The Nature, Structure, and Types of Sociological - SAGE Publications Inc

TaTPhhnAdeeRoNTTryayptI eusroe,fSStorcuicotpluoorsgte,i,coarldistribute he five authors whose ideas compose Part 1 are largely engaged in some form of metatheorizing. , They, in their own ways, theorize about the nature, structure, and types of sociological theory.

T y More specifically, these writers tell what they believe sociological theory should be, what it

p should look like, and what it should do. The fact that there is little or no agreement concerning their

views on sociological theory points to the unsettled condition of sociology as a knowledge field and

o to the complexity of its subject matter: social reality. c We begin with the essay, "On Intellectual Craftsmanship," where C. Wright Mills offers beginning t students of sociology practical advice on how to stimulate the sociological imagination--the quality of

mind that will help them use information and develop reason in order to achieve lucid summations

o of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves. While Mills is not n typically considered a theorist, his recommendations for activating the sociological imagination can

nonetheless be helpful in doing theoretical work.

o Mills advocates an unbroken continuity between what students of sociology pursue intellectually D and what they, as persons, observe and experience in their everyday lives. In other words, the intel-

lectual's professional activities should always be fused with his or her personal life. Intellectual work

- may be properly described as a craft. Mills uses the phrase intellectual craftsmanship in referring to a f style of work, as well as to the joyful experience of mastering the medium--language--used in that

work. In order to engage in intellectual craftsmanship, Mills recommends that sociology students

o keep a "file," a journal of sorts, in which notes are habitually taken in an effort to join the personal o with the professional, to record studies underway, as well as studies planned. The file should consist r of a continually growing collection of facts and ideas, from the most vague to the most finished: perPsonal notes, excerpts from books, bibliographical items, outlines of projects, and so forth. At a later ftpoint in time, the sociologist rearranges the file by playfully combining previously isolated ideas and

notes on different topics and finding unsuspected connections between them. Rearranging the file

a releases the imagination, as the sociologist becomes receptive to unforeseen and unplanned linkages, r all the while keeping in mind the several problems on which he or she is actively working. Then, D through the use of ideal types, polar types, and cross-classification techniques, the sociologist

attempts to systematically order the findings. On completing this, the findings are then paired down

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2

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

to essentials by relating them to one another in order to form a working model. Finally, the sociologist relates the working model to whatever he or she is endeavoring to explain.

While Mills was advocating the use of a pragmatic "working" model--a more-or-less systematic inventory of findings that can be used to understand something of social significance--Talcott Parsons was proposing the formulation of a universal conceptual scheme for the social sciences.

te In 1949, Parsons promoted the formulation of a social theory that has the most general implica-

tions possible. In "The Importance of General Theory," Parsons maintains that the reason for engag-

u ing in general theorizing is that the cumulative development of knowledge is based on the degree of ib abstraction by which different findings and interpretations in the various social sciences can be sys-

tematically related to each other. At the time, Parsons was developing a master analytical scheme that

tr would encompass the entire subject matter of anthropology, social psychology, and sociology. He

would later articulate this comprehensive "system" theory in his landmark volumes Toward a General

is Theory of Action and The Social System. d In "Middle-Range Theories," Robert K. Merton proposes a distinctly different type of sociolog-

ical theory from that of Parsons's general conceptual model, which is far removed from empirical

r confirmation. For Merton, sociological theorizing should be done at midrange--intermediate o between an all-inclusive unified theory of social systems and minor and prosaic descriptions of t, observed data. Accordingly, middle-range theory involves neither broad abstractions nor trivial

details; rather, it consists of logically interconnected propositions that can be empirically investi-

s gated. Examples of middle-range theories include a theory of reference groups, a theory of relative

deprivation, and a theory of role sets. Merton argues that only by developing such specialized the-

o ories with limited conceptual ranges and gradually consolidating them will sociology advance its p knowledge. , In "Theory as Explanation," George C. Homans asserts that any science, including sociology, has y two main jobs to perform: discovery and explanation. Discovery involves stating and testing general

relationships between properties of nature. A discovery takes the form of a proposition, or a statement

p of relationship between properties of nature. But in science, discovery alone isn't enough, there must o also be explanation; there has to be a statement saying why, under given conditions, the relationship c holds well. In other words, if there is some change in one of the properties--one of the variables--the t proposition must specify what the change in the other variable will be, or if one of the variables

increases in value, it must say how the other will too. In sum, then, a theory should be an explanation

o in the form of x varies as y. Thus, for Homans, an explanation of an empirical phenomenon can only n be a theory of the phenomenon. But how does one arrive at a theory? Simply put, one does so through

the method of deduction. The proposition to be explained is called the explicandum. The explicandum

o is explained in that it follows a logical conclusion, as a deduction, from more general propositions.

For Homans, the purpose of sociological theory is to deduce a wide variety of empirical propositions

D under different given conditions. - In "The Oversocialized View of Human Nature," Dennis H. Wrong maintains that sociological f theory should be an effort to find answers to eternal questions about human nature, such as the

so-called Hobbesian problem of order: Why do people conform to institutionalized norms? Talcott

o Parsons gives the following answer: Because they have, through socialization, internalized the norms. o Wrong critiques this implicit "oversocialized" view of human nature for dismissing other characterisr tics of people who are resistant to socialization--such as their material interests, their sexual drives, Pand their quest for power--and characteristics that explain their motivations to conform (or, for that

matter, not to conform). Sociological theory, says Wrong, must consider people as social beings, with-

ftout treating them as entirely socialized beings. Finally, in "The Theoretical Infrastructure," Alvin W. Gouldner introduces the notion of domain

ra assumptions, by which he means those existential and normative beliefs that people have learned in their culture. Domain assumptions elicit certain sentiments that people have concerning their experi-

D ence with the social world. Whether they realize it or not and admit it or not, Gouldner contends that the theories sociologists create reflect their domain assumptions and sentiments. What is more, these

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The Nature, Structure, and Types of Sociological Theory

3

social theories also arouse certain sentiments in the students who study them. Whether students accept or reject a theory is based on the feeling--of satisfaction or discomfort, optimism or pessimism--that the theory evokes in them. Depending on which feeling it produces, the theory will also take on different political meanings. It will, for instance, be seen as progressive or conservative, as idealistic or practical. Gouldner refers to sociological theorists' domain assumptions and private

Draft Proof - Do not copy, post, or distribute sentiments as the "infrastructure" that determines the nature of the social theory they construct.

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Draft Proof - Do not copy, post, or distribute

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1TImhaegSioncaitoiolongical t, or distribute C. Wright Mills

Oxford University Press

py, pos On Intellectual Craftsmanship o To the individual social scientist who feels himc self a part of the classic tradition, social science is t the practice of a craft. A man at work on probo lems of substance, he is among those who are n quickly made impatient and weary by elaborate

discussions of method-and-theory-in-general; so

o much of it interrupts his proper studies. It is

much better, he believes, to have one account by

D a working student of how he is going about his - work than a dozen `codifications of procedure' by f specialists who as often as not have never done o much work of consequence. Only by conversa-

tions in which experienced thinkers exchange

ro information about their actual ways of working

can a useful sense of method and theory be

Pimparted to the beginning student. I feel it useful, fttherefore, to report in some detail how I go about

my craft. This is necessarily a personal statement,

a but it is written with the hope that others, esper cially those beginning independent work, will D make it less personal by the facts of their own

It is best to begin, I think, by reminding you, the beginning student, that the most admirable thinkers within the scholarly community you have chosen to join do not split their work from their lives. They seem to take both too seriously to allow such dissociation, and they want to use each for the enrichment of the other. Of course, such a split is the prevailing convention among men in general, deriving, I suppose, from the hollowness of the work which men in general now do. But you will have recognized that as a scholar you have the exceptional opportunity of designing a way of living which will encourage the habits of good workmanship. Scholarship is a choice of how to live as well as a choice of career; whether he knows it or not, the intellectual workman forms his own self as he works toward the perfection of his craft; to realize his own potentialities, and any opportunities that come his way, he constructs a character which has as its core the qualities of the good workman.

What this means is that you must learn to use your life experience in your intellectual work: continually to examine and interpret it. In this

experience.

sense craftsmanship is the center of yourself and

5

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