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CHAPTER 12: AMERICA AND WORLD WAR IILesson 1: Wartime AmericaLT = Analyze how the U.S. economy performed during WWII. Analyze and interpret primary sources—including photographs and written text.EQ = What kinds of sacrifices does war require?After WWI, America returned to isolationism, but when the U.S. entered WWII in 1941, its armed forces ranked 19th in power among the world’s nations (ranked behind the tiny nation of Belgium). By 1944, the U.S. was producing as much as 40% of the world’s arms (weapons & ammo).I. Building the MilitaryWhile most Americans opposed a peace time draft before 1940, when France surrendered to Germany Americans’ opinions on the draft changed.Selective Training and Service Act = passed by Congress in September 1940; plan for the first peace time draft in American history.You’re in the Army Now*60,000 men enlisted in the U.S. military within a month of the Pearl Harbor attack—so many that the army’s training facilities and equipment supplies were overwhelmed.New army recruits were given physical exams and vaccinations against smallpox & typhoid.Recruits were issued uniforms, boots, and available equipment and sent to basic training for 8 weeks.Basic training drilled the soldiers, exercised them constantly, and taught them how to work as a team. *Basic training also helped to break down barriers (social, economic, religious) between soldiers and helped develop tight relationships among the troops.A Segregated MilitaryAt the start of WWII, the U.S. military was segregated (divided according to race).*African Americans were organized into their own units, but white officers usually commanded them.African American troops were typically assigned to construction and supply units (not battlefield commissions).**Many African Americans refused to support the war while blacks still faced segregation, lynching, inequality, and disenfranchisement – depriving someone the right to vote.“Double V” = campaign started by an African American newspaper, Pittsburgh Courier, calling on African Americans to support the war to win a “Double-Victory” – defeat of Hitler’s racism abroad and racism at home in America.*Under pressure, President Roosevelt began ordering the armed services to recruit African Americans for combat duty.Benjamin O. Davis – highest ranking African American officer in WWII—brigadier general.99th Pursuit Squadron = the first U.S. armed services (Air Force) unit of African Americans.**The pilots of the 99th Squadron were trained in Tuskegee, Alabama, which is why they became known as the Tuskegee Airmen and commanded by Lt. Col. Benjamin O. Davis.**Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in the Allied victory at the Battle of Anzio (Italy).332nd Fighter Group – African American airmen unit that flew over 200 missions escorting/protecting American bombers without losing a single member of the unit to enemy aircraft.761st Tank Battalion – African American unit that was commended for their service in helping achieve Allied-victory in the Battle of the Bulge.*Despite being held in internment camps at the war’s beginning, many Japanese-Americans served valiantly in the U.S. military during WWII.100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team – U.S. Japanese-American combat units that together became the most decorated units in the history of the U.S. military.*Over 500,000 Hispanic/Latino Americans served in the U.S. military during WWII, and 17 of these Hispanic-Americans were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor = the highest award possible for combat heroism in the U.S. military.*Approximately 1/3 of all able-bodied Native Americans (ages 18-50) served in the U.S. military during WWII.**About 400 Navajo-Marines were instrumental in the war by serving as “code talkers” = these Navajo-speaking Marines relayed critical information and orders over field radios by communicating in their own unique language, which prevented the radio transmissions from being intercepted by the enemy.**Over 500,000 Jewish Americans served in the U.S. military during WWII, and 52,000 of them received decorated honors for their battlefield bravery. **Since so many European Jews had been killed in the Holocaust, American Jews took up a leadership role for the worldwide Jewish community.Bravery, courage, and battlefield commendations convinced President Harry Truman to FULLY integrate minorities into the American armed forces in 1948.Women Join the Armed Forces*Women officially joined the U.S. armed forces for the first time in WWII, but were barred from combat duty.*Army jobs for women were mostly clerical & administrative, but their service did free up more enlisted men for combat.Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps – first official women’s military unit established by Congress in 1942 with Oveta Culp Hobby as the unit’s director. *Hobby would later be elevated to the rank of colonel.*Some 68,000 American women served as nurses in the Army and Navy during WWII.*300 American women served as Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) and flew over 12,000 flight missions to deliver planes to war effort.II. American Economy in WartimeBritish Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, knew that victory in WWII depended upon industry. Churchill actually referred to the U.S.’ industrial capabilities as a gigantic boiler = “Once the fire is lit under it, there is no limit to the power it can generate.”Converting the EconomyPresident Roosevelt believed that government and business had to work together to prepare for war, so he created the National Defense Advisory Committee and asked business leaders to serve on the committee.Roosevelt & his advisers believed that giving industries incentives to produce goods quickly was the best way to mobilize the economy.Normally, the government would ask businesses to bid on contracts to produce military supplies, which was a very slow process.cost-plus – government contracts with industrial companies promising to pay the company for the cost to make a product plus a guaranteed percentage as profit.*Under the cost-plus system, the more a company produced (and the faster they produced it) the more money the company made—which, meant war materials were produced quickly and in large quantities to assist the war effort.Reconstruction Finance Corporation – created by Congress to provide loans to companies who wanted to convert their production to making war materials & supplies.American Industry Gets the Job DoneBy the fall of 1941, the American economy was only partially mobilized for the potential of the U.S. officially entering the war.*Japan’s surprising bombing of Pearl Harbor convinced almost all of the nation’s major industries to convert to war production and make the countries wartime “miracle” possible.The nation’s automobile industry was integral to the war effort, because of its easy ability to convert to making war vehicles.*Mass production was essential in the war effort, since the armies that could move its troops and supplies quickly usually won the battles.U.S. automobile factories produced several wartime essentials, such as trucks, jeeps, tanks, rifles, helmets, artillery, and other materials.*Henry Ford created an assembly line in his Detroit factory that manufactured the B-24 “Liberator” Bomber (airplane).**Overall, the U.S. auto industry helped to produce nearly 1/3 of all wartime military equipment needed for the U.S. involvement in WWII.Henry Kaiser – shipyard & ship-building factory owner who established a method for increasing capability to produce American ships for the Navy.*Kaiser implemented a similar use of the assembly line and mass production that Henry Ford had used to revolutionize the automobile industry. Completion of a standard cargo vessel went from taking 244 days in the war’s beginning to 41 days by the height of the war.**Kaiser’s ship-building system = instead of building one ship from the keel up, Kaiser had components of a ship assembled at other plants and then shipped all the parts to the shipyard to be constructed into his most famous of cargo vessels—the Liberty ship.***Kaiser’s shipyards accounted for almost 30% of all American ships constructed during World War II.As war production increased, disputes and controversies emerged between the business leaders, government agencies, and the military leadership of the country. So President Roosevelt created the following government agencies to assist settling disputes:War Production Board – established to direct priorities and set production goalsOffice of War Mobilization – established to settle disputes among the different agenciesIII. Life on the Home Front*World War II dramatically changed American society.Whereas many European nations were still rebuilding from WWI and now facing devastation from the fighting of WWII, the American economy actually benefitted somewhat from the war:Mobilization of the economy finally ended the Great Depression.Almost 19 million new jobs came available.The average American family’s income nearly doubled.*However, the improvement to the American economy did not come without some drawbacks:Families had to move to where the jobs were available.Housing conditions in many factory-towns were terrible.Several workers’ strikes broke-out.Race riots were commonplace.Rising juvenile delinquency became a problem.Certain goods were rationed for the war effort and taxes were increased.Workers earned more money during the war’s build-up, but they also worked longer hours.As the war progressed and so many white Americans were serving in the military, military & defense factories were forced to recruit women and minorities to work the factory jobs.Women in Defense PlantsWartime labor shortages forced many factories to recruit married women for industrial jobs traditionally reserved for men.While the government hired nearly 4 million women for mostly clerical jobs, the women who worked on the production lines of factories captured the public’s imagination.Rosie the Riveter – popular song-character who worked in a factory while her boyfriend served in the Marines during the war. “Rosie” became the symbol (posters, magazines, newspapers, news reels) of the campaign to hire more women.*2.5 million American women would eventually be hired in shipyards, aircraft factories, and other manufacturing plants.*By the end of the war, the number of working women in the U.S. rose from 12.9 million to 18.8 million; and though many of these women were laid-off or voluntarily gave up their jobs after the war was over, their success had permanently changed Americans’ attitudes towards women in the workplace.African Americans Demand War WorkWhile war industries factories hire women, they resisted hiring African American workers.A. Philip Randolph = head of a major union for African American workers.*Randolph informed FDR that he was organizing a march on Washington, D.C. to demand more employment for African Americans in the defense industries.*Executive Order 8802 – issued by FDR on June 25, 1941 which ordered there to be NO discrimination in the employment of workers for the defense industries.*Fair Employment Practices Commission – created in addition by FDR/was the first civil rights agency to be established since Reconstruction.Mexican FarmworkersBracero Program = 1942 federal plan to arrange for Mexican migrant workers to help harvest crops in the American Southwest.*More than 200,000 Mexicans came to work during the war, including many who took work helping build and maintain railroads in the region.*Migrant workers became important to the Southwest’s economic system.IV. A Nation on the MoveAs the war build-up created millions of new jobs, more than 15 million Americans moved to areas where the work was available.Sunbelt – name of regions in southern California and cities in the Deep South where war industries located due to the warm climates.1940 – Congress approved $150 million for housing in the developing industrial regions.*1942 – FDR created the National Housing Agency to coordinate government housing programs.Racism Leads to ViolenceMany African Americans from the South moved to the West & North to work in the war industries factories, where they also experienced suspicion and intolerance as the South.*A race riot in Detroit, MI on June 20, 1943 left 25 African Americans and 9 Whites dead.*In Los Angeles, fear & suspicion of juvenile crime and racism against Mexican Americans lead to the famous “Zoot Suit Riots.”zoot suit – flashy & baggy suits popular with Mexican American teenagers.victory suit – modest & conservative style of suit worn by most American men in order to conserve material & fabric for the war effort.June 1943 – rumors swirled that a group of “zoot-suiters” had attacked several sailors on shore-leave. Some 2,500 soldiers & sailors attacked Mexican neighborhoods in Los Angeles.Japanese, German, and Italian American Relocation*After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, many Americans turned their anger towards Japanese immigrants and Japanese Americans.February 1942 – FDR signed an order allowing the War Department to declare any part of the U.S. as a military zone.**Four days later, a Japanese submarine shelled an oil refinery just off the northern coast of Santa Barbara, California. The entire West Coast of the U.S. was declared a military zone, and people of Japanese ancestry were evacuated to 10 internment camps farther inland.In 1988, President Ronald Reagan formally & publically apologized to the Japanese Americans who were displaced during WWII internment, and he signed legislation granting $20,000 to each surviving Japanese American who had been interned.Americans of German & Italian descent also had their freedoms & rights restricted, for example all non-naturalized German & Italian immigrants aged 14 years and older had travel restrictions placed upon them and even had personal property seized.More than 5,000 were arrested and sent to live in military internment camps.V. Daily Life in WartimeBoth wages & prices rose sharply during the war due to the high demand for workers and raw materials.FDR created organizations in order to regulate wages & certain prices to protect the economy.*Most American labor unions cooperated during the war by making “no strike pledges” and allowing government agencies to mediate labor disputes instead of interrupting production.Support and SacrificesHigh demand for raw materials and supplies created shortages.rationing – restricting the amount of an item an individual can have due to a limited supply.*The federal government’s agencies began rationing items by issuing coupon books to each family. A person must have the correct amount of coupon points remaining in the month in order to purchase particular items, such as = meat, sugar, fats, oils, processed foods, coffee, shoes, and gasoline.*Driving distances were even restricted and a 35 mph speed limit was introduced to conserve energy needed for the war effort.Even American civilians engaged in assisting the war effort by growing crops in backyards, school yards, parks, and public spaces to help grow food for the war.victory gardens – government advertising campaign encouraging Americans at home to plant gardens for extra food ernment agencies organized “scrap drives” to round up rubber, tin, aluminum, & steel.*The U.S. federal government spent more than $300 billion during World War II—more money than the government had spent since George Washington’s first term to the end of FDR’s second term (over 150 years!).The government was only able to raise approximately 45% of the war’s cost by slightly-raising taxes on citizens (most Americans were still against increased tax rates since the Depression).The remaining 65% of the cost was raised through selling war bonds—more than $100 billion worth sold to private citizens, investment banks, and other financial institutions.Hollywood Goes to WarIn 1942, FDR created the Office of War Information in order to improve the public’s understanding of the war and act as a liaison to the media.*The OWI even distributed guideline questions to Hollywood filmmakers before making a film, “Will this film help the U.S. win the war?”**An overwhelming number of Americans believed WWII had to be fought and won, and most Americans united behind the nation’s one common goal = to win the war.Lesson 2: The War in the PacificLT = Identify and describe the geographic factors that determined much of the strategy of the Pacific War.EQ = What kinds of sacrifices does war require?The early battles of the war required changes in strategy from all sides. The Battle of Midway was a major turning point against the Japanese. After American victory at Midway, Admiral Nimitz and General MacArthur led American forces in a steady advance across the Pacific.I. Holding the Line Against JapanAdmiral Chester Nimitz – commander of the U.S. Navy in the Pacific during WWII.*Although the Japanese had badly damaged the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, the attack had missed the U.S. aircraft carriers, which were at sea on a mission when the Japanese attacked.The U.S. still had plenty of aircraft carriers in the Pacific and Admiral Nimitz planned to use them against Japanese aggression.The Fall of the PhilippinesOnly hours after attacking Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked American airfields in the Philippine Islands.Two days later, the Japanese army invaded with troops and badly outnumbered the American & Filipino forces defending the island.General Douglas MacArthur – commander of U.S. & Filipino forces in the Philippines who ordered his troops to retreat to the Bataan Peninsula, where the rugged terrain would cover the troops’ retreat and allow more defensive positions. These troops held out for 3 months.*By March, the American & Filipino troops were desperate—they began eating cavalry horses & mules and suffered from frequent bouts of disease such as malaria, scurvy, and dysentery.*Realizing that General MacArthur’s capture would be demoralizing to Americans, President Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to evacuate to Australia. General MacArthur made a dramatic declaration upon leaving the Philippines (despite he himself not wanting to leave), “…..I shall return.”April 9, 1942 – the weary defenders of the Bataan Peninsula finally surrendered to the Japanese invaders.*78,000 POWs were forced to march 65 miles to a Japanese prison camp while sick, injured, starved, dehydrated, and regularly brutalized by the Japanese soldiers.Bataan Death March = 10,000 or more of the prisoners of war who died on the forced-march.*May 1942 – the last remaining defensive force remaining in the Philippines on the Island of Corregidor surrendered, and the Philippines had officially fallen to the Japanese.The Doolittle Raid on TokyoDays before the Philippines fell to Japan, President Roosevelt had been looking for a way to improve American morale about the war.Roosevelt wanted to bomb Tokyo (Japan’s largest city & capital), but American planes could only reach Tokyo if aircraft carriers got close enough to the Japanese Islands.Early 1942 – a military planner suggested that American short-range bombers be replaced with long-distance B-25 bombers.*The problem was that the B-25s could take off from the aircraft carriers, but could NOT return and land aboard these ships, so the bombers would have to run their mission and then land safely in China.Lt. Col. James Doolittle – commander put in charge of the Tokyo-bombing by FDR.In March, 16 B-25 bombers were loaded onto the aircraft carrier, the Hornet. **April 18, 1942 – American bombs fell on Japan for the first time in the war.Japan Changes Strategy*Japanese leaders were appalled by the raid on their capital—especially since Emperor Hirohito, who was revered as a god, could have been killed.The Doolittle Raid convinced Japanese leaders to change their strategy, but there was disagreement on what step to take next.*Many of Japan’s naval military planners wanted to cut off the Americans’ supply line from Australia by capturing the south coast of New Guinea. Admiral Yamamoto, however, wanted to attack the Island of Midway—the last American naval base in the North Pacific west of Hawaii.*Admiral Yamamoto believed that attacking Midway Island would lure the U.S. Naval Fleet into battle and enable his Japanese fleet to destroy it.After Doolittle’s Raid, Japanese leaders dropped any opposition to Admiral Yamamoto’s plan, because the American fleet had to be destroyed to protect Tokyo from bombings.An attack on New Guinea still took place but with only 3 aircraft carriers—the rest of the Japanese fleet was sent to Midway.The Battle of the Coral Sea*The Japanese believed they could conduct 2 major attacks at the same time, because they believed their operations were a secret.*What the Japanese leaders didn’t know was that an American team of code breakers based in Hawaii had already successfully broken the Japanese Navy’s secret code for conducting operations.March 1942 – American code breakers decoded messages alerting to the intended attack on New Guinea. Admiral Nimitz sent 2 aircraft carriers, the Lexington and the Yorktown to intercept the Japanese in the Coral Sea.As both sides bombarded one another in the Coral Sea, Japan inflicted heavy damage on the Yorktown and sank the Lexington, but the American attacks prevented the Japanese from landing on New Guinea and successfully kept the U.S.’ supply line from Australia open.The Navajo Code TalkersWhen American troops stormed an enemy beachhead, they used radios to communicate orders & maneuvers, which meant the enemy could intercept and translate the Americans’ messages.*Code machines were of no use during the heat of battle because they generally took hours to decode & decipher coded messages.Philip Johnston – military engineer, who had lived on a Navajo reservation as a child, suggested the Marines recruit Navajos to serve as “code talkers.”*The Navajo language had NO written alphabet and was known only to the Navajo and a handful of missionaries and anthropologists.*The code talkers proved invaluable in combat, since they could relay a message in minutes that would have taken a code machine operators hours to encipher and transmit.Battle of Iwo Jima – Navajo code talkers transmitted over 800 messages during the first 48 hours of the Marines struggle to get ashore under intense bombardment.**The Navajo code talkers were sworn to secrecy, and their important involvement in the struggle to take Iwo Jima was not disclosed to the American public until 1971.**In 2001, the Navajo code talkers received the Congressional Gold Medal for their unique and highly-important contribution to the war effort.II. Battle of MidwayAt Pearl Harbor (after the Japanese attack), Navajo code-breakers learned of a Japanese plan to attack Midway Island, after hearing Admiral Yamamoto transmit the plans of the attack by radio using the same code that the code-breakers had already deciphered.*Midway Island was the last major American base left between the Japanese and Hawaii.Admiral Nimitz ordered U.S. aircraft carriers to take up positions near Midway and launch an all-out ambush on the Japanese fleet.Unaware of the impending ambush, the Japanese launched aircraft to bomb Midway = 38 Japanese aircraft were shot down by anti-aircraft fire.*As Japan prepared to launch another aerial assault of planes, the U.S. carriers Hornet, Yorktown, and Enterprise launched a counter-attack—the U.S. was able to catch the Japanese carriers’ decks loaded with planes, fuel, and bombs exposed to American bombers & fighters (planes).**Within minutes of the counter-attack, 3 Japanese carriers were reduced to burning heaps and a 4th carrier would sink hours later. Admiral Yamamoto ordered his remaining fleet to retreat.*Battle of Midway = major victory for U.S. Naval Fleet and a turning point in the war in the Pacific in favor of the Americans. **In just 6 months after the Pearl Harbor attack, American forces in the Pacific had stopped the Japanese advance and the momentum of the war was now in the U.S.’ favor.III. Driving Back JapanAmerica’s plan to defeat Japan in the Pacific involved a two-pronged approach:1) The Pacific Fleet under Admiral Nimitz’ command would advance by “island-hopping” closer & closer to Japan. 2) Military ground forces under the command of General Douglas MacArthur would advance through the Solomon Islands, capture the northern coast of New Guinea, and then launch an invasion to retake the Philippines.Island-Hopping in the PacificBy 1943, the U.S. was ready to launch its island-hopping campaign, but the islands of the Central Pacific paused a major problem for this strategy.atolls – coral reef islands in shallow sea levels.*Most of the islands being atolls meant that the sea level wasn’t always deep enough for the landing craft to make it ashore with troops. Many troops would have to wade in chest/waist-deep water in order to reach dry ground of the islands’ shores.Tarawa Atoll – first island objective of the island-hopping campaign—part of the Gilbert Islands.As the landing craft approached Tarawa Atoll, most of the craft ran aground in the shallow waters, leaving the soldiers to have to wade for hundreds of yards toward the intended target.*Only 1 out of every 3 marines actually made it ashore to Tarawa.*amphtrac = amphibious tractor (nicknamed the “Alligator”).*The amphtrac was one of the only vehicles able to cross the atoll reefs and safely deliver troops to the beaches. This vehicle was generally a boat with tank tracks attached to it. Unfortunately, the U.S. Navy had only purchased around 200 of them, and if more were available then more soldiers might have survived the assaults on the atoll islands.*Photos of the nearly 1,000 dead marines’ bodies crumpled next to burned-out landing craft shocked & disturbed many Americans who openly wondered how many people would have to die to defeat Japan.Kwajalein Atoll = the U.S.’ next island-hopping assault target, where most of the marines came ashore using amphtracs and the troops won more easily with far fewer casualties than Tarawa.Mariana Islands = next target of island-hopping for the Americans. Admiral Nimitz wanted to capture these islands in order to enable the newly-developed B-29 Superfortress to fly bombing raids on the Japanese mainland.B-29 Superfortress – heavy bomber airplane that could fly farther than any other plane in the world.*Nimitz decided to invade 3 of the Mariana Islands = Saipan, Tinian, & Guam. Despite heavy Japanese resistance, the U.S. was able to capture all three by 1944 and B-29s began their first bombing missions over Japan.MacArthur Returns*General Douglas MacArthur’s troops began their own campaign in the southwest Pacific while Nimitz’ naval forces made ground in the central Pacific.Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands – MacArthur’s troops began their military campaign here off the coast of New Guinea in 1942.*By 1944, MacArthur’s troops had captured enough of the surrounding Solomon Islands to surround the Japanese base on the main island.*Japan removed & withdrew all of their ships & aircraft from the base and left 100,000 troops to hold the island base.*Fearing the navy under Nimitz was advancing much farther/faster than his troops, MacArthur ordered his forces to leap nearly 600 miles to capture the Japanese main base on the north coast of New Guinea.*After securing New Guinea, MacArthur’s troops seized the last island before returning to the Philippines.*The U.S.’ invasion of the Philippines involved over 700 ships carrying more than 160,000 troops into Leyte Gulf in the Philippine Islands.**When MacArthur’s troops began landing on the island of Leyte on the eastern side of the Philippines, the general strode across the surf to a radio announced his famous “return” = see page 300.To stop the Americans’ invasion, the Japanese moved four aircraft carriers towards the Philippines from the north, meanwhile they also secretly moved another fleet from the west.When many of the American forces at Leyte Gulf and headed north to stop the Japanese there, the Japanese fleet from the west ambushed the remaining Americans at Leyte Gulf.Battle of Leyte Gulf – largest naval battle in history, and the first time in battle the Japanese used kamikazes.kamikazes – Japanese suicide pilots.*The Japanese term, kamikaze, means “divine wind” and refers to a great sea storm that destroyed the invading Mongol fleet as it invaded Japan in the 13th century.*The American defenses in Leyte Gulf were becoming desperate when the Japanese commander order his assault to retreat as he believed U.S. reinforcements to be on the way.*Though the Japanese fleet retreated from Leyte Gulf, the fight to recapture the Philippines was long & grueling = over 80,000 Japanese soldiers killed (less than 1,000 surrendered) and more than 100,000 Filipino civilians died.*MacArthur’s troops did not capture the Philippine-capital of Manila until March 1945, and many stranded Japanese soldiers continued to resist/fight until word came in late August 1945 that Japan had surrendered the war.Lesson 3: The War in EuropeLT = Analyze and evaluate the military strategies of the Allied Forces in Europe and North Africa.EQ = What kinds of sacrifices does war require?British and American forces won victories over the Axis powers in North Africa and Italy. Next, Allied leaders made plans for an invasion of Europe.I. Halting the GermansThough FDR was eager to get U.S. troops involved in the war in Europe, Winston Churchill did not believe the U.S. or Britain was ready to invade Europe.Instead, Churchill wanted to attack the periphery, or edges, of the German Empire.1942 – Roosevelt ordered the invasion of Morocco and Algeria—two French territories indirectly under the control of Germany.The Battle for North AfricaFDR decided the invade North African for two reasons:Invasion would give the American troops some experience without requiring a lot of troops.The invasion would also help Britain fight the Germans in Egypt.Most of the British Empire’s territories around the world typically sent supplies to England through the Suez Canal in Egypt.General Erwin Rommel – general who commanded Germany’s “Afrika Korps” and was nicknamed the “Desert Fox” due to his brilliance in military strategy and tactics.Battle of El Alamein – after 12 days of battles, the British were able to secure the Suez Canal and force Rommel’s troops into retreat.*A month later, General Dwight D. Eisenhower invaded North Africa, and when these U.S. troops advanced into the mountains of western Tunisia they fought the German troops for the first time.Battle of Kasserine Pass – American troops were outmaneuvered and outmatched by Rommel’s elite forces and lost 7,000 casualties and 200 tanks.*Eisenhower fired the general in command in North Africa and put General George S. Patton in control.*Under Patton’s command and supported by the British, the Allies were eventually able to push the Germans back and their troops in North Africa surrendered in May 1943.The Battle of the AtlanticWhen Germany declared war on the U.S., German submarines entered into American coastal waters to attack U.S. cargo vessels.American cargo vessels made for easy targets for the subs, especially at night when East Coast cities’ lights silhouetted the ships against the sea sky.Many American cities tried to help by dimming their lights at night, and even drivers at night drove without their headlights.convoy system = cargo ships travelled in groups escorted by U.S. Naval warships, which made it much more difficult for the German submarines to attack.*By the spring of 1942, American warships and airplanes began using new technologies, such as radar, sonar, & depth charges to locate and attack German subs.The Battle of StalingradHitler believed that the key to defeating the Soviet Union was destroying the Soviets’ economy.Hitler ordered his German army to capture strategic oil fields, factories, and farmlands of southern Russia & Ukraine.A key to this strategy was the Soviet city of Stalingrad, which controlled the Volga River and was on a major railroad junction. A German takeover of Stalingrad would cut off the Soviets’ necessary resources to continue fighting in the war.When the Germans invaded Stalingrad, Joseph Stalin ordered the city be held at all costs.The Germans were forced to take the city by going house to house, which took a significant amount of time and cost thousands of lives.As the German-takeover took much longer than expected, the German army was NOT properly prepared for the brutal Russian winters.November 1942 – Soviet reinforcements arrived and surrounded some 250,000 German troops within the city.February 1943 – approximately 91,000 Germans surrendered and were sent to Soviet POW camps, where only 5,000 of the German POWs survived starvation, disease, and hard labor.*By the end of the Battle of Stalingrad, both sides had lost nearly 500,000 troops, but the Germans were now on the defensive for the first time since the war began.II. Striking Germany and Italy*The Allied invasion of North Africa showed that a large-scale invasion from the sea was possible.January 1943 – FDR headed to Casablanca, Morocco to meet with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.Casablanca Conference = FDR & Churchill agreed to step up the bombing of Germany with the goal of a progressive destruction of the German military, industrial, and economic systems and undermining the morale of the German people.*The Allies also agreed to attack the Axis Powers on the island of Sicily. Churchill called Italy the “soft underbelly” of Europe, and he was convinced that the Italians would quit the war if the Allies invaded their homeland.Strategic BombingSince the war started (and the U.S. became involved), the Allies had dropped thousands of tons of bombs on Germany.*While the continued and constant bombing of Germany by the Allies did not destroy their economy or morale, it did cause a severe oil shortage and wrecked the nation’s railroads.Also, Germany’s airplanes and aircraft were destroyed to the point that the Germans could not replace their losses.*By the time the Allies invaded France, they had complete control over the air which ensured Allied troops would not be bombed during their invasion.Striking the Soft UnderbellyGeneral Dwight D. Eisenhower commanded the invasion of Sicily, with support from General George Patton and British General Bernard Montgomery.General Patton’s American tank divisions smashed through enemy lines and captured the western half of the island. Patton then continued from the east with Montgomery’s troops attacking from the south.August 1943 – the German army had evacuated Sicily.*The Allied takeover of Sicily caused a crisis within the Italian government. Italy’s King Victor Emmanuel and a group of Italian general decided the time had come to depose Benito Mussolini.King Victor Emmanuel invited Mussolini to dinner at his palace where he informed the fascist dictator that he was “the most hated man in Italy.” Mussolini was arrested on the spot, and the Italian leadership began plans for surrendering to the Allies.*Despite Italy’s surrender, German troops took control of northern Italy, including Rome, and reinstated Mussolini into power.German troops then took up heavily fortified positions in the town of Cassino, where the rugged terrain and hillsides around the town made an invasion too difficult. The Allies instead decided to land at Anzio.German troops did not surrender but surrounded the Allies at Anzio.*After 5 months, the Allies were eventually able to break through German lines at Cassino and Anzio. About 2 weeks later, the Allies were able to take Rome, but not before the assault became one of the bloodiest campaigns of the war costing the Allies some 300,000 troops.Vernon Baker – African American soldier in the U.S. Army who won the Congressional Medal of Honor for bravery & valor in the Italian campaign. *Baker would become 1 of 7 African American soldiers of WWII to receive the highest award possible for servicemen.The Tehran ConferenceFDR wanted to meet with Stalin before the Allies invaded France, so Stalin suggested that the Allied leaders meet with him in Tehran, Iran.*At this conference the Allies reached several agreements:Stalin promised to launch a full-scale invasion of Germany as the Allies landed in France.FDR & Stalin agreed to divide Germany after the war so the nation would never again be a threat to world peace.Stalin promised that once Germany was defeated, the Soviet Union would help the U.S. against Japan.Stalin also agreed to Roosevelt’s proposal of an international peacekeeping organization after the war was over.III. The D-Day InvasionAfter the Tehran Conference, FDR & Churchill headed to Cairo, Egypt to begin planning an invasion of France in order to force Germany to fight a two-front war.Operation Overlord = codename for the planned invasion of France, which was to be commanded by General Dwight D. Eisenhower.Planning Operation OverlordWhile Hitler fortified the west coast of France, the Germans still had no idea where the Allies might begin their invasion.Hitler believed the likely spot for an Allied attack would be in Pas-de-Calais, which was the closest point of France across the English Channel to Britain.The Allies encouraged Hitler’s beliefs by setting up a (fake) dummy-army at Pas-de-Calais, but the real invasion target was along the five beaches of Normandy.*Operation Overlord would become the largest amphibious invasion in history.***For the invasion to have a chance at success, the Allies needed a coastline that had firm, flat beaches, within range of British aircraft to provide cover, and enough roads and bridges to move jeeps and trucks off of the beaches.**The invasion also needed an airfield and seaport, but the most important factor was the element of surprise to catch the Germans off-guard.Though the Allies informed exiled-leader, Charles de Gaulle that the French Resistance forces would aid in the invasion, FDR did not fully trust de Gaulle and refused to recognize him as the official French leader to take control of France after the attack.Other conditions necessary for a successful invasion of France included:Invasion had to start at night to give the ships cover to move the soldiers into placeShips had to arrive at low tide so they could see the beach obstacles put in place by the Germans defending the beachhead.Low tide needed to occur at dawn so the gunners could see their targets.A clear, moonlit night would be needed in order for the paratroopers to see where they were landing.Good weather was important, because a storm and high waves would ground aircraft and make landing the troops impossible for the landing craft.*The first opportunity for these conditions to allow a successful invasion were the days between June 5 – June 7, 1944.Eisenhower’s staff of planners typically used the letter “D” to preface any operation, so the invasion date selected for the invasion of France became known as D-Day.June 6, 1944 – After reviewing weather forecasts, Eisenhower gave the final order to go ahead with the planned attack, “OK, we’ll go.”The Longest DayAs the Operation Overlord invasion of Normandy (D-Day) began, nearly 7,000 ships carrying more than 100,000 troops headed for Normandy’s coast.At the same time, 23,000 paratroopers were dropped inland east & west of the Normandy beaches.Allied fighter-bombers also raced up and down the coast bombing bridges, bunkers, and radar sites.At dawn, Allied warships began a barrage of thousands of shells on the beaches which were the targets of the invasion = Utah, Omaha, Gold, Sword, and Juno.**During the invasions of 4 out of the 5 beaches, the Allies plans went well with great success and very few casualties.**Omaha Beach, however, was a very different situation, because the beach was only 4 or 5 miles long and was overlooked by 150ft. bluffs with limited access available to make it up these cliffs.The Germans had fortified the bluffs & cliffs at Omaha Beach with trenches and concrete bunkers for machine guns to protect the ravines that might allow the troops to make it up the cliffs. Under intense defensive fire, the Allies’ assault almost disintegrated.*At one point, General Omar Bradley actually began making plans to evacuate Omaha Beach, but gradually the troops began making headway in diffusing the German defenses.**Nearly 2,500 Americans were killed or wounded during the invasion at Omaha.**By the end of the day, nearly 35,000 American troops had managed to land at Omaha, and another 23,000 landed at Utah Beach.**More than 75,000 British & Canadian troops had also landed ashore at Normandy, and the D-Day invasion had been successful.Lesson 4: The War EndsLT = Identify, analyze, and evaluate the military strategies, including firebombing, used to end the war with Japan.EQ = What kinds of sacrifices does war require?Fierce fighting in both Europe and the Pacific during 1945 led to the defeat of the Axis Powers. As the war ended, the Allies began war-crimes trials as part of a plan to build a better world.I. The Third Reich CollapsesThe D-Day invasion at Normandy was only the beginning of the effort to defeat the Nazis.The Germans inland in Normandy were well-defended and prepared using hedgerows – dirt walls several feet thick covered in shrubbery, which were originally used by landowners in the region to separate their cattle and crops.From the hedgerows the Germans were able to fiercely defend their positions until U.S. bombers blew a hole in the German lines, which enabled American tanks to race through the gaps.*As Allied forces made headway at Normandy, the French Resistance fighters staged a rebellion against the Nazi-government in Paris.The Allies were able to liberate (free) Paris of Nazi-occupation on August 25, 1944.The Battle of the BulgeAs Allies raced east across France toward Germany, Hitler decided to stage one last desperate offensive with the goal to cut off Allies’ supplies coming through the port of Antwerp, Belgium.As the Germans began their offensive-push, 6 inches of snow fell and the temperatures in Europe became bitterly cold very quickly.*The sudden offensive caught the American defenders by surprise, and the Germans began a swift push that bulged their lines outward to give the attack the name, Battle of the Bulge.General Eisenhower ordered General Patton’s tank divisions to the rescue, and only 3 days later in a driving snowstorm Patton’s troops slammed into the German lines.As the weather cleared, Allied aircraft began bombing German fuel depots causing the Germans drive towards Antwerp to come to a halt.*Two days later, Patton’s tanks smashed through the German lines, and the Allies had won the Battle of the Bulge.Early January, the German troops, suffering from over 100,000 casualties, began to withdraw to Germany. With few resources left remaining, the Germans could no longer prevent the Allies from entering Germany.The War Ends in EuropeAs the Americans and British fought to liberate France, the Soviet troops began attacking German troops in Russia from the east driving them across Poland.*By February 1945, the Soviet army was only 35 miles from the German capital of Berlin.*That same month, American troops had reached the Rhine River, Germany’s last defensive line in the west.March 1945 – Americans crossed the Rhine and raced within 70 miles of Berlin.April 1945 – Soviet troops smashed through the last remaining German defenses in the east and were on the outskirts of Berlin.April 30, 1945 – Deep inside a fortified bunker in Berlin, Hitler knew the war was lost and committed suicide alongside his newlywed bride, Eva Braun.May 7, 1945 – Germany accepted the terms for an unconditional surrender.May 8, 1945 – V-E Day is proclaimed as “Victory in Europe.”II. Japan is DefeatedApril 12, 1945 = President Roosevelt died from a stroke while vacationing in Warm Springs, Georgia. *Unfortunately, FDR died before the Germans unconditional surrender.*Vice President Harry S. Truman took the oath of office as the new U.S. president.*Germany would surrender only a few weeks later, but the war with Japan still continued, which forced President Truman to make some of the most difficult decisions of the entire war after only 6 months in office.The Battle of Iwo JimaNovember 24, 1944 = 80 U.S. B-29 Superfortresses dropped bombs on Tokyo, flying the 1500 mile distance from an airbase in the Mariana Islands.*Unfortunately, many of the bombs missed their targets because the pilots had to drop early due to low fuel levels—pilots & navigators had failed to factor-in the effects of high winds on the flight patterns.The B-29s were going to need an island closer to Japan in order to allow them to refuel—American military planners chose the island of Iwo Jima.Though Iwo Jima was a perfect location due to being halfway between the Mariana Islands and Japan, the geography of the island was formidable.Iwo Jima had a dormant volcano on its southern tip, rugged terrain with rocky cliffs, steep ravines, and dozens of caves. Plus, the Japanese had constructed a vast network of concrete bunkers connected by an intricate system of tunnels.*More than 60,000 American marines landed on Iwo Jima using amphtracs, but the soft-ash of the landing zone stalled the marines advance as they were bombarded by Japanese artillery.The marines were forced to crawl inland and used flame-throwers and explosives to attack the Japanese bunkers. *More than 6,800 U.S. marines were killed in the assault.**Admiral Chester Nimitz was quoted remarking on the taking of Iwo Jima, “uncommon valor was a common virtue.”Firebombing JapanGeneral Curtis LeMay – U.S. commander over the B-29s in the Mariana Islands who decided to change the strategy of the bombing raids over Japan by ordering the pilots to drop bombs of napalm – a type of jellied-gasoline that rapidly ignited extremely hot fires over the countryside.*Using napalm would assist the bombing runs so that even if the targets were missed, the fires would eventually spread towards the target.*The use of napalm became controversial because Japanese civilians would likely be killed also, but General LeMay couldn’t think of a better/faster way to destroy Japan’s war production so quickly.March 9, 1945 = B-29s dropped napalm-bombs on Tokyo as strong winds fanned the flames to such a high intensity that the oxygen was sucked out of the air and thousands of Japanese civilians asphyxiated as a result.**By the end of the war, the U.S. had firebombed 67 Japanese cities, including all 6 of Japan’s major industrial cities.The Invasion of OkinawaDespite the firebombings, there were few signs of Japan’s willingness to surrender by the spring of 1945.American officials believed Japan would not be likely to surrender until their land was invaded.The U.S. needed an island base to stockpile weapons & supplies to prepare for an invasion, but Iwo Jima was still too far away. The officials decided on the island of Okinawa.As American troops landed on Okinawa, the Japanese defenders took up positions in the rugged mountains of the islands (very similarly to Iwo Jima), and the troops had to ascend up the steep slopes while evading constant machine gun & artillery fire.*12,000 American sailors, soldiers, and marines died attempting to take Okinawa, but by June 1945 the island had finally been captured.The Terms for SurrenderAfter the U.S. captured Okinawa, Japan’s Emperor Hirohito urged the nation’s leaders to find a way to end the war.The U.S. was demanding an “unconditional” surrender, but many Japanese leaders were only willing to do so if Emperor Hirohito was allowed to remain in power.While American officials knew that Japan’s chief issue was that Hirohito be left in power, most Americans blamed the emperor for the war and wanted him removed.President Truman was reluctant to go against American public opinion, but he was also aware that the U.S. was secretly developing a weapon that might force the Japanese to surrender unconditionally—that secret weapon was the atomic bomb.The Manhattan ProjectLeo Szilard – Jewish physicist who fled Nazi persecution and knew that German scientists had split the uranium atom. Szilard had also been the first scientist to suggest that splitting the atom might release enormous amounts of energy.Szilard was worried the Nazis may be working on an atomic bomb, so he convinced world-renowned physicist (and fellow Jew who had also fled Nazi persecution) Albert Einstein to sign a letter that Szilard had written to President Truman.*The letter to FDR warned that by using uranium and splitting atoms might create an extremely powerful bomb that would be devastating for the entire planet.Roosevelt responded by setting up a committee to discuss the possibility of an atomic bomb. The committee met together with British scientists when they learned that Britain had already begun trying to construct an atomic bomb. Roosevelt then approved a top-secret plan to develop such a weapon for the U.S.*Manhattan Project = code name for the secret U.S. effort to develop and build an atomic weapon to use to perhaps end the war with Japan.General Leslie R. Groves – head of the secret project.*1942 – The Manhattan Project, worked on by physicists like Szilard and Enrico Fermi, build the world’s first nuclear reactor at the University of Chicago.*Groves then organized a team of engineers & scientists to build and test an atomic bomb in Los Alamos, New Mexico.J. Robert Oppenheimer – physicist in charge of the team in New Mexico.*July 16, 1945 = the Manhattan Project team tested & detonated the world’s first atomic bomb in Los Alamos, New Mexico.Hiroshima and NagasakiAs the atomic bomb was still being developed, American officials were already debating how to use the new secret weapon.Admiral William Leahy – chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff opposed the use of the atomic bomb because it would kill civilians. He favored conventional tactics of an economic blockade and continued bombings to convince the Japanese to surrender.Henry Stimson – Secretary of War wanted to warn the Japanese about the new weapon and tell Japan that Emperor Hirohito would still be allowed to maintain power if they surrendered.James Byrne – Secretary of State who wanted to drop the atomic bomb on Japan without warning.*In the end, President Truman decided to send Japan a message promising “complete and total destruction of the nation” if they did not surrender. Japan did NOT reply, so Truman gave the order to drop the bomb.**August 6, 1945 – a B-29 named the Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb named, “Little Boy” on the important industrial city of Hiroshima.The bomb instantly destroyed about 63% of the city, and between 80,000 and 120,000 people died instantly, with an additional thousands more who died from radiation burns & sickness.**August 9, 1945 – the Soviet Union officially declared war on Japan, and another B-29 dropped an atomic bomb named, “Fat Man”, on the Japanese city of Nagasaki.In Nagasaki, between 35,000 and 74,000 people were killed instantly.**Faced with such massive destruction and the announcement of the Soviet declaration of war, Emperor Hirohito ordered his government to surrender.**August 15, 1945** = V-J Day or Victory over Japan. World War II was officially over.Putting the Enemy on TrialAugust 1945 – the Allied nations created the International Military Tribunal to punish the German & Japanese leaders for war crimes, to be held in Nuremberg, Germany.*22 German leaders were prosecuted at these Nuremberg Trials = 3 were acquitted/7 were given prison sentences/12 were sentenced to death.*Trials of lower-ranking military officials continued and resulted in 24 additional executions and 107 prison sentences.IMT trials were also held in Tokyo, Japan where 25 Japanese officials were charged = 18 were sentenced to prison and 7 were sentenced to death by hanging.*The Allies decided NOT to indict or charge Emperor Hirohito for fear of an uprising in Japan, since the emperor was so fiercely protected and revered.Robert Jackson – chief counsel for the U.S. at the Nuremberg Trials. ................
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