CHAPTER 24
CHAPTER 24
The Nation at War, 1901–1920
Focus Questions
24.1 What were the main events that showed the United States was becoming a world power?
24.2 What did Woodrow Wilson mean by “moral diplomacy”?
24.3 What were the reasons behind and dangers of Wilson’s neutrality policy?
24.4 How did the United States’ entry affect the course of World War I?
24.5 What programs and changes did World War I bring at home?
24.6 What mistakes did Wilson make in negotiating the Treaty of Versailles?
24.7 How did the Europe-based conflicts of World War I come to envelop the United States and other parts of the globe?
Chapter Outline
Introduction: The Sinking of the Lusitania
24.1 A New World Power
24.1.1 Building the Panama Canal
24.1.2 Ventures in the Far East
24.1.3 Taft and Dollar Diplomacy
24.2 Foreign Policy Under Wilson
24.2.1 Troubles Across the Border
24.3 Toward War
24.3.1 The Neutrality Policy
24.3.2 Freedom of the Seas
24.3.3 The U-Boat Threat
24.3.4 The Election of 1916
24.3.5 The Final Months of Peace
24.4 Over There
24.4.1 Mobilization
24.4.2 War in the Trenches
24.5 Over Here
24.5.1 The Conquest of Convictions
24.5.2 A Bureaucratic War
24.5.3 Labor in the War
24.5.4 Past and Present: War and the Economy
24.6 The Treaty of Versailles
24.6.1 A Peace at Paris
24.6.2 Rejection in the Senate
24.7 Charting the Past: World War I
24.7.1 World War I
24.7.2 The Home Front
24.7.3 The War in Europe
24.7.4 The Road to Peace
Conclusion: Postwar Disillusionment
Chapter Summary
INTRODUCTION: THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA
THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA BY GERMANY EVENTUALLY LED THE UNITED STATES INTO WORLD WAR I. THE INCIDENT IS SEEN AS FORCING WILSON TO DECLARE WAR, IN SPITE OF HIS COMMITMENT TO DIPLOMACY.
24.1 A New World Power
WHAT WERE THE MAIN EVENTS THAT SHOWED THE UNITED STATES WAS BECOMING A WORLD POWER?
The American public paid little attention to foreign affairs. Presidents were left to make foreign policy decisions with little interference, so they set policy that was aggressive and nationalistic. As a colonial power with increasingly valuable investments outside the country, the United States became more and more involved in international affairs.
24.1.1 Building the Panama Canal: Theodore Roosevelt believed the United States should be more active on the international scene and to that end greatly strengthened the military. He also secured the American position in the Caribbean and Central America. America’s domination of the Caribbean was illustrated when the United States decided to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, which at that time belonged to Colombia. In 1903, after the Colombian Senate refused to allow the canal, Roosevelt encouraged and abetted a revolution that separated Panama from Colombia. The new nation agreed to let the canal construction proceed, and it was opened in 1914. There were frequent interventions in Latin America to protect the canal. After several nations defaulted on their international debts, thus provoking European reprisals, Roosevelt announced that the United States would intervene to ensure the stability and solvency of Latin American nations. In accordance with this Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the United States intervened in the Dominican Republic, Panama, and Cuba.
24.1.2 Ventures in the Far East: Under Roosevelt, the United States and Japan worked out several agreements that put Korea in the Japanese sphere of influence but kept Japan from interfering with the Philippines. A later agreement saw both nations promising to maintain the status quo in the Pacific, uphold the Open Door Policy, and support Chinese independence.
24.1.3 Taft and Dollar Diplomacy: Taft tried to continue Roosevelt’s policies but substitute economic force for military power in American diplomacy. In the Caribbean, this generally worked, and American bankers replaced Europeans in that area. In the Far East, Taft’s support for American economic influence in Manchuria alienated China and Japan.
24.2 Foreign Policy Under Wilson
WHAT DID WOODROW WILSON MEAN BY “MORAL DIPLOMACY”?
Wilson had little experience or knowledge of diplomacy but thought that he could conduct a foreign policy based on moral force.
24.2.1 Troubles Across the Border: Wilson’s tendency toward idealism showed itself when he refused to recognize the government of Mexico in 1913 because it was headed by a man who Wilson considered a murderer. When Wilson tried to use the U.S. Navy to block arms shipments to Mexico, several incidents ensued, resulting in the bombarding and seizing of Vera Cruz by the United States. Although Wilson backed down after that, he ordered the U.S. Army into Mexico in 1916, in pursuit of guerrilla and bandit “Pancho” Villa.
24.3 Toward War
WHAT WERE THE REASONS BEHIND AND DANGERS OF WILSON’S NEUTRALITY POLICY?
The assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne threw the world into World War I. The Central Powers—Germany, Turkey, and Austria–Hungary—faced the Allied Powers—England, France, and Russia. Although his sympathies lay with England, Wilson hoped the United States could remain at peace.
24.3.1 The Neutrality Policy: There were several reasons for the strong force of neutrality in America. Progressives considered war wasteful and irrational. Many Americans had more cultural ties to the Allies but also did not want to break a long tradition of neutrality.
24.3.2 Freedom of the Seas: The English navy’s blockade of German ports immediately violated the United States’ neutral right to trade with the Central Powers. Wilson protested but accepted England’s promise to reimburse American shippers when the war was over. Trade with the Allies boosted the American economy and banks financed the loans to pay for the supplies, drawing the United States closer to the Allies’ side out of financial necessity.
24.3.3 The U-Boat Threat: Germany’s use of submarines caused the greatest difficulty for Wilson’s diplomacy. Since submarines torpedoed ships without warning, they violated international law. When Americans were killed or injured in these attacks, most notably during the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, Wilson protested and finally issued an ultimatum in April 1916. At that time, Germany backed down and pledged to honor America’s rights as a neutral country.
24.3.4 The Election of 1916: Entry into the war was the central theme of the election of 1916. Wilson advocated diplomacy and was attacked for cowardice—Roosevelt actually called Wilson “yellow.” Republican candidate Charles Evans Hughes wanted to take a harder line against Germany. Wilson was elected with important support from labor, Progressives, and women.
24.3.5 The Final Months of Peace: Wilson moved to mediate the European conflict, hoping for a postwar world with freedom of the seas, arms limitations, and a League of Nations to keep the peace. However, by the beginning of 1917, Germany was confident that it could win through a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare against England and all ships sailing to England or France. The interception of the Zimmermann Telegram, which included a German offer to ally with Mexico against the United States, pushed Wilson to order American merchant vessels to arm themselves and instruct the U.S. Navy to fire on German submarines. In March, after U-boats sank five American ships, Wilson decided on war. On April 2, 1917, he asked for a declaration of war, and Congress consented.
24.4 Over There
HOW DID THE UNITED STATES’ ENTRY AFFECT THE COURSE OF WORLD WAR I?
The United States entered the war when Germany was on the verge of victory. Russia left the war when the Bolsheviks seized power there and signed a separate peace agreement with Germany, freeing German troops to fight on the Western Front. The Allies made plans for a spring 1918 offensive.
24.4.1 Mobilization: The United States had prepared no contingency plans for a military effort in Europe. There were only 200,000 soldiers in the army, but Wilson promptly instituted a draft that eventually called more than 2 million men into military service.
24.4.2 War in the Trenches: The conditions in World War I were devastating. By June 1917, American troops began arriving in France, and by the next spring and summer, American forces were strong enough to help halt the final German offensive. Americans performed outstandingly in both the battle of Château-Thierry and the battle of Belleau Wood. In September, the Americans pushed the Germans out of St. Mihiel and added tremendous punch to the Allied attack that led the Germans to ask for peace.
24.5 Over Here
WHAT PROGRAMS AND CHANGES DID WORLD WAR I BRING AT HOME?
President Wilson moved to enlist the hearts and minds of the entire population in the war effort as he organized war production and distribution.
24.5.1 The Conquest of Convictions: Propaganda led to an outpouring of rage against Germany. The Sedition Act penalized any criticism of the war, and dissenters, like Eugene Debs, were imprisoned. Conservatives tried to stamp out socialism.
24.5.2 A Bureaucratic War: The war led to efficient government control of the economy. Various agencies, usually headed by businesspeople, supervised all aspects of production and distribution to ensure a maximum war effort. In some cases, the government seized businesses to keep them running, but, for the most part, government and business cooperated and business profited. Liberty Bonds were sold to help fund the war effort and Americans sacrificed at home to ensure that food and other supplies were available for the military.
24.5.3 Labor in the War: Labor also did well during the war. Union membership swelled, and Wilson did everything possible to avoid strikes, adopting many reforms. An acute labor shortage raised wages and drew Mexican Americans and women into war-related industries. Large numbers of African Americans left the South to find jobs in northern factories. Coming from a rural background, blacks now had to adjust to the pace of industrial work and found that they were as disliked in the North as they were in the South. In East St. Louis, forty African Americans were killed in a riot in 1917, and riots in other cities took more lives. But blacks, many of whom had seen combat in France, were less willing to accept poor treatment. Immigration restrictions were also relaxed. Despite the tensions created by the war, the United States emerged from World War I as the world’s strongest economic power.
24.5.4 Past and Present: War and the Economy: World War I, World War II, and the subsequent Cold War showed the economic boom that accompanies military spending. After the Cold War ended, continued trouble in the Middle East kept military spending high. By the 2010s, Americans were growing weary of the costs but feared the effect on jobs and businesses if military spending was cut.
24.6 The Treaty of Versailles
WHAT MISTAKES DID WILSON MAKE IN NEGOTIATING THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES?
President Wilson hoped to bring a world order based on high ideals from the chaos of war. He wanted to give defeated Germany generous treatment, and he insisted on the establishment of a League of Nations to guarantee the peace. However, the need for vindication led to difficulties in achieving Wilson’s peace plans.
24.6.1 A Peace at Paris: Wilson made his peace efforts a partisan issue, and he alienated many Republicans who might have worked with him. He discovered that the Allies were determined to punish Germany and that they could not be deflected from this goal. Wilson succeeded in creating the League of Nations, including Article X of its charter, which required each member nation to protect the territorial integrity of all other members. Anticipating a fight over the treaty in the Senate, Wilson agreed to limit the League’s jurisdiction so that it could not interfere in a nation’s domestic affairs.
24.6.2 Rejection in the Senate: Wilson could have had the treaty ratified if he had been willing to accept changes in the League, but he refused. Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge organized opposition to the League and delayed a vote on the treaty. Wilson went directly to the people in a tour of the nation, but in October 1918 a stroke disabled him and doomed the League. In the election of 1920, Democrat James M. Cox ran against Republican Warren G. Harding, and Harding won easily. The Versailles Treaty was never signed, although a separate joint resolution to end the war passed in 1921.
24.7 Charting the Past: World War I
How did the Europe-based conflicts of World War I come to envelop the United States and other parts of the globe?
European countries fell into war because of a combination of factors. The United States was unable to maintain its neutrality and eventually joined the war on the side of the Allies.
24.7.1 World War I: Although European countries believed they were too advanced to devolve into war, the combination of nationalism, imperialism, and militarism eventually led to the beginnings of World War I.
24.7.2 The Home Front: Americans attempted to remain neutral during World War I, retaining the right to trade with both sides, but Germany’s use of unrestricted submarine warfare and interception of the Zimmermann Telegram drew the United States into the conflict. On the home front, fear of radicalism sometimes led to harsh treatment of labor organizers, workers saw another conflict to be fought by the poor while the rich benefited, and some immigrant groups were divided in their support of Allied Powers. Racial tensions also grew as African Americans migrated to new neighborhoods to work in war industries. To prevent dissent, Congress restricted some basic freedoms.
24.7.3 The War in Europe: Europeans entered World War I optimistic about a swift victory, but modern technology and trench warfare led to millions of deaths. When Allied forces tried to break the almost two-year-long stalemate in France, more than 300,000 deaths resulted. African American soldiers were some of the first American troops to join the war, many serving under the command of foreign officers. As the main U.S. forces arrived on European battlefields, ground was quickly gained, and the war ended in November 1918.
24.7.4 The Road to Peace: The Russian Revolution led that country’s new leaders to sign a peace treaty with Germany in March 1918. President Wilson had plans for a peace settlement at the end of World War II that would lead to a more peaceful world. However, European leaders sought harsh terms against Germany, and Wilson’s main success was the creation of a League of Nations.
Conclusion: Postwar Disillusionment
WILSON HOPED THAT A DEMOCRATIC VICTORY IN THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1920 WOULD DEMONSTRATE THE PEOPLE’S DESIRE FOR THE LEAGUE, BUT REPUBLICAN WARREN HARDING WON A LANDSLIDE VICTORY. WILSON’S DEFEAT IN THE STRUGGLE FOR A LEAGUE OF NATIONS COINCIDED WITH A GENERAL FEELING OF DISILLUSIONMENT. AMERICANS WERE CONVINCED THAT THEY HAD BEEN DUPED INTO WAR AND THAT THE WAR HAD CHANGED NOTHING. THE PROGRESSIVE SPIRIT WAS ONE OF THE WAR’S LAST CASUALTIES.
Key Terms
24.1
o Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty: This 1903 treaty with Colombia granted the United States control over a canal zone 10 miles wide across the Isthmus of Panama.
o Roosevelt Corollary: A corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted that the
United States would intervene in Latin American affairs if those countries could not keep their affairs in order.
o dollar diplomacy: The Taft administration’s policy in the early 1900s to promote
U.S. financial and business interests abroad, especially in Latin America.
24.2
o moral diplomacy: Policy of President Woodrow Wilson that rejected “dollar diplomacy.” Rather than focusing mainly on economic ties with other nations, Wilson sought to practice morality in international relations, preserve peace, and extend to other peoples the blessings of democracy.
24.4
o Selective Service Act: This 1917 law required all American men between the ages of 21 and 30 to register for a military draft. The age limits were later changed to 18 and 45.
24.5
o Committee on Public Information (CPI): Created in 1917 by President Wilson and headed by Progressive journalist George Creel, this organization rallied support for American involvement in World War I through art, advertising, and film. Creel worked out a system of voluntary censorship with the press and distributed posters and pamphlets.
o Espionage Act of 1917: This law, passed after the United States entered World War I, imposed sentences of up to 20 years on anyone found guilty of aiding the enemy, obstructing recruitment of soldiers, or encouraging disloyalty. It allowed the postmaster general to remove from the mail any materials that incited treason or insurrection.
o Sedition Act: A World War I law that imposed harsh penalties on anyone using “disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the U.S. government, flag, or armed forces.”
o War Industries Board (WIB): This government agency oversaw the production of American factories during World War I.
o Food Administration Board: A government agency that encouraged Americans to save food during World War I.
24.6
o Fourteen Points: In January 1918, President Woodrow Wilson presented these terms for a far-reaching, nonpunitive settlement of World War I and the establishment of a League of Nations. While generous and optimistic, the Points did not satisfy wartime hunger for revenge and were largely rejected by European nations.
Shared Writing and Journal Prompts
24.1 A New World Power
WHAT WERE THE MAIN EVENTS THAT SHOWED THE UNITED STATES WAS BECOMING A WORLD POWER?
After the U.S. victory in the Spanish-American War, American presidents began to exert more and more influence in the world. Once the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed in 1903, Theodore Roosevelt took extraordinary steps to build the Panama Canal. Roosevelt also enlarged the country’s role in the Western Hemisphere when he announced his Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904 and tried to deal with the growing power of Japan with the Taft-Katsura Agreement of 1905.
24.2 Foreign Policy Under Wilson
WHAT DID WOODROW WILSON MEAN BY “MORAL DIPLOMACY”?
Wilson hoped to focus on domestic affairs but was soon involved in crises abroad. He first tried what he called “moral diplomacy,” asking the United States and other countries to treat each other in a moral manner, especially in Europe and Mexico.
24.3 Toward War
WHAT WERE THE REASONS BEHIND AND DANGERS OF WILSON’S NEUTRALITY POLICY?
With the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914, Wilson proclaimed neutrality, which was difficult to maintain. Neutrality, he hoped, would favor neither side and keep the United States out of war. Progressives knew that war would distract attention from reform. Submarine warfare offered new threats, which Wilson tried to control but could not. On April 6, 1917, the United States joined the war.
24.4 Over There
HOW DID THE UNITED STATES’ ENTRY AFFECT THE COURSE OF WORLD WAR I?
The United States entered the war at a crucial time for the Allies. American troops helped stop the last German offensive in 1918. Entry into the war gave the United States a stake in the peace treaty.
24.5 Over Here
WHAT PROGRAMS AND CHANGES DID WORLD WAR I BRING AT HOME?
American participation in World War I drew on many of the techniques of Progressive reformers, including using people with expertise and exploiting bureaucracy. The War Industries Board oversaw the production of all American factories; the Food Administration Board looked after food for the armies overseas. The government played a larger role in American life than ever before.
Past and Present: War and the Economy
How have America’s wars helped the American economy? How have they hurt it?
World War I, World War II, the Cold War, and the more recent conflicts in the Middle East increased military spending, creating jobs for Americans and profits for American businesses. Americans are tired of the seemingly endless costs of war.
Shared Writing
If war is good for the economy, should that be an argument in favor of it?
Answers will vary, but here is one possible response: Since the early twentieth century, America has been embroiled in one military conflict after another, except during the years of the Great Depression. Although keeping the economy healthy is a plausible excuse for military spending, the money spent on the military could be spent on needs that would improve the lives of people. That would keep the economy moving but in a different direction.
24.6 The Treaty of Versailles
WHAT MISTAKES DID WILSON MAKE IN NEGOTIATING THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES?
In his Fourteen Points, Wilson sought to reduce armaments, lower trade barriers, provide for self-determination, and establish a League of Nations to prevent further wars. He was forced to compromise at Versailles, but the Senate refused to ratify the peace treaty when he would not compromise on issues such as the League of Nations.
24.7 Charting the Past: World War I
How did the Europe-based conflicts of World War I come to envelop the United States and other parts of the globe?
The European nations joined World War I because of alliances that had formed. However, the United States tried to remain neutral and was eventually drawn into the war due to American deaths during attacks by German submarines.
Class Activities
1. PROPAGANDA POSTERS: CREATE A SLIDE SHOW OF SEVERAL PROPAGANDA POSTERS FROM WORLD WAR I AND LEAD A DISCUSSION ON THE TYPE OF ADVERTISING STRATEGY WAS USED TO APPEAL TO THE PUBLIC, SUCH AS AN APPEAL TO EMOTIONS, APPEAL TO PATRIOTISM, VILIFICATION OF THE ENEMY, AND CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT. THEN, HAVE STUDENTS CREATE THEIR OWN PROPAGANDA POSTERS TO SHARE WITH THE CLASS.
2. FOUR-MINUTE SPEECHES: THE COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC INFORMATION ORGANIZED VOLUNTEERS TO GIVE FOUR-MINUTE SPEECHES TO PROMOTE U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN WORLD WAR I. HAVE STUDENTS WORK TOGETHER IN GROUPS OF TWO OR THREE TO CREATE A TWO-MINUTE SPEECH ABOUT ONE OF THE FOLLOWING TOPICS: JOINING THE MILITARY, BUYING BONDS, CONSERVING AT HOME, WORKING WOMEN, DEMONIZING THE CENTRAL POWERS, SUPPORTING THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS, OR GENERAL SUPPORT FOR U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN THE WAR. SPEECHES MUST USE ACCURATE HISTORICAL INFORMATION BUT CAN BE BIASED. HAVE STUDENT GROUPS GIVE THEIR SPEECHES IN CLASS.
3. EVALUATING THE FOURTEEN POINTS: HAVE STUDENTS READ THE FOURTEEN POINTS LISTED IN CHARTING THE PAST: WORLD WAR I, WHICH APPEARS ONLY IN REVEL. HAVE STUDENTS BREAK INTO SMALL GROUPS OF TWO OR THREE AND ASSIGN EACH GROUP ONE OF THE POINTS TO RESEARCH. STUDENTS SHOULD DETERMINE WHY WILSON WANTED THAT ELEMENT INCLUDED AND WHAT PROBLEM IN THE WORLD THE POINT ADDRESSED. STUDENTS CAN SHARE THEIR FINDINGS. THEN, CONDUCT A DISCUSSION ABOUT WHICH OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE FOURTEEN POINTS ARE THE MOST SIGNIFICANT AND WHICH ARE THE LEAST SIGNIFICANT.
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