":"Octávio S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moura","given":"Mónica","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"International Journal of Molecular Sciences","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"11","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"1-18","title":"Shortcomings of phylogenetic studies on recent radiated insular groups: a meta-analysis using Cabo Verde biodiversity","type":"article-journal","volume":"20"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2019)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2019)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2019)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Romeiras et al., 2019), while some others also deal with invertebrates, like butterflies ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tennent","given":"W.J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Russell","given":"P.J.C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Zoologia Caboverdiana","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"64-104","title":"Butterflies of the Cape Verde Islands (Insecta, Lepidoptera)","type":"article-journal","volume":"5"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Tennent and Russell, 2015)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Tennent and Russell, 2015)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Tennent and Russell, 2015)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Tennent and Russell, 2015). The conservation status and threats of the endemic vascular flora ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Romeiras","given":"M.M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Catarino","given":"Silvia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gomes","given":"Isildo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernandes","given":"Claudia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Costa","given":"Jose C","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Caujapé-castells","given":"Juli","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duarte","given":"Maria Cristina","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"page":"413-425","title":"IUCN Red List assessment of the Cape Verde endemic flora: towards a global strategy for plant conservation in Macaronesia","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2016)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2016)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Romeiras et al., 2016)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Romeiras et al., 2016) and reptiles ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1017/S0030605311001438","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vasconcelos","given":"Raquel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Brito","given":"J.C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carranza","given":"S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Harris","given":"D.J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Oryx","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"page":"77-87","title":"The terrestrial reptiles of the Cape Verde Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"47"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Vasconcelos et al., 2013)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Vasconcelos et al., 2013)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Vasconcelos et al., 2013)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Vasconcelos et al., 2013) were recently reviewed. These studies have shown that most of the endemic species are classified in one of the IUCN threat categories (i.e. CR, EN and VU). Among the reptiles, Chioninia coctei was last seen in 1912, and was listed as extinct by IUCN ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Schleich","given":"H.H.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Primeira Lista Vermelha de Cabo Verde","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Leyens","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobin","given":"W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1996"]]},"page":"122–125","publisher":"Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg","publisher-place":"Frankfurt, Germany","title":"Lista Vermelha para os Répteis (Reptilia)","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Schleich, 1996)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Schleich, 1996)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Schleich, 1996)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Schleich, 1996). Also the remains of a land tortoise have been found in Quaternary deposits on Sal Island, and was identified by Chevalier (1935) as being similar to those of a Geochelone sulcate (syn. Centrochelys sulcata). In fact, those remains are from a close but distinct species, Geochelone atlantica ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"López-Jurado","given":"L.F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mateo","given":"J.A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carcía-Marques","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Revista Espa?ola de Herpetologia","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]},"page":"111-114","title":"La tortuga fósil de la isla de Sal (Archipiélago de Cabo Verde)","type":"article-journal","volume":"12"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(López-Jurado et al., 1998)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(López-Jurado et al., 1998)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(López-Jurado et al., 1998)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(López-Jurado et al., 1998) which was considered extinct. During the last 12 years, several conservation actions were undertaken by the Cape Verde authorities, in particular establishing a system of Protected Areas to safeguard the natural heritage of the archipelago ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"MAAP","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"title":"Livro branco sobre o estado do ambiente em Cabo Verde","type":"report"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(MAAP, 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(MAAP, 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(MAAP, 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(MAAP, 2014).Gulf of Guinea. Around the time of human colonization, the islands of the Gulf of Guinea were almost entirely covered by forest ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.4102/abc.v41i1.34","ISSN":"00068241","abstract":"A catalogue of the fl owering plants of the islands of S?o Tomé and Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea) is presented. Flowering plant diversity fi gures are updated to: 135 families (20 introduced), 624 genera (172 introduced), 1 104 species (301 introduced) plus 15 additional infraspecifi c taxa. At present 119 taxa (107 species and 12 infraspecifi c taxa) are known to be endemic to the two islands. The catalogue includes accepted names, synonyms used in recent literature, common names, voucher speci- mens and information on habit and habitat and on plant uses, particularly medicinally.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Figueiredo","given":"E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Paiva","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Stévart","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Oliveira","given":"F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Smith","given":"G. F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Bothalia","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"41-82","title":"Annotated catalogue of the flowering plants of S?o Tomé and Príncipe","type":"article-journal","volume":"41"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Soares","given":"Filipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"publisher":"University of Lisbon, Lisbon","title":"Modelling the distribution of S?o Tomé bird species: ecological determinants and conservation prioritization. MSc thesis","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Henriques","given":"J. A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1917"]]},"page":"1-197","title":"A Ilha de S. Tomé sob o ponto de vista historico-natural e agricola","type":"article-journal","volume":"27"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-4","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Salgueiro","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carvalho","given":"S.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]},"publisher":"ECOFAC, AGRECO and CIRAD Foret","title":"Proposta de Plano Nacional de Desenvolvimento Florestal 2003–2007","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-5","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Exell","given":"A.W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-5","issued":{"date-parts":[["1944"]]},"publisher":"British Museum (Natural History)","publisher-place":"London","title":"Catalogue of the vascular plants of S. Tomé (with Príncipe and Annobon)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-6","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"BDPA","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-6","issued":{"date-parts":[["1985"]]},"publisher":"Bureau pour le Développement de la Production Agricole","publisher-place":"Paris","title":"Potencialidades agrícolas: República Democrática de S?o Tomé e Príncipe","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(BDPA, 1985; Exell, 1944; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Henriques, 1917; Salgueiro and Carvalho, 2001; Soares, 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(BDPA, 1985; Exell, 1944; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Henriques, 1917; Salgueiro and Carvalho, 2001; Soares, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(BDPA, 1985; Exell, 1944; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Henriques, 1917; Salgueiro and Carvalho, 2001; Soares, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(BDPA, 1985; Exell, 1944; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Henriques, 1917; Salgueiro and Carvalho, 2001; Soares, 2017). Today, around one quarter of the archipelago is still covered by native forest, which is currently surrounded by a similar extent of secondary forest. Both these forests persist in the most mountainous portions of the islands, mostly located in their centre and south ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"2-88032-994-9","PMID":"57","abstract":"Este documento foi realizado no ?mbito de um programa regional de ?Conserva??o e Utiliza??o Racional dos Ecossistemas Florestais na ?frica Central?, financiado pelo Fundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento (FED) e referente aos seguintes 7 países da Africa Central: Camar?es, República Centro-Africana, Congo, Gab?o, Guiné Equatorial, S?o Tomé e Príncipe, e Zairo. O trabalho apresenta o balan?o da situa??o das florestas densas húmidas de S?o Tomé e Príncipe do ponto de vista da sua conserva??o, da sua ecologia, do seu estatuto jurídico e da sua explora??o. Prop?e em seguida uma lista dos sítios mais importantes para a sua conserva??o e recomenda um conjunto de ac??es que permiteriam garantir a sua conserva??o, assegurando ao mesmo tempo uma explora??o a longo prazo dos seus recursos.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jones","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Burlison","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tye","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"UICN","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"number-of-pages":"1-91","title":"Conserva??o dos ecossistemas florestais na república democrática de S?o Tomé e Príncipe","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 1992)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 1992)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 1992)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Jones et al., 1992). The endemic-rich native biodiversity is heavily reliant on native forest, even though they can often use secondary forest and, to a lesser extent, plantations, especially when these maintain a dense canopy cover. Widely distributed species are strongly associated to anthropogenic land covers, while the endemics are either distributed across the islands or prefer forest ecosystems ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lima","given":"Ricardo Faustino","non-dropping-particle":"de","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"publisher":"Lancaster University, Lancaste","title":"Land-use management and the conservation of endemic species in the island of S?o Tomé. PhD Dissertation","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/ddi.12015","ISBN":"1472-4642","ISSN":"13669516","abstract":"Aim Anthropogenic land-use change is a major driver of the current extinction crisis, but the processes through which it acts on biodiversity are complex and still poorly understood. Here, we use several biodiversity metrics to make a comprehensive assessment of the response of an endemic-rich bird assemblage to land-use change. Location S?o Tomé Island (S?o Tomé and Príncipe, Africa). Methods We sampled bird assemblages in 220 point counts, stratified across three regions and four land-use types. Species richness was examined using accumulation curves and generalized linear mixed-effect models. Compositional and structural changes were analysed with ordination techniques. We used correlations and model selection to identify species traits and environmental variables associated with such changes. Results At the point level, there was a slight decrease of species richness in more intensive land uses. However, higher dissimilarities within these land uses led them to have higher overall species richness. Endemics dominated forest environments and, although most preferred less-disturbed land uses, many persisted across all land uses. Non-endemics were virtually absent from forests, but became very abundant in the more intensive land uses. Canopy cover was the best predictor of the shift between endemic and non-endemic species, and allowed identifying regional differences in the local responses of bird assemblages to land-use change. Main conclusions To better understand biodiversity, it is crucial to use several metrics simultaneously. In S?o Tomé, simply using species richness, the single most used biodiversity metric, could have been misleading as it concealed major shifts in the bird assemblage structure towards an endemism impoverished avifauna. Despite scarce data on land-use cover, we demonstrate how landscape context can be vital to understand biodiversity patterns and that highly forested surroundings might overestimate the strict value of more intensive land uses. Our results raise concerns about the long-term persistence of endemic species restricted to islands where forested land uses are being lost.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lima","given":"Ricardo Faustino","non-dropping-particle":"de","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dallimer","given":"Martin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Atkinson","given":"Philip W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Barlow","given":"Jos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Diversity and Distributions","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"page":"411-422","title":"Biodiversity and land-use change: Understanding the complex responses of an endemic-rich bird assemblage","type":"article-journal","volume":"19"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Soares","given":"Filipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"publisher":"University of Lisbon, Lisbon","title":"Modelling the distribution of S?o Tomé bird species: ecological determinants and conservation prioritization. MSc thesis","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(de Lima, 2012; de Lima et al., 2013; Soares, 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(de Lima, 2012; de Lima et al., 2013; Soares, 2017)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(de Lima, 2012; de Lima et al., 2013; Soares, 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(de Lima, 2012; de Lima et al., 2013; Soares, 2017). Many species have been introduced in these islands ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/BF00129667","ISBN":"0960-3115","ISSN":"09603115","PMID":"175","abstract":"Since Sao Tome and Principe were colonized by Europeans in the 1470s alien mammal species have been introduced to these islands. The impact of these introduced species (14 to Sao Tome Principe and 12 to Principe) is unknown and though this paper reviews all the available information for each alien species no firm conclusions can be gleaned about their effect on the native biota of the Republica Democratica de Sao Tome e Principe. Despite the probable long association of many, if not all, the alien mammals it is clear that the long history of deforestation and habitat modification has had a greater detrimental impact to date. Although all the Red Data Book species are still present it is possible that the introduced mammals could cause future population declines and extinctions. Research and surveys are urgently required to discover the current status, distribution and ecology of both the native Red Data Book species and the alien species. These surveys, in conjunction with the identification of core areas for conservation would allow active management to control any detrimental impacts likely to be caused by the alien mammals. Once identified, regular monitoring programmes should be undertaken to ensure that the conservation aims are being achieved. At present there is a lack of any really suitable institutional organization with the responsibility or skills to undertake the required work. The development of such an organization should be a priority and support should be given both in the short and long terms by international organizations such as Birdlife International and the Gulf of Guinea Conservation Group.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dutton","given":"John","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biodiversity and Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"9","issued":{"date-parts":[["1994"]]},"page":"927-938","title":"Introduced mammals in S?o Tomé and Príncipe: possible threats to biodiversity","type":"article-journal","volume":"3"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jones","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tye","given":"Alan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"British Ornithologists’ Union","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"22","issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]},"title":"The Birds of Príncipe, S?o Tomé and Annobón. An annotated Checklist","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.4102/abc.v41i1.34","ISSN":"00068241","abstract":"A catalogue of the fl owering plants of the islands of S?o Tomé and Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea) is presented. Flowering plant diversity fi gures are updated to: 135 families (20 introduced), 624 genera (172 introduced), 1 104 species (301 introduced) plus 15 additional infraspecifi c taxa. At present 119 taxa (107 species and 12 infraspecifi c taxa) are known to be endemic to the two islands. The catalogue includes accepted names, synonyms used in recent literature, common names, voucher speci- mens and information on habit and habitat and on plant uses, particularly medicinally.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Figueiredo","given":"E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Paiva","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Stévart","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Oliveira","given":"F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Smith","given":"G. F.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Bothalia","id":"ITEM-3","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"41-82","title":"Annotated catalogue of the flowering plants of S?o Tomé and Príncipe","type":"article-journal","volume":"41"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Dutton, 1994; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Jones and Tye, 2006)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Dutton, 1994; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Jones and Tye, 2006)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Dutton, 1994; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Jones and Tye, 2006)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Dutton, 1994; Figueiredo et al., 2011; Jones and Tye, 2006), but the exact extent of these introductions and their impact on native ecosystems is still poorly understood ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/btp.12092","ISBN":"0006-3606","ISSN":"00063606","abstract":"Cocoa and coffee are among the most valuable tropical crops, with much of their production in areas of high biodiversity. Although this could suggest a conflict between agricultural expansion and biodiversity conservation, these crops are normally grown in shade plantationsa more biodiversity-friendly agroforestry system. Using SAo Tome Island as a case study, we examined if shade plantation can benefit biodiversity by protecting extinction-prone island endemic species. We found that shade plantations held rich assemblages, even in comparison with forest: we estimated 30 bird and 74 tree species occurring in plantations compared to 24 bird and 108 tree species in forests. However, the structure of the assemblages was significantly different between ecosystems, with an average dissimilarity of 33.8 percent and 87.9 percent for birds and trees, respectively. Shade plantations had consistently less endemic species than the forest; we estimated a drop from 17 to 13 in birds and from 17 to 3 in trees. We also found that despite marked differences in the response of bird species to the vegetation characteristics of shade plantations, there was a strong positive link between aboveground tree biomass and endemic species richness and abundance. These results show that shade plantations hold assemblages impoverished in endemic species, but that management can improve their value for the conservation of these species. Finally, we suggest that biodiversity-friendly certification and carbon markets are used to implement and guarantee the long-term economical sustainability of practices that favor the endemic species in SAo Tome's shade plantations.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lima","given":"Ricardo F.","non-dropping-particle":"de","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Viegas","given":"Leonel","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Solé","given":"Nelson","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Soares","given":"Estev?o","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Dallimer","given":"Martin","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Atkinson","given":"Philip W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Barlow","given":"Jos","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biotropica","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2014"]]},"page":"238-247","title":"Can management improve the value of shade plantations for the endemic species of s?o tomé island?","type":"article-journal","volume":"46"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(de Lima et al., 2014)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(de Lima et al., 2014)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(de Lima et al., 2014)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(de Lima et al., 2014). Only one extinctions has been recorded: a crocodile ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ceríaco","given":"Luis M P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Marques","given":"Mariana P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bauer","given":"Aaron M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Zootaxa","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"page":"91-108","title":"Miscellanea Herpetologica Sanctithomae, with a provisional checklist of the terrestrial herpetofauna of S?o Tomé, Príncipe and Annobon islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"4387"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Ceríaco et al., 2018)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Ceríaco et al., 2018)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Ceríaco et al., 2018)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Ceríaco et al., 2018), even though this might be due to the scarcity of records and lack of paleontological studies. Very little is known about most invertebrate groups ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/BF00129657","ISBN":"0960-3115","ISSN":"0960-3115","abstract":"Patterns of species-richness and endemism in the Gulf of Guinea reflect the region's biogeographic history. Bioko is a continental-shelf island that was recently connected to the African mainland, whereas Principe, Slo Tome and Annobon are truly oceanic and have never been connected with each other or with the mainland. As a result, Bioko supports a much more diverse flora and fauna but with relatively low levels of endemism at the species level, whereas the oceanic islands are rela-tively depauperate because of their isolation but rich in endemic taxa. Species endemism is O-3% on Bioko for angiosperms, bats, birds, reptiles and amphibians, compared with much higher values on Principe for these same taxa of 8% (plants) to 100% (amphibians), on SBo Tome between 14% (plants) and 100% (amphibians), and on Annobon 0% (bats) to 71% (reptiles). On a global scale, for their size both Principe and SBo Tome support unusually high numbers of single-island endemic species of birds, reptiles and amphibia. For its tiny size, Annobbn is also notable for its endemic birds and reptiles. Among terrestrial molluscs the rates of endemism are in general higher than for plants and vertebrates, from ca 50% on Bioko to ca 80% on the oceanic islands, In contrast and as might be expected, only Bioko supports a rich freshwater fish fauna and it contains many endemic taxa, whereas the oceanic islands support only a few salt-tolerant species. The Gulf of Guinea islands are also important for their marine organisms, amongst which coral reef fish and marginellid molluscs show high levels of endemism, though they are not especially species-rich. The Gulf of Guinea islands are of great interest to conservationists and evolutionary biologists. Each island, of greatly differing size and degree of isolation, has acquired its unique sub-set of plants and animals separately from the neighbouring mainland, followed by adaptive radiations in situ. For this reason the conservation value of the archipelago as a whole is greater than the sum of the bio-diversity contained in its individual islands. Conservation initiatives in the Gulf of Guinea should therefore ensure that representative terrestrial, freshwater and marine habitats and groups of or-ganisms are targeted in a co-ordinated manner among the islands.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jones","given":"Peter J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biodiversity and Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"9","issued":{"date-parts":[["1994"]]},"page":"772-784","title":"Biodiversity in the Gulf of Guinea: an overview","type":"article-journal","volume":"3"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jones, 1994)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jones, 1994)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jones, 1994)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Jones, 1994). Many species are considered threatened and anthropogenic pressure on the unique biodiversity of these islands is expected to continue, namely in the form of land use change, overexploitation and introduced species ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"URL":"","accessed":{"date-parts":[["2018","10","22"]]},"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"IUCN","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2018"]]},"title":"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2018-2","type":"webpage"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jones","given":"Peter","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tye","given":"Alan","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"British Ornithologists’ Union","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"22","issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]},"title":"The Birds of Príncipe, S?o Tomé and Annobón. An annotated Checklist","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(IUCN, 2018; Jones and Tye, 2006)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(IUCN, 2018; Jones and Tye, 2006)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(IUCN, 2018; Jones and Tye, 2006)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(IUCN, 2018; Jones and Tye, 2006).Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 4. Historic socioeconomic trends in the Azores. CenturyAgricultural production for local consumption and export and trade14th century and before (until 1400)The island of Santa Maria was officially discovered in 1427 and settled by the Portuguese in 1439 ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02671.x","ISSN":"03050270","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Connor","given":"Simon E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Leeuwen","given":"Jacqueline F.N.","non-dropping-particle":"van","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rittenour","given":"Tammy M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Knaap","given":"Willem O.","non-dropping-particle":"van der","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ammann","given":"Brigitta","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bj?rck","given":"Svante","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Biogeography","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"6","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012","6","23"]]},"page":"1007-1023","title":"The ecological impact of oceanic island colonization - a palaeoecological perspective from the Azores","type":"article-journal","volume":"39"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Connor et al., 2012)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Connor et al., 2012)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Connor et al., 2012)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Connor et al., 2012). Nonetheless, there is also evidence of human presence in Azores prior to the Portuguese settlement ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.tig.2012.11.011","ISBN":"0168-9525","ISSN":"01689525","PMID":"23290437","abstract":"The long-distance movements made by humans through history are quickly erased by time but can be reconstructed by studying the genetic make-up of organisms that travelled with them. The phylogeography of the western house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus), whose current widespread distribution around the world has been caused directly by the movements of (primarily) European people, has proved particularly informative in a series of recent studies. The geographic distributions of genetic lineages in this commensal have been linked to the Iron Age movements within the Mediterranean region and Western Europe, the extensive maritime activities of the Vikings in the 9th to 11th centuries, and the colonisation of distant landmasses and islands by the Western European nations starting in the 15th century. We review here recent insights into human history based on phylogeographic studies of mice and other species that have travelled with humans, and discuss how emerging genomic methodologies will increase the precision of these inferences. ? 2012 Elsevier Ltd.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jones","given":"Eleanor P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eager","given":"Heidi M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gabriel","given":"Sofia I.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jóhannesdóttir","given":"Frída","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Searle","given":"Jeremy B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Trends in Genetics","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"page":"298-307","title":"Genetic tracking of mice and other bioproxies to infer human history","type":"article-journal","volume":"29"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"abstract":"We present here evidence of pre-Portuguese presence in the Azores Islands, Portugal, found near the site of Grota do Medo (Posto Santo), discovered by Rodrigues (2013) in Terceira Island, Azores. This evidence was dated by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, and indicates the presence of human activity in Terceira Island before or during the XIth century. The evidence consisted in a man-made rock basin, which was found in a site that contains also striking similarities with many other aspects from ancient cultures, including other man-made rock basins, arrangements of large stones which resemble megalithic constructions, and inscriptions in stones which resemble ancient petroglyphs. Although the dating of this evidence is highly suggestive of the presence of human activity in the Azores Islands long before the arrival of the Portuguese navigators of the XVth century, there is no clear evidence which enables us to identify which specific culture may have existed in the Azores before the Portuguese arrival.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rodrigues","given":"António Félix","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Martins","given":"Nuno O","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ribeiro","given":"Nuno","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Joaquinito","given":"Anabela","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issue":"July","issued":{"date-parts":[["2015"]]},"page":"104-113","title":"Early Atlantic Navigation: Pre-Portuguese Presence in the Azores Islands","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.01.021","ISBN":"0277-3791","ISSN":"02773791","abstract":"The Azores archipelago has provided significant clues to the ecological, biogeographic and evolutionary knowledge of oceanic islands. Palaeoecological records are comparatively scarce, but they can provide relevant information on these subjects. We report the palynological reconstruction of the vegetation and landscape dynamics of the S?o Miguel Island before and after human settlement using the sediments of Lake Azul. The landscape was dominated by dense laurisilvas of Juniperus brevifolia and Morella faya from ca. 1280 CE to the official European establishment (1449 CE). After this date, the original forests were replaced by a complex of Erica azorica/Myrsine africana forests/shrublands and grassy meadows, which remained until ca. 1800 CE. Extractive forestry, cereal cultivation (rye, maize, wheat) and animal husbandry progressed until another extensive deforestation (ca. 1774 CE), followed by the large-scale introduction (1845 CE) of the exotic forest species Cryptomeria japonica and Pinus pinaster, which shaped the present-day landscape. Fire was a significant driver in these vegetation changes. The lake levels experienced a progressive rise during the time interval studied, reaching a maximum by ca. 1778–1852 CE, followed by a hydrological decline likely due to a combination of climatic and anthropogenic drivers. Our pollen record suggests that S?o Miguel were already settled by humans by ca. 1287 CE, approximately one century and a half prior to the official historically documented occupation of the archipelago. The results of this study are compared with the few palynological records available from other Azores islands (Pico and Flores).","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rull","given":"Valentí","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lara","given":"Arantza","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rubio-Inglés","given":"María Jesús","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Giralt","given":"Santiago","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gon?alves","given":"Vítor","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Raposeiro","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hernández","given":"Armand","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sánchez-López","given":"Guiomar","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vázquez-Loureiro","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bao","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Masqué","given":"Pere","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sáez","given":"Alberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Quaternary Science Reviews","id":"ITEM-3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"155-168","title":"Vegetation and landscape dynamics under natural and anthropogenic forcing on the Azores Islands: A 700-year pollen record from the S?o Miguel Island","type":"article-journal","volume":"159"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 2013; Rodrigues et al., 2015; Rull et al., 2017b)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 2013; Rodrigues et al., 2015; Rull et al., 2017b)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 2013; Rodrigues et al., 2015; Rull et al., 2017b)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Jones et al., 2013; Rodrigues et al., 2015; Rull et al., 2017b); based on a 700-year pollen record from S?o Miguel Island (Caldeira of Sete Cidades), there is evidence of human disturbance in 1287, culminating with local deforestation that is manifested by local forest burning, cereal cultivation and possibly animal husbandry ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.01.021","ISBN":"0277-3791","ISSN":"02773791","abstract":"The Azores archipelago has provided significant clues to the ecological, biogeographic and evolutionary knowledge of oceanic islands. Palaeoecological records are comparatively scarce, but they can provide relevant information on these subjects. We report the palynological reconstruction of the vegetation and landscape dynamics of the S?o Miguel Island before and after human settlement using the sediments of Lake Azul. The landscape was dominated by dense laurisilvas of Juniperus brevifolia and Morella faya from ca. 1280 CE to the official European establishment (1449 CE). After this date, the original forests were replaced by a complex of Erica azorica/Myrsine africana forests/shrublands and grassy meadows, which remained until ca. 1800 CE. Extractive forestry, cereal cultivation (rye, maize, wheat) and animal husbandry progressed until another extensive deforestation (ca. 1774 CE), followed by the large-scale introduction (1845 CE) of the exotic forest species Cryptomeria japonica and Pinus pinaster, which shaped the present-day landscape. Fire was a significant driver in these vegetation changes. The lake levels experienced a progressive rise during the time interval studied, reaching a maximum by ca. 1778–1852 CE, followed by a hydrological decline likely due to a combination of climatic and anthropogenic drivers. Our pollen record suggests that S?o Miguel were already settled by humans by ca. 1287 CE, approximately one century and a half prior to the official historically documented occupation of the archipelago. The results of this study are compared with the few palynological records available from other Azores islands (Pico and Flores).","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rull","given":"Valentí","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lara","given":"Arantza","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rubio-Inglés","given":"María Jesús","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Giralt","given":"Santiago","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gon?alves","given":"Vítor","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Raposeiro","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hernández","given":"Armand","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sánchez-López","given":"Guiomar","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Vázquez-Loureiro","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Bao","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Masqué","given":"Pere","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Sáez","given":"Alberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Quaternary Science Reviews","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"page":"155-168","title":"Vegetation and landscape dynamics under natural and anthropogenic forcing on the Azores Islands: A 700-year pollen record from the S?o Miguel Island","type":"article-journal","volume":"159"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Rull et al., 2017b)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Rull et al., 2017b)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Rull et al., 2017b)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Rull et al., 2017b).15th century (1400-1500)European workers subsistence farming (peasants, farmers) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Thornton","given":"John K.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"publisher":"Cambridge University Press","title":"A cultural history of the Atlantic world, 1250–1820","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Thornton, 2012)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Thornton, 2012)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Thornton, 2012)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Thornton, 2012); the Azores were important producers of wheat for the Portuguese crown and for trade with Morocco ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Almeida","given":"A.S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ma??s","given":"B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rodrigues","given":"V. L. G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Torr?o","given":"M.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The world wheat book: a history of wheat breeding (Vol. 2)","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"William","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Alain","given":"B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Maarten","given":"V. G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"3-36","publisher":"Lavoisier","title":"The History of Wheat Breeding in Portugal","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Almeida et al., 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Almeida et al., 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Almeida et al., 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Almeida et al., 2011); 1450 introduction of sugar cane in S?o Miguel and Santa Maria but soon ceded; end of century: blue-dye pastel (woad) backbone of economy for next 1.5 century ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Greenfield","given":"Sidney M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Roots and branches: current directions in slave studies","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1979"]]},"page":"85-119","title":"Plantations, sugar cane and slavery","type":"article-journal","volume":"6"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Greenfield, 1979); 1490 pastel ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972)16th century (1500-1600)Whole century blue-dye pastel main commodity; wheat ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Silveira","given":"L M A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"number-of-pages":"349","publisher":"Principia","publisher-place":"Estoril","title":"Aprender com a História Modos de intera??o com a Natureza na Ilha Terceira, do Povoamento ao Século XX","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972; Silveira, 2007)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972; Silveira, 2007)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972; Silveira, 2007)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972; Silveira, 2007); 1540 reintroduction of sugar cane to S?o Miguel ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Greenfield","given":"Sidney M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Roots and branches: current directions in slave studies","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1979"]]},"page":"85-119","title":"Plantations, sugar cane and slavery","type":"article-journal","volume":"6"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Greenfield, 1979). 17th century (1600-1700)Staple exports: wheat, pastel and flax (including derived products linen and cloth), wheat for export, peasantry was eating maize and yams ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972); export of several products, import of sugar from Brazil. Pico wine ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972); 1685 end of pastel (peak importance 1550-1650), outcompeted by indigo from Brazil ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972). 1620-1694: decrease in pastel, increase in linen; also inter-island trade: products embroideries, bacon, 1640 onwards broad beans, 1646 onwards: barley, export of pork products ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972).18th century (1700-1800)±1740 end of blue-dye pastel? Diversity of crops; throughout the centuries: many crops of local importance: sweet potatoes, yams, potatoes, grapes, beetroot, tea, peanuts, tobacco, etc.; also fishing, whaling, cattle, sheep, dairy products; but all export products economically insignificant ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972).19th century (1800-1900)First record of foot rot in citrus trees was recorded on the Azores in 1834, in following decades decay of orange plantations ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Grant","given":"J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Klotz","given":"L J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wallace","given":"J M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Yearbook of agriculture","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1953"]]},"page":"734","title":"Foot rot of citrus trees","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Grant et al., 1953)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Grant et al., 1953)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Grant et al., 1953)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Grant et al., 1953). Despite the orange disease, the industry continued to prosper during the first half of the 19th century but started to deteriorate in the 1870s ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carvalho Benevides","given":"Mónica","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"publisher":"Universidade dos A?ores, Ponta Delgada","title":"Portais de quintas, mirantes e torre?es - Elementos da arquitectura da \"Economia da Laranja\" na Faj? de Baixo, ilha de S. Miguel. Dissertation.","type":"book","volume":"I"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Carvalho Benevides, 2013)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Carvalho Benevides, 2013)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Carvalho Benevides, 2013)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Carvalho Benevides, 2013); during 1890-1895 orange groves devastated/destroyed; Pico wine ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972); end of 19th century: corn replacing wheat.20th century (1900-2000)1960: cattle grazing; rapid deforestation at mid- and higher elevations during (and after) WWI and WWII; 1950 reforestation with fast-growing exotic species; 1970-1990 deforestation for pastures at high elevations. Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 5. Historic socioeconomic trends in Madeira. CenturyAgricultural production for local consumption and export and trade14th century (1300-1400) and before?15th century (1400-1500)Porto Santo was discovered in 1418, the island Madeira was settled in 1420 ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Frutuoso","given":"G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1589"]]},"number-of-pages":"473","publisher":"Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada","publisher-place":"Ponta Delgada, A?ores, Portugal","title":"Livro segundo das saudades da terra (Edi??o 1998)","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Frutuoso, 1589d)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Frutuoso, 1589d)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Frutuoso, 1589d)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Frutuoso, 1589d); 1420s: rabbits, cows, pig, sheep introduced to the islands prior to human settlement ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moore","given":"Jason","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Review","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"345-390","title":"Madeira, sugar, and the conquest of nature in the 'first' sixteenth century, part II: from regional crisis to commodity frontier, 1506–1530","type":"article-journal","volume":"XXXII"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009a)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009a)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009a)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Moore, 2009a); hardwood cutting and exportation ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"9789720841636","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes de Sequeira","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jardim","given":"Roberto","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Capelo","given":"Jorge","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"?rvores e Florestas de Portugal: A?ores e Madeira","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"page":"165-196","title":"A chegada dos Portugueses às ilhas—o antes eo depois - Madeira","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)","manualFormatting":"(28, and references therein)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2007)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(28, and references therein); 1430s-1450s: cattle raising, export of cereals (mainly wheat) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Almeida","given":"A.S","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ma??s","given":"B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rodrigues","given":"V. L. G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Torr?o","given":"M.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The world wheat book: a history of wheat breeding (Vol. 2)","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"William","given":"A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Alain","given":"B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Maarten","given":"V. G","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"3-36","publisher":"Lavoisier","title":"The History of Wheat Breeding in Portugal","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Almeida et al., 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Almeida et al., 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Almeida et al., 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Almeida et al., 2011) and wood; introduction of many cultivated plants including vine; sugar cane became commercially viable in 1450, in the early 1470s there was a rapid increase of sugar cane production (9-fold increase between 1472 and 1506) and deforestation ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moore","given":"Jason","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Review","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"345-390","title":"Madeira, sugar, and the conquest of nature in the 'first' sixteenth century, part II: from regional crisis to commodity frontier, 1506–1530","type":"article-journal","volume":"XXXII"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moore","given":"Jason","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Review","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"345-390","title":"Madeira, sugar, and the conquest of nature in the 'first' sixteenth century, part I: from \"island of timber\" to sugar revolution, 1420–1506","type":"article-journal","volume":"XXXII"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009a, 2009b)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009a, 2009b)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009a, 2009b)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Moore, 2009a, 2009b); reduction of cereal production; Introduction of European crops (including Castanea sativa, Citrus, Ficus, Prunus, etc.).16th century (1500-1600)Sugar production rose rapidly and peaked around 1506, and subsequently plummeted by 90% between 1506 and 1530 ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moore","given":"Jason","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Review","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"345-390","title":"Madeira, sugar, and the conquest of nature in the 'first' sixteenth century, part I: from \"island of timber\" to sugar revolution, 1420–1506","type":"article-journal","volume":"XXXII"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Moore","given":"Jason","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Review","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"4","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"345-390","title":"Madeira, sugar, and the conquest of nature in the 'first' sixteenth century, part II: from regional crisis to commodity frontier, 1506–1530","type":"article-journal","volume":"XXXII"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009b, 2009a)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009b, 2009a)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Moore, 2009b, 2009a)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Moore, 2009b, 2009a); 1540 wood shortages, not enough for sugar production; legal documents and laws to reserve part of forest to keep sugarcane production and export.17th century (1600-1700)Local agriculture focused on cash crops (grapes), high reliance on food imports ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972). 1650 cheap wine ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972); by the end of the 17th century 90% of export value from wine ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972).18th century (1700-1800)1703: Cheap wine ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hancock","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Journal of Interdisciplinary History","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]},"page":"197-219","title":"Commerce and conversation in the eighteenth-century Atlantic: the invention of Madeira wine","type":"article-journal","volume":"29"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Hancock, 1998)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Hancock, 1998)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Hancock, 1998)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Hancock, 1998); introduction of new-world crops, possibly sweet potato, guavos (Psidium guajava), reference to Colocasia esculenta cultivation, possibly also mango (Mangifera indica), corn (Zea mays), Opuntia, etc. ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"ISBN":"0040-0262","abstract":"The Macaronesian Islands comprise the Atlantic archipelagos of Azores, Madeira, Selvagens, Canaries and Cape Verde. These islands were a major focus for plant exploration during the 17th and 18th centuries. Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753), one of the most important patrons and sponsors of natural sciences and botanical research, visited Madeira on his way to Jamaica in 1687. Although he stayed in Madeira for only three days, he collected plant specimens of 38 taxa (including one brown alga) and made important observations concerning the flora and fauna of Madeira from near Funchal. Sixty-six polynomial names of plants from the island are recorded in Sloane's published work along with 18 copperplate engravings, ostensibly from Madeira, although our study shows that only thirteen of them are of taxa occurring on the island. Fourteen of the sixty-six polynomials reported by Sloane relate to Macaronesian endemic taxa, six of them restricted to Madeira. Our study shows that nine of the fifteen polynomials that he putatively recorded for Madeira and/or the Antilles or for which he was unsure of their origin are from the West Indies and do not occur on this Macaronesian island. Two of the taxa that are listed for Madeira and the Caribbean Islands were likely to be present in both insular systems. Although there is evidence of earlier botanical explorations in Macaronesia, the herbarium collections made by Sloane in Madeira represent the earliest documented plant hunting expedition to Macaronesia, and Sir Hans Sloane can be considered as one of the pioneers of botanical exploration in these Atlantic Islands. Sloane's records provide an early floristic study of a diverse island flora.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Menezes de Sequeira","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Santos-Guerra","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jarvis","given":"C.E.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Oberli","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Carine","given":"M.A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Maunder","given":"M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Francisco-Ortega","given":"J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Taxon","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]},"page":"598-612","title":"The Madeiran plants collected by Sir Hans Sloane in 1687, and his descriptions","type":"article-journal","volume":"59"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2010)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2010)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2010)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Menezes de Sequeira et al., 2010).19th century (1800-1900)1807: luxury wine ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hancock","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Journal of Interdisciplinary History","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]},"page":"197-219","title":"Commerce and conversation in the eighteenth-century Atlantic: the invention of Madeira wine","type":"article-journal","volume":"29"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Hancock, 1998)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Hancock, 1998)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Hancock, 1998)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Hancock, 1998). 1815 peak of wine trade ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hancock","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"The Business History Review","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]},"page":"467-491","title":"The Trouble with Networks : Managing the Scots ' Early-Modern Madeira Trade","type":"article-journal","volume":"79"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Hancock, 2005)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Hancock, 2005)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Hancock, 2005)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Hancock, 2005); wine production affected first by powdery mildew (caused by Oidium fungus) and later by Wine Blight (caused by Phylloxera aphids). 1840 elite wine ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duncan","given":"T Bentley","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1972"]]},"number-of-pages":"291","publisher":"University of Chicago Press","publisher-place":"Chicago and London","title":"Atlantic Islands: Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verdes in seventeenth-century commerce and navigation","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Duncan, 1972)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Duncan, 1972); slow return of sugar cane but affected by new diseases (second half of the 19th century), end of 19th century sugar cane plantations increase.20th century (1900-2000)Steady increase in sugar cane, increase in wine production, banana plantations, decrease in cattle, eradication of feral goats and mountain use for grazing, second half of century with a decrease in agricultural landscape (process ending in 2004).Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 6. Historic socioeconomic trends in the Canary Islands. CenturyAgricultural production for local consumption and export and trade14th century and before (until 1400)The first human settlers arrived to the archipelago approximately 2500 cal. years BP ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Atoche","given":"P","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Los fenicios y el Atlántico","editor":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"González","given":"R","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"López","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pe?a","given":"V","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2008"]]},"page":"317–344","publisher":"Centro de Estudios Fenicios y Púnicos","publisher-place":"Madrid","title":"Las culturas protohistóricas canarias en el contexto del desarrollo cultural mediterráneo: propuesta de fasificación","type":"chapter"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/s41559-017-0181","ISSN":"2397334X","abstract":"The discovery and colonization of islands by humans has invariably resulted in their widespread ecological transformation. The small and isolated populations of many island taxa, and their evolution in the absence of humans and their introduced taxa, mean that they are particularly vulnerable to human activities. Consequently, even the most degraded islands are a focus for restoration, eradication, and monitoring programmes to protect the remaining endemic and/or relict populations. Here, we build a framework that incorporates an assessment of the degree of change from multiple baseline reference periods using long-term ecological data. The use of multiple reference points may provide information on both the variability of natural systems and responses to successive waves of cultural transformation of island ecosystems, involving, for example, the alteration of fire and grazing regimes and the introduction of non-native species. We provide exemplification of how such approaches can provide valuable information for biodiversity conservation managers of island ecosystems.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nogué","given":"Sandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nascimento","given":"Lea","non-dropping-particle":"De","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Froyd","given":"Cynthia A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Wilmshurst","given":"Janet M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Boer","given":"Erik J.","non-dropping-particle":"De","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Coffey","given":"Emily E.D.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"Robert J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernández-Palacios","given":"José María","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Willis","given":"Kathy J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Nature Ecology and Evolution","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"7","issued":{"date-parts":[["2017"]]},"publisher":"Macmillan Publishers Limited","title":"Island biodiversity conservation needs palaeoecology","type":"article-journal","volume":"1"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-3","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.02012.x","ISBN":"0305-0270","ISSN":"03050270","abstract":"Aim : We report the first analysis of the long-term ecology of Tenerife, in order to establish a pre-colonization base-line and to assess the effect of human activity and the role of climatic variation on vegetation during the Late Holocene. Location : A former lake bed in the city of La Laguna (Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain). Methods : A sedimentary sequence of over 2 m was obtained from the former lake bed. Fossil pollen and microfossil charcoal concentrations were analysed. Radiocarbon dating of the sequence indicates that it spans approximately the last 4700 years. The pollen diagram was zoned using optimal splitting within psimpoll 4.25. Results : Three pollen zones were differentiated: (1) in Zone L1 (c. 4700-2900 cal. yr bp) a mixed forest was dominated by Quercus, Carpinus, Myrica and Pinus; (2) in Zone L2 (c. 2900-2000 cal. yr bp) the laurel forest taxa increased, while Pinus, Juniperus and Phoenix declined; and (3) Zone L3 (c. 2000-400 cal. yr bp) was characterized by the decline of Carpinus and Quercus and the abundance of laurel forest taxa (e.g. Myrica). Neither Carpinus nor Quercus was hitherto considered to be native to the Canary Islands. Their decline started c. 2000 years ago, coinciding with microfossil charcoal evidence of increased burning and with archaeological evidence for the first human settlement on Tenerife. Main conclusions : Between c. 4700 and 2000 cal. yr bp, the composition of the forest in the valley of La Laguna was very different from what it is at present. In particular, Quercus and Carpinus appear to have been significant components, alongside components of the present-day laurel forest, and the native pine (Pinus canariensis) forest and thermophilous woodland were also more prevalent in the region (but probably not within the lake basin itself) until 3000 cal. yr bp. The subsequent decline of Quercus and Carpinus led to the establishment of the present laurel forest in the region and a shift to more open vegetation types. These changes indicate that the aboriginal inhabitants of the islands, the Guanches, had a far more profound impact on the vegetation of Tenerife than hitherto realized. -? 2008 Blackwell Publishing Ltd","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nascimento","given":"Lea","non-dropping-particle":"de","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Willis","given":"Katherine J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernández-Palacios","given":"J. M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Criado","given":"Constantino","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"Robert J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Biogeography","id":"ITEM-3","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"499-514","title":"The long-term ecology of the lost forests of la Laguna, Tenerife (Canary Islands)","type":"article-journal","volume":"36"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Atoche, 2008; de Nascimento et al., 2009; Nogué et al., 2017)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Atoche, 2008; de Nascimento et al., 2009; Nogué et al., 2017)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Atoche, 2008; de Nascimento et al., 2009; Nogué et al., 2017). The initial settlers of the Canary Islands raised goats, sheep and pigs, and also gathered seafood. Crop cultivation was focused on cereals such as wheat and barley ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1179/174963109X400655","ISBN":"1461-4103","ISSN":"1461-4103","abstract":"This paper presents a brief review of archaeological evidence for the impact of the pre-Hispanic population on the environment of the Canary Islands. Prior to human colonisation, the archipelago was an untouched environment with high botanical and faunal biodiversity. The first human settlement can be traced to the early 1st millennium BC; this period of settlement finished at the end of the 15th century AD when the Spanish Crown conquered the archipelago. It has often been assumed that the pre-Hispanic population had little significant impact on the islands' ecosystems. However, abundant evidence for faunal extinctions, deforestation and soil erosion has been recovered from archaeological sites across the islands. This indicates that pre-Hispanic colonisers introduced cultivated plants, opened up the forests to create fields and cut woody vegetation for fuel. They also introduced domestic animals and alien predators resulting in a major depletion of native fauna.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morales","given":"Jacob","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Rodríguez","given":"Amelia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Alberto","given":"Verónica","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Machado","given":"Carmen","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Criado","given":"Constantino","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Environmental Archaeology","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"page":"27-36","title":"The impact of human activities on the natural environment of the Canary Islands (Spain) during the pre-Hispanic stage (3rd–2nd Century BC to 15th Century AD): an overview","type":"article-journal","volume":"14"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 2009)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 2009)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 2009)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Morales et al., 2009).15th century (1400-1500)This century coincided with the Castilian conquest of the Canaries (1402-1496); in the early-conquered islands (Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Gomera and El Hierro) a new agriculture was imposed, mainly based in cereals ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morales","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mir","given":"A.J","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aznar","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobo","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nore?a","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pérez","given":"J.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"publisher":"Editorial Prensa Ibérica","publisher-place":"Barcelona","title":"Historia de Canarias","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Morales et al., 1992); in the late-conquered islands (Gran Canary, La Palma and Tenerife) the agriculture/goat and sheep raising model persisted until the end of the century ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morales","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mir","given":"A.J","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aznar","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobo","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nore?a","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pérez","given":"J.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"publisher":"Editorial Prensa Ibérica","publisher-place":"Barcelona","title":"Historia de Canarias","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Morales et al., 1992).16th century (1500-1600)Subsistence agriculture coexisted with cycles of exportation monocultures: sugar cane became important in early 16th century ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morales","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mir","given":"A.J","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aznar","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobo","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nore?a","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pérez","given":"J.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"publisher":"Editorial Prensa Ibérica","publisher-place":"Barcelona","title":"Historia de Canarias","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mintz","given":"S.W.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["1986"]]},"number-of-pages":"304","publisher":"Penguin Books","title":"Sweetness and power: the place of sugar in modern history","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Mintz, 1986; 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Rain fed cereal cultivation for local consumption was relatively important during the 16-17th century.17th century (1600-1700)Subsistence agriculture coexisted with cycles of grape monocultures to produce wine for export ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morales","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mir","given":"A.J","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aznar","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobo","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nore?a","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pérez","given":"J.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"publisher":"Editorial Prensa Ibérica","publisher-place":"Barcelona","title":"Historia de Canarias","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Morales et al., 1992). Rain fed cereal cultivation for local consumption was relatively important during the 16-17th century.18th century (1700-1800)Subsistence agriculture; agricultural-pastoral sector: maize, potatoes and domestic animals coexisted with a commercial export sector owned by foreigners; export economy was based on “orchilla” (Rochella canariensis) dyestuff, sugar, wine, “barilla” (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum) for caustic soda ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/126199a0","ISBN":"1853837504","ISSN":"0028-0836","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parsons","given":"James J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Geographical Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]},"page":"253-271","title":"Human influences on the pine and laurel forests of the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"71"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Parsons, 1981); export of wood and shortage of hardwood ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/126199a0","ISBN":"1853837504","ISSN":"0028-0836","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parsons","given":"James J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Geographical Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]},"page":"253-271","title":"Human influences on the pine and laurel forests of the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"71"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Parsons, 1981).19th century (1800-1900)Subsistence agriculture coexisted with cycles of exportation monocultures: banana and tomatoes ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morales","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mir","given":"A.J","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aznar","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobo","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nore?a","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pérez","given":"J.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"publisher":"Editorial Prensa Ibérica","publisher-place":"Barcelona","title":"Historia de Canarias","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Morales et al., 1992). Halfway the 19th century there was a surge in the production of crimson dye, a natural colorant extracted from Dactylopius coccus (Hemiptera) insects living on the leaves of Opuntia spp. (introduced from Mexico with this purpose).Fires destroyed part of forest and regeneration was inhibited by livestock browsing ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/126199a0","ISBN":"1853837504","ISSN":"0028-0836","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parsons","given":"James J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Geographical Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]},"page":"253-271","title":"Human influences on the pine and laurel forests of the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"71"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Parsons, 1981); attempts/mentioning of reforestation ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/126199a0","ISBN":"1853837504","ISSN":"0028-0836","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parsons","given":"James J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Geographical Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]},"page":"253-271","title":"Human influences on the pine and laurel forests of the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"71"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Parsons, 1981).20th century (1900-2000)Subsistence agriculture coexisted with cycles of exportation monocultures: banana and tomatoes ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Morales","given":"F","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mir","given":"A.J","non-dropping-particle":"El","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Aznar","given":"E","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Lobo","given":"M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nore?a","given":"T","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Pérez","given":"J.M","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"publisher":"Editorial Prensa Ibérica","publisher-place":"Barcelona","title":"Historia de Canarias","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/126199a0","ISBN":"1853837504","ISSN":"0028-0836","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parsons","given":"James J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Geographical Society","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]},"page":"253-271","title":"Human influences on the pine and laurel forests of the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"71"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992; Parsons, 1981)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992; Parsons, 1981)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Morales et al., 1992; Parsons, 1981)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Morales et al., 1992; Parsons, 1981); decreasing importance of local food crops due to agricultural abandonment following the tourist boom in the 1960s; intense reforestation programs ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1038/126199a0","ISBN":"1853837504","ISSN":"0028-0836","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Parsons","given":"James J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"American Geographical Society","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"3","issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]},"page":"253-271","title":"Human influences on the pine and laurel forests of the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"71"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Parsons, 1981)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Parsons, 1981); establishment of national parks and reserves.Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 7. Historic socioeconomic trends in Cape Verde. CenturyAgricultural production for local consumption and export and trade14th century and before (until 1400)15th century (1400-1500)The first islands to be settled by Europeans were Santiago (1460) and Fogo (1470) ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Green","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"publisher":"Cambridge University Press","publisher-place":"Cambridge","title":"The rise of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Green, 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Green, 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Green, 2011). It has been suggested that horse breeding and cotton plantations were practiced since the late 1470’s, with already some slave trade taking place ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Green","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"publisher":"Cambridge University Press","publisher-place":"Cambridge","title":"The rise of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Green, 2011)","manualFormatting":"(Green, 2011, p. 100)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Green, 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Green, 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Green, 2011, p. 100).16th century (1500-1600)Palaeoecological studies indicate that first human impacts on S?o Nicolau and Santo Ant?o started around 1550 and 1600 respectively ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108397","ISSN":"00063207","abstract":"Tropical dry islands are currently facing major challenges derived from anthropogenic and climatic pressures. However, their trajectories of environmental change, which could provide relevant information applicable to biodiversity conservation, remain understudied. This is mainly due to poor micro-fossil preservation and irregular sediment deposition. Multi-proxy palaeoecological analyses spanning decades to 1000s of years can add perspective as to how vegetation, fungal communities, and the fauna responded to previous natural and anthropogenic disturbances. In S?o Nicolau, Cabo Verde, we used palaeoecological methods to analyse a highland soil profile (1000 m asl) dated to 5900 cal yr BP. We analysed how vegetation (abundances in pollen of native and introduced species, and leaf wax n-alkanes), ferns and fungal communities (abundance of non-pollen palynomorphs) varied over time in relation to fire (charcoal concentration) and erosion regimes (grain sizes and elemental composition). Between 5000 and 400 cal yr BP the highlands held native woody taxa such as Euphorbia tuckeyana, Dracaena draco subsp. caboverdeana, and Ficus, taxa that can be used for future reforestation programmes. From 400 cal yr BP to the present day, replacement of native taxa by introduced and cultivated taxa (Pinus, Eucalyptus, Asystasia, Opuntia) has occurred. Vegetation burning and grazing caused loss of vegetation and erosion, acting as conjoined drivers of scrubland degradation. This dataset helps to set historically contextualised restoration goals such as the re-introduction of native species, monitoring of recently introduced species and control of free grazing. This can serve as a model system for the conservation of tropical dry islands' biodiversity.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Castilla-Beltrán","given":"Alvaro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Duarte","given":"Ivani","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nascimento","given":"Lea","non-dropping-particle":"de","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fernández-Palacios","given":"José María","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Romeiras","given":"Maria","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"Robert J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jambrina-Enríquez","given":"Margarita","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Mallol","given":"Carolina","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cundy","given":"Andrew B.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Edwards","given":"Mary","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nogué","given":"Sandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Biological Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"October 2019","issued":{"date-parts":[["2020"]]},"page":"108397","publisher":"Elsevier","title":"Using multiple palaeoecological indicators to guide biodiversity conservation in tropical dry islands: The case of S?o Nicolau, Cabo Verde","type":"article-journal","volume":"242"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.03.033","ISSN":"0031-0182","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Castilla-beltrán","given":"Alvaro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"De","family":"Nascimento","given":"Lea","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"María","given":"José","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Fonville","given":"Thierry","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Whittaker","given":"Robert J","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Nogué","given":"Sandra","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology","id":"ITEM-2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2019"]]},"page":"#pagerange#","publisher":"Elsevier B.V","title":"Late Holocene environmental change and the anthropization of the highlands of Santo Ant?o Island, Cabo Verde","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019; Castilla-Beltrán et al., 2020)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019; Castilla-Beltrán et al., 2020)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019; Castilla-Beltrán et al., 2020)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Castilla-beltrán et al., 2019; Castilla-Beltrán et al., 2020). Experiments with sugar cane started on some islands but on a smaller scale than Madeira, not a real sugar plantation economy as Madeira or S?o Tomé ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Greenfield","given":"Sidney M.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Roots and branches: current directions in slave studies","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1979"]]},"page":"85-119","title":"Plantations, sugar cane and slavery","type":"article-journal","volume":"6"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Greenfield, 1979)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Greenfield, 1979); plantation economy. Sugar cane and cotton, maize and beans also cultivated at smaller scales ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Green","given":"T.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"publisher":"Cambridge University Press","publisher-place":"Cambridge","title":"The rise of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589","type":"book"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"DOI":"10.3390/su10103408","ISSN":"20711050","abstract":"The present study provides a critical analysis of the introduction of exotic food crop species and their impact on agricultural transformations in Guinea-Bissau, based on survey data and a review of the literature from the 1800s to the present. It applies a multidisciplinary analysis to map historical and contemporary agrarian knowledge in Guinea-Bissau, presenting the first list of exotic cultivated species introduced in the country. Our results show that many introduced crops have gained widespread acceptance among local producers, with 63 exotic cultivated species native to America and Asia. The most representative families are Fabaceae, Solanaceae, and Anacardiaceae, including the country’s main former and current cash crops. First driven by peanuts in colonial times and by cashew after independence from 1980s onwards, Guinea-Bissau rapidly became one of Africa’s major exporters. The current cashew monoculture—like peanuts before it—relies almost exclusively on smallholder agriculture, raising concerns with regard to biodiversity, sustainability, and food security. The paper analyses historical trends in agro-economic transformations taking into account policies, programs, performance, and scientific research. Despite the existence of a long-standing single crop economy, further research is needed in this largely understudied country to assess the impact of long-term agrarian change.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Havik","given":"Philip J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Monteiro","given":"Filipa","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Catarino","given":"Silvia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Correia","given":"A. 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Systematically applied work-related interventions during visits to occupational health (OH) physicians support the preventive and health promotive goals of OH. The proportion of the visits including a work- related intervention was analyzed according to patient, health problem, and physician determinants in a sample of visits to OH physicians in Finland. Methods. A cross-sectional study was carried out among 55 Occupational Health Services (OHS) units. Office encounters with 4,404 male and 5,373 female employed patients ages 18-64 years, recorded by 114 OHS physicians, were analyzed. Results. Altogether 856 (8.8%) encounters included a work-related intervention. The work-related interventions were distributed across all the main disease categories, the majority of which were musculoskeletal diseases. 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O trabalho apresenta o balan?o da situa??o das florestas densas húmidas de S?o Tomé e Príncipe do ponto de vista da sua conserva??o, da sua ecologia, do seu estatuto jurídico e da sua explora??o. Prop?e em seguida uma lista dos sítios mais importantes para a sua conserva??o e recomenda um conjunto de ac??es que permiteriam garantir a sua conserva??o, assegurando ao mesmo tempo uma explora??o a longo prazo dos seus recursos.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Jones","given":"P.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Burlison","given":"J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Tye","given":"A.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"UICN","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1992"]]},"number-of-pages":"1-91","title":"Conserva??o dos ecossistemas florestais na república democrática de S?o Tomé e Príncipe","type":"book"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 1992)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 1992)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Jones et al., 1992)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Jones et al., 1992); by 1910, cocoa production peaks, and these islands become the world’s leading cocoa producer. Other export crops, such as coffee, quinine and cinnamon, also expand. The “gleba” supplies only part of the food, while the “ro?as” remain highly reliant on food imports. Before 1935, competition with other African regions leads to the decline of the “ro?a” system and to the appearance of large extents of secondary forests. Increased production of food crops for local consumption, like potatoes, maize, annuals, cabbage, beans and carrots, but overall reliance on imports persists ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eyzaguirre","given":"Pablo B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["1986"]]},"publisher":"Yale University, New Haven","title":"Small farmers and estates in S?o Tomé and Príncipe, West Africa. PhD dissertation","type":"thesis"},"uris":[""]},{"id":"ITEM-2","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Eyzaguirre","given":"Pablo B","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Cahiers d'?tudes africaines","id":"ITEM-2","issue":"101/102","issued":{"date-parts":[["1986"]]},"page":"113-129","title":"The Ecology of Swidden Agriculture and Agrarian History in S?o Tomé ( ?cologie de l ' essartage et histoire agricole de S?o Tomé )","type":"article-journal","volume":"26"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Eyzaguirre, 1986a, 1986b)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Eyzaguirre, 1986a, 1986b)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Eyzaguirre, 1986a, 1986b)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Eyzaguirre, 1986a, 1986b).Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 9. Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) for all variables in the full model. Variables are scaled. Popdens: population density, Landmod: landscape modification. VIFRuggedness1.43Area2.52Elevation2.23Temperature1.46Precipitation1.31Popdens 1.95Landmod1.62Table A. SEQ Table_A. \* ARABIC 10. Regression coefficients of Partial Least Squares Regression analysis using the first two components. The data has been scaled - so coefficient values can be compared directly. Popdens: population density, Landmod: landscape modification.Natural VegetationRuggedness0.598Area0.084Elevation0.304Temperature0.180Precipitation0.051Popdens 0.023Landmod-0.300Fig. A. SEQ Fig._A. \* ARABIC 1. Climatic classification for the five archipelagos in the Eastern Atlantic. K?ppen-Geiger classification is provided in grey text within brackets ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Peel","given":"M. C.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Finlayson","given":"B. 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An analysis of the extreme events shows that this trend is due mainly to a decrease in the upper percentiles of the precipitation distribution. The results suggest that local factors play a fundamental role on extreme event behaviour. Copyright 2003 Royal Meteorological Society.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"García-Herrera","given":"Ricardo","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gallego","given":"David","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Hernández","given":"Emiliano","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gimeno","given":"Luis","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Ribera","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Calvo","given":"Natalia","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"International Journal of Climatology","id":"ITEM-5","issue":"2","issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]},"page":"235-241","title":"Precipitation trends in the Canary Islands","type":"article-journal","volume":"23"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Agencia Estatal de Meteorología de Espa?a / Instituto de Meteorologia de Portugal, 2011; Cropper, 2013; García-Herrera et al., 2003; Peel et al., 2007; Tsalefac et al., 2015)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Agencia Estatal de Meteorología de Espa?a / Instituto de Meteorologia de Portugal, 2011; Cropper, 2013; García-Herrera et al., 2003; Peel et al., 2007; Tsalefac et al., 2015)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Agencia Estatal de Meteorología de Espa?a / Instituto de Meteorologia de Portugal, 2011; Cropper, 2013; García-Herrera et al., 2003; Peel et al., 2007; Tsalefac et al., 2015)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Agencia Estatal de Meteorología de Espa?a / Instituto de Meteorologia de Portugal, 2011; Cropper, 2013; García-Herrera et al., 2003; Peel et al., 2007; Tsalefac et al., 2015). The mean annual sea-surface temperature data between for 2009-2013 was obtained from and the mean annual precipitation for 1970-2000 from . Fig. A. SEQ Fig._A. \* ARABIC 2. Principal component analysis, first and second axis.Fig. A. SEQ Fig._A. \* ARABIC 3. Principal component analysis, first and third axis.Fig. A. SEQ Fig._A. \* ARABIC 4. Complementary results of a multiple linear regression analysis showing the influence of environmental and societal variables on natural vegetation cover considering only remnant native forest patches in the Azores ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"DOI":"10.1007/s10841-010-9365-4","ISBN":"1366-638X","ISSN":"1366638X","abstract":"The largest standardised database available to date for arthropods in native forests of the Azores archipelago was used to determine the minimum optimal set of native forest fragments needed to accomplish four different targets of species occurrence (presence-absence) and abundance (20, 50 and 80%) using different groups of arthropods and all data combined. The results showed that occurrence and 20% abundance targets gave similar optimal solutions for most of the groups considered. At least one fragment on each of the seven studied islands was required to accomplish any occurrence and abundance target. To achieve 80% of abundance for all species, all fragments were necessary and to guarantee 50% of the overall abundance of endemics, 17 out of 18 native forests were needed. A suggestion is made to apply a measure of biotic integrity related to disturbance to select, among alternative optimal solutions, the set of areas that will help to guarantee the viability of populations. Some guidelines for the selection of priority areas for conservation in the Azores are presented.","author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gaspar","given":"Clara","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Gaston","given":"Kevin J.","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"V","family":"Borges","given":"Paulo A","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""},{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Cardoso","given":"Pedro","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Journal of Insect Conservation","id":"ITEM-1","issue":"5","issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]},"page":"671-684","title":"Selection of priority areas for arthropod conservation in the Azores archipelago","type":"article-journal","volume":"15"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Gaspar et al., 2011)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Gaspar et al., 2011)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Gaspar et al., 2011)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Gaspar et al., 2011), ignoring all other native areas delineated in existing land use maps ADDIN CSL_CITATION {"citationItems":[{"id":"ITEM-1","itemData":{"author":[{"dropping-particle":"","family":"Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar","given":"","non-dropping-particle":"","parse-names":false,"suffix":""}],"container-title":"Direc??o regional do ordenamento do território e dos recursos hídricos","id":"ITEM-1","issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"title":"Carta de ocupa??o do solo da regi?o autonoma dos A?ores","type":"article-journal"},"uris":[""]}],"mendeley":{"formattedCitation":"(Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar, 2007)","plainTextFormattedCitation":"(Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar, 2007)","previouslyFormattedCitation":"(Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar, 2007)"},"properties":{"noteIndex":0},"schema":""}(Secretaria Regional do Ambiente e do Mar, 2007). a) Relationship between ruggedness and the partial response of native vegetation cover. b) Contribution of each predictor in the full model to the explanation of the variance in natural vegetation cover. The full model could explain 65.4% (R2) of the variance, 31.1% of which is explained by ruggedness alone.Fig. A. SEQ Fig._A. \* ARABIC 5. Effect sizes of model-averaged coefficients. Fig. A. SEQ Fig._A. \* ARABIC 6. Correlations between variables related to topography (ruggedness, area, elevation), climate (temperature, precipitation), and society (population density, human landscape modification), together with native vegetation cover (natveg).ReferencesADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY Agencia Estatal de Meteorología de Espa?a / Instituto de Meteorologia de Portugal, 2011. Climate atlas of the archipelagos of the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores. Instituto de Meteorologia de Portugal, Lisbon.Aguilar, P., 1997. Cocoa cultivation in S?o Tomé and Príncipe. Plant. Rech. développement 171–174.Allorge, P., Allorge, V., 1946. Les étages de la végétation muscinale aux ?les A?ores et leurs elements. Mémoires la Soc. 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