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MAJOR CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERNS IN INDIAThree distinct agricultural seasons in India:Kharif (July- October): Rice, Millets, Maize, Groundnut, CottonRabi (November-March): Wheat, Sorghum, Gram, Barley, OatsZaid (April- June): Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumber, VegetablesGRAINSCropSeason, temperature, rainfall etc.FactoidSoilAreas/ States% of cultivated areaRiceKharifHigh temperature (25+)High rainfall (annual 100cm +); in areas with low rainfall, irrigation is required (canal/ tubewell irrigation has made it possible to grow rice in Haryana and Punjab; but is leading to declining water tables. In contrast, Bihar’s water tables are not being utilized well enough due to lack of energy and other infrastructure)India is 2nd largest producer of rice in the world after ChinaUnder the right climatic conditions, soil is usually not a constraint, but alluvial soil is preferredMajor: Eastern, North-Eastern and South-Eastern states Minor: Northern plains (Punjab, Haryana, Western UP); a strip along the Western Coast WheatRabiCool climate, with sunshine at the time of harvest50-75 cm annual rainfall, evenly distributed through the growing seasonLoam is best (Loam is soil containing almost equal proportions of sand and silt, and some clay)Major: Ganga-Satluj plains in the north, and black soil region in Deccan (Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, Rajasthan, MP)Millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi)Mainly Kharif crops (require temperature of 25-35 degrees)1. Jowar: Rainfed (60-70 cm rain required)2. Bajra and Ragi: can be grown in drier regions, with rainfall of 35-50 cm (Ragi is especially well-suited to grow in drier regions)1. Jowar is 3rd most important food crop wrt area and production1. Jowar and Bajra: Sandy/ black soil3. Ragi: Red/ black/ laterite soil (Laterites?are soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all?laterites?are rusty-red because of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock)1. Jowar: Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP, MP2. Bajra: Rajasthan, UP, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana 3. Ragi: Karnataka, TN, HP, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Jharkhand(The state whose name is mentioned first in each of the above 3 millets is the largest national producer of that particular millet) MaizeMainly Kharif 21-27 degree temp.50-75 cm rainfallFood and fodder cropOld alluvialKarnataka, UP, Bihar, AP, MPPulsesBoth Rabi and Kharif (mainly a warm climate crop, but recently people have started growing these during Rabi as well)Need less moisture, can grow in dry conditionsIndia is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world; however, still the demand outstrips supply and lots of pulses have to be imported from abroadBeing leguminous crops, pulses help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air; so, they are generally grown in rotation with other cropsGrown in variety of soils, from sandy loam to heavy black cotton soilMP, UP, Rajasthan, Karnataka, MaharashtraNON-GRAINSCropSeason, temperature, rainfall etc.FactoidSoilAreas/ States% of cult. areaSugarcaneKharif crop: needs hot, humid climate, and high rainfall21-27 degree temp.75-100 cm rainfallIndia is second largest producer, after BrazilSugarcane needs manual labour for all the processes involved in cultivationAlluvial/ Black/ LateriteTropical as well as subtropical crop:UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, TN, AP, Bihar, Punjab, HaryanaOilseeds(Groundnut accounts for ? of all oilseeds)Kharif (Groundnut)India is largest producer of oilseeds.Groundnut accounts for about half of the total oilseed production in the country.Loamy (groundnut)Groundnut: AP, TN, Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra12%TeaWarm, moist, but frost-free climate throughout the year; requires frequent showers evenly distributed all through the yearIndia is the leading producer and exporter of teaThe government recently introduced the Plant Protection Code, which contains guidelines to reduce chemical inputs in tea cultivationMountain soilDeep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matterAssam, West Bengal, TN, KeralaCoffee15-25 degrees temperature150-250 cm rainfallIndia produces about 4% of the world’s coffeeArabica variety is produced hereNilgiri hills in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil NaduHorticulture cropsIndia is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables (produces about 13% of the world’s vegetables)Although these cover only 9% of total cropped area, they provide 25% of value of total agri produce!Still, relative productivity compared to other countries is very low for horticultural products in India9%NON-FOOD CROPSCropSeason, temperature, rainfall etc.FactoidSoilAreas/ States% of cult. areaRubber25 degree+Moist and humid climate-200 cm + rainfall requiredMainly an equatorial crop, but also grown in tropical and subtropical areasMainly Kerala, Tamil Nadu, AP, and AndamansCottonGrows well in drier parts of the black soil of deccan plateauRequires high temperature, light rainfall (50 cm) or irrigation (REQUIRES HUMIDITY), mostly frost-free days (210 in the year minimum), and lots of sunshineIndia is 2nd largest producer, and world’s largest exporterAlmost 90% of the cotton cultivation area is under Bt Cotton. Bt cotton dramatically changed the relationship between farmer and seed. Before Bt, less than 40% seeds used were hybrids. Now it’s over 90%. Making hybrid seeds is a laborious, technical process and costly, whereas varieties are a result of generations of selective breeding. They can be reused, have lower yields, and are pretty much given away for free by state agriculture departments. Hybrids have higher yields, can’t be reused and are costlier.On the surface, anti GM activists usually stress the toxicity and the ‘contaminative’ aspects of Bt seeds to push for its ban, but it is really this corporatisation of seed that is at the heart of most friction between activists and crop companies who are now pushing for Bt to be introduced in other plants such as brinjalBlack soilMaharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Karnataka, AP, TN, Punjab, Haryana, UPJuteHigh temperature required: 27+High rainfall: 170-250 cmUsed to make gunny bags, mats, ropes, carpets etc., but due to its high cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibers such as nylonsAlluvial soil (needs well-drained fertile soils in flood plains, that are replaced every year)West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, MeghalayaTemp--->CoolModerateHotRainfall (down)Dry (less than 50 cm p.a.)RicePulsesBajra, Ragi Moderate (50-75)WheatMaize, CottonWet (75+)CoffeeSugarcane, Tea, JowarRubber, JuteCropping systems in any area are determined by: Soil and climatic patterns Productivity and monetary benefits for the farmersAvailable infrastructure facilities, such as irrigation, transport, storage, marketing, post-harvest handling and processing etc.Socio-economic factors: size and type of land holdings, labour availability etc.Technological factors: Access to information, culture and history, availability of mechanized tools and seeds etc.India has a multiplicity of cropping systems because of: High dependence on rain-fed agriculture (65% of all cultivated area; this provides only 45% of total foodgrain produce!) means low productivity, which necessitates intercropping to reduce risks associate with mono croppingDue to high poverty and very high pressure on land due to dependence on a large fraction of the population on agriculture, agriculture remains to be considered as a subsistence rather than a commercial activity. To fulfill household needs, many farmers grow multiple cropsDue to these reasons, India’s cropping patterns remain dynamic in time and space:The major change in cropping pattern is a substantial area shift from cereals to non-cereals; since 1966, about 5% of the Gross Cultivated Area (GCA) has shifted from cereal to non-cereal crops. Major gainers of this shift are oilseedsThis area loss can be almost entirely attributed to the declining area share of coarse cereals, especially sorghum, bajra, barley etc.; rice and wheat have maintained their sharesArea under other commercial crops has also increased, but the result isn’t as dramatic as that of oilseedsCropping systems of irrigated ecosystems: Only 35% of all cultivated area in India is irrigated, but it provides about 55% of all foodgrain production. Broadly, two distinct irrigated ecosystems emerge: Indo-Gangetic Plain Region (Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar), and Coastal Areas of Tamil Nadu and AP. Principal crops having sizeable irrigated %ages are: Sugarcane, Wheat, Barley, Mustard, Rice, Cotton etc. Among states, top 3 are Punjab, Haryana, and UP. Issues in irrigated ecosystems:Inefficient land use planning and resource deploymentLow water use efficiency (improper land leveling, growing crops not suited to a region, indiscriminate use of ground water using high energy consuming water pumps) Land degradation (soil salinity etc. due to receding water tables, use of ever higher quantities of fertilizers to sustain falling yield levels)Inefficient land use, diversion of agricultural land to industryTop-down approach of agricultural innovation and R&D, while ignoring farmer participationDIFFERENT TYPES OF IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATION SYSTEMSIrrigation simply means watering the agricultural fields by any means other than rain. Irrigation in India means supply of water to the fields from rivers, tanks, wells, canals etc. Irrigation reduces dependence on monsoons, helps control floods and droughts, brings more area under cultivation, reduces instability in production etc. Only about 35% of all cultivated land in India has access to any kind of irrigation; rest is rain-fed. Productivity is much higher on irrigated land, as can be seen by its high share of 55% in all foodgrains produced in India. The type of irrigation system used in a particular area depends on: natural conditions (soil, topography), type of crops being grown, technology, required labour and other inputs, costs and benefits etc.Irrigation systems can be divided in multiple ways:Flow v/s lift systems (depending on the height of water table v/s the land to be irrigated)Capacity of irrigation: major, medium, and minor irrigation projectsSource: Most important classification is by source- Canals (40% of total area under irrigation is served by canals), Wells (40%), Tanks (12%), Misc. (8%)Canal irrigation: About half of all canal irrigated area lies in Punjab, Haryana, UP, and AP, where its easy to dig canals since the land is level and soft. Canals can be perennial or inundation based, with the latter being effective inly during floods. Canals, though expensive to construct, can serve an area for many years, meaning that the total lifetime cost is low. They also bring lots of sediments with them, and thus help replenish soil productivityHowever, excessive flow of water in the fields raises the ground water level. Capillary action brings alkaline salts to the surface and makes large areas unfit for agriculture. Vast areas in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh suffer from the problem of ‘reh’ caused by canal irrigation. About 36,000 hectares have been rendered useless in Nira Valley of Maharashtra due to high concentration of salts in the soil resulting from canal irrigation. Also, many canals overflow during rainy season and cause flooding Well irrigation: A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain subsoil water. Wells are of two types: open wells (5m depth) and tube wells (15+ meters depth). Wells are easy to dig in areas with soft and porous soil, as it allows rainwater to seep in and create a high water table. Thus, wells are commonly used in Great Northern Plains, the deltaic regions, and weathered layers of the deccan trap. Well irrigation is popular in UP, Bihar, and black cotton soil area of the Deccan. Open wells are cheap and easy to construct, and hence widely used. Since tubewells usually require use of power pumps, well irrigation is expensive, and utilized for crops that give high returns, such as horticultural cropsTank irrigation: Farmers of groups of farmers build small reservoirs by raising bunds across seasonal streams. This is usually used in areas where soil is hard and stony, and land unsuitable to cut canals. Widespread in peninsular part of India. About 4% of all irrigated land is served by tanks. While tanks do not require huge investments and costs, and allow for subsidiary activities such as fishing, many of them dry up during the dry season, and suffer from regular silting, evaporation of large quantities of water etc.Misc.: Ditch irrigation, Terrace irrigation, Drip irrigation (most efficient method; water drops right near the root zone of the plant in a dripping motion, so loss of water to evaporation and runoff is minimal; also known as micro-irrigation and localized irrigation), Sprinkler system (suitable for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area is very high, such as oilseeds and other cereal and vegetable crops, and is suitable for all types of soil except heavy clay), Rotary Systems (best suited for large areas; means mechanically driven sprinklers moving in a circular motion and hence reaching great distances; waters a large area with small amounts of water over a longer period of time), Center Pivot Irrigation (a form of overhead irrigation, again using sprinklers) The government provides varying levels of monetary support for farmers who want to implement the above mentioned kinds of micro-irrigation techniques via the National Mission on Micro IrrigationE-TECHNOLOGY TO THE AID OF FARMERSAfter witnessing green, white, blue yellow, and biotechnology revolutions, Indian agriculture now needs to undergo the ICT revolution. ICT’s most important role in agriculture comes from communication facilitation. IT helps farmers have better access to real-time information, which helps improve productivity. Central, state governments and private organisations have taken ICT measures for agriculture extension which include ITC- e-choupal, Kisan Kerala, Aaqua, Rice knowledge management portal, e-krishi etc.ICT offerings for the farm sector can be classified into 3 categories: aimed at empowerment (eg: e-chaupal, which gives farmers timely information about weather, market prices etc.; Kisan Call Centres), aimed at enablement (e-maintenance of land records, AADHAR cards etc.), and aimed at market expansion (facilitation of setting up of agro-enterprises). Apart from communication, technology can also be used at various points in the farming value chain:Irrigate via smartphoneGPS mapping to assess how much fertilizer to use whereWebcam use to monitor crops, and seek remote expert advicePrecision Agriculture or satellite farming (also known as site-specific crop management (SSCM) is based on responding to inter and intra-field variability in crops. It reduces use of fertilizer and pesticides, prevents soil degradation, promotes optimal use of water, and raises productivity, by innovatively using GPS and GNSS technologiesThus, use of ICT in agriculture aids improved decision-making, better planning, greater community involvement, spreading knowledge of agricultural breakthroughs etc. There are several central and state government plans to use ICT for agricultural development:E-agriculture is a mission-mode project under the NeGP (National e-Governance Plan). This is being operationalized by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC), and aims to provide information on seeds, fertilizers, government schemes, soil recommendations, crop management, and marketing of produceNational Policy for Farmers (2007) and National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology identify use of ICT as a strong factor in agricultural developmentKisan Credit Card scheme is being used to provide affordable credit to farmers. It allows easy credit facilities, flexible repayment schedules, and extensions up to four yearsKisan Call Centre, Kisan SMS Portal, and Village Knowledge Centres are operational in various places across the countryGoing forward, the extent of crop losses can be determined by using satellite imagery; each farm can be captured on a pixel, and linked to the farmer’s bank accounts and UID numbers. If there is a hailstorm, say, tonight, then the compensation money can be transferred to the farmer’s account with 24-48 hours. ................
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