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AQA Exam Command WordsAnalyse - Separate information into components and identify their characteristics.Calculate - Work out the value of something.Choose - Select from a range of ment - Present an informed pare - Identify similarities and/or plete - Finish a task by adding to given information.Consider - Review and respond to given information.Describe - Give a detailed account of.Design - Set out how something will be done.Discuss - Present key points about different ideas or strengths and weaknesses of an idea.Distinguish - Explain ways in which two things differ. Provide detail of characteristic that enable a person to know the difference between …Draw - Produce a diagram.Evaluate - Judge from available evidence – this can be done through strengths and weaknesses, or different points/arguments Explain - Set out purposes or reasons.Explain how - Give a detailed account of a process or way of doing something.Explain why - Give a detailed account of reasons in relation to a particular situation.Identify - Name or otherwise characterise.Give - Produce an answer from recall or from given information.Justify - Provide reasons, reasoned argument to support, possibly provide evidence.Label - Provide appropriate names on a diagram.Name - Identify using a recognised technical term.Outline - Set out main characteristics.Select - Choose or pick out from alternatives.State - Express in clear terms.Suggest - Present a possible case/solution.Which is - Select from alternatives.What is meant by - Give a definition.Write - Provide information in verbatim form.Discuss and Evaluate questionsMemory – Extended essayThis question is focused on research studies. You need to:Describe 2 pieces of research Evaluate the research with 3-4 PEEL’s – a mixture of strengths and weaknesses Describe and evaluate the Multi-store model of memory (16 marks)The multistore model of memory was the first attempt at creating a theoretical model of human memory and described memory of a linear process with three unitary stores. The model suggested that environmental stimuli arrives at the brain and enters the sensory register. This information is stored in modality specific ways for less than half a second before the trace decays and is forgotten. If attention is paid to a specific environmental input then it is transferred to the short-term memory where a rehearsal loop can be undertaken to keep the memory trace active. This store has a limited capacity of between 5 to 9 items – after which the earlier memories are displaced in favour of newer ones. It also has a limited duration of about 30 seconds – after which the memory decays. Finally, the memory is encoded acoustically. If a longer or more purposeful period of rehearsal takes place, then the memory can be transferred to the long term memory. This, in comparison, has a potentially unlimited capacity and potentially unlimited duration where memories are theoretically only temporarily inaccessible due to retrieval failure and interference. Once long term memory is stored it can be retrieved into the short term memory in order to recalled.POINT: There is a wealth of evidence to support the separation of the STM and LTM with experimental studies showing that the two stores have different capacities, duration and encoding. EVIDENCE: For example, Baddeley used substitution errors to investigate the learning of material in STM and LTM. He found that when using STM there were more errors made for acoustically similar words whereas when in LTM these errors disappeared but were replaced by error in confusing semantically similar words. EXPLAIN: This shows that the two types of memory are separate to each other as is seems that the STM encodes acoustically, whereas the LTM encodes semantically. LINK: The MSM is therefore a valid and plausible theory because Baddeley was able to provide evidence through the use of highly controlled lab experiments, enabling cause and effect by comparing the various conditions as stated above. POINT-COUNTER: However, evidence from case studies have questioned the separation of STM and LTM. EVIDENCE: For example, a patient with amnesia called KF showed poor short term memory and good LTM, however, he could recall visual information using his STM but struggled with auditory and verbal information, making conversation difficult. EXPLAIN: This shows that the separation of STM and LTM may not be as simple as first thought, and there are possible further separations of STM including an acoustic store and a visual store, LINK: therefore, the MSM may be too simplistic to hold a complete picture of memory, because evidence from case studies have shown that MSM is not holistic enough to account for unique circumstances and the individual differences such as those presented in KF.POINT: In addition, the MSM can be criticised for taking a nomothetic approach in the sense that it creates general laws for memory EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: by using highly controlled lab experiments such as those by Baddeley, it tries to establish cause and effect by comparing the different conditions to support the idea that all individuals have separate memory stores of sensory register, LTM and STM, and this not only neglects individual differences, it is also difficult to assume that memories from artificial environments will be the same in real life. LINK: From this perspective, the MSM only provides a reductionist view of memory and this is because it fails to account for other factors that may play a role in memory. Attachment – Extended essay This question focuses on a theory and wants you to apply your knowledge of the theory to a scenario. You will be able to identify an application question by seeing some form of description and they will always ask you to refer to the scenario in the question. You need to:Describe 2 theoriesApply the theories to the scenario 2 times Evaluate with 2 PEEL’s – one strength and one weakness Two mothers at the toddler and parent group are chatting.“I always felt sorry for my husband when Millie was a baby. He used to say his bond with Millie was not as strong as mine because I was breastfeeding.”“I’m not sure”, replies the other mother. “I think there’s something about a mother’s love that makes it more special anyway – and so important for future development.”Discuss the learning theory of attachment?and?Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment. Refer to the conversation above in your answer (16 marks)Learning theory proposes that babies are not born with a need to attach, but instead learn to attach through a process of classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when food (the unconditioned stimulus) produces pleasure and happiness (unconditioned response). The person who feeds the baby (neutral stimulus) then becomes associated with the food, and the pleasure the baby feels towards the food, the baby starts to feel towards the feeder. The feeder then becomes the conditioned stimulus and the pleasure that the baby feel is the conditioned response. Operant conditioning suggests that babies learn by consequence. For example, a baby learns that crying will result in being fed which will remove hunger (negative reinforcement), and receive love and attention (positive reinforcement. Therefore, the baby develops an attachment to the parent as they repeat behaviours that encourage the mother and baby to connect. In the scenario, the mother says that she feels sorry for her husband because he felt that the bond he had with Millie was not as strong as the mother breast-fed her. This is an example of learning theory as the baby has become classically conditioned to associate the breast and the mother with food, and has not had the opportunity to create an association with food and the father. Bowlby’s theory proposes that a baby will have one primary attachment figure (monotropy). This primary attachment must occur within the first 2 years of the baby’s life, otherwise attachment becomes difficult (critical period). The primary care giver is usually the person who is most sensitive to the baby’s needs. The baby expresses their needs through social releasers, which are behaviours that encourage the mother to care for the baby e.g. crying, laughing etc. This first attachment is a model for, and creates expectations about what our future relationships will be like (internal working model). In the scenario, the mother talks about having a love that is more special and important for their future development. This relates to Bowlby’s monotropic theory as the mother is describing herself as the primary care-giver and supports the idea of an internal working model. POINT: Both theories can be argued as having useful applications. EXPLAIN: By understanding how attachments are formed, we can encourage certain behaviours. EVIDENCE: For example, you can apply learning theory by making sure that fathers have an opportunity to feed the baby so that they can develop a healthy attachment with their child. In addition, research by Harlow, highlights the importance of a primary attachment figure, the critical period and the internal working model. Rhesus monkeys who had no attachment figure became emotionally and socially maladjusted, showing aggression and mating problems. LINK: This is a strength of learning theory and monotropic theory because parents can be made aware of how attachments are formed and it can help to change society’s views on how to care for their children, and therefore improve their lives. POINT: On the other hand, although both theories can be usefully applied, they both have the limitation of ignoring one side of the nature/nurture debate. EXPLAIN: Monotropic theory predominately focuses on the nature side where as the learning theory focuses on the nurture side. EVIDENCE: Bowlby theorised that attachments develop because of an innate/biological drive to survive, whereas learning theory believes that attachment occurs due to learning associations and consequences to behaviour. LINK: This ultimately makes the theories less valid. This is because nature and nurture will always play a role together. You cannot separate the two influences, and by only considering one of the sides of the debate, both theories are missing a key influence in attachment. Social influence - Short essayThink of this as half of a 16 mark essay. You will need to:Describe 1 piece of research Evaluate with 2 PEEL’s – one strength and one weakness Describe and evaluate research by Milgram on destructive obedience (8 marks)Milgram wanted to find out if ordinary American citizens would obey an unjust order from an authority figure and inflict pain on another person because they were instructed to. Milgram deceived his participants and told them that they were participating in a study on the effects of punishment and learning. Participants were asked to deliver electric shocks to an individual next door every time they got a word pair task wrong, and the voltage would increase by 15 volts each time. The unsuspecting participants were led to believe that the shocks were real and participants were urged to continue delivering these shocks by an experimenter in the room using a standardised script of comments such as ‘The experiment required you to continue’. Milgram found that 100% of participants went to at least 300 volts and 65% continued until the full 450 volts. He concluded that under the right circumstances ordinary people will obey unjust orders.POINT: Milgram’s research was clearly unethical in many ways, and this is one of the major flaws of his research. EVIDENCE: Participants were deceived on every level including; the aim of the research, the allocation of teacher and learner, and the most damaging of all, participants were led to believe that the electric shocks were real and that they had potentially killed a person. EXPLAIN & LINK: Researchers have objected to this deception as it is a betrayal of trust and damages the reputations of psychologist’s research. Furthermore, Milgram’s extreme deception may make other participants less likely to volunteer for future research.POINT: On the other hand Milgram’s research had high external validity. EXPLAIN: It could be argued that the lab based relationship between the experimenter and participant reflected real-life authority figures. EVIDENCE: Research found that levels of obedience in nurses on a hospital ward to unjustified demands by doctors were very high (21 out of 22 nurses obeyed). LINK: Therefore, the process of obedience in Milgram’s study can be generalised to real life situations of authority figures.Memory – SAQ With all your other evaluate or discuss questions, you have needed to describe research or studies. However, this question is different as only 6 marks are available, and therefore you do not need to describe the research or theory. Whenever you get a describe or evaluate question that is 6 marks, you only need to:Evaluate with 2 PEEL’s – one strength and one weakness Evaluate/Discuss the cognitive interview as a way of improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. (6 marks)POINT: One weakness of the cognitive interview (CI) is that it has practical applications and reliability issues. EXPLAIN: This is because it tends to be too time-consuming in practice to do all 4 stages and this leads to inconsistency in how the technique is used. EVIDENCE: Research has found that some police departments use the report everything and context reinstatement, where as other departments will use all 4. In addition, a further criticism of early studies of the CI was that the amount and quality of training that police officers were given were not consistent. LINK: This could hinder the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT) as some individuals may receive a lower quality interview than others. Therefore, not all the necessary information is gathered, and these inaccurate testimonies could lead to wrongful convictions. POINT: On the other hand, the cognitive interview has been proven to be more accurate in comparison to the standard interview and therefore may be useful in improving interview practices in real life. EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: Kohnken et al carried out a meta-analysis of 42 studies and found that the Cognitive Interview gave consistently more accurate information in comparison to the Standard Interview. This improves the credibility of the technique and highlights the benefit of CI. LINK: Therefore, this means that police departments and courtrooms can improve the accuracy of testimony and ensure a fair trial by using CI. Compare questions Approaches – Extended essay This question requires you to describe the theory and then describe similarities and differences. You will need to:Describe the theory Use the PEEEE structure 3 times – you can do a mixture of similarities AND differences, or have all you points as similarities OR differencesOutline the key features of the cognitive approach in psychology. Compare the cognitive approach with the psychodynamic approach. (16 marks)The cognitive approach focuses on the examination of mental processes: perception, memory, attention, consciousness. Because these processes are internal, they cannot be studied directly; instead, their operation must be inferred from the observation and measurement of visible human behaviour. To assist this inference, cognitive psychologists make use of theoretical models. Models enable the representation of complex conceptual processes so that their components can be better understood. An example of this is the multi-store model of memory which presents a picture of memory based on an information-processing analogy. Theoretical models also provide a basis for research. Schema theory is another information-processing model that emphasises how perception and memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks built from experience that organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas allow us to make sense of an often ambiguous world by “filling in the gaps” in our knowledge, and thus enable us to act comfortably even when our information is incomplete.POINT: One similarity between the cognitive and psychodynamic approach is that both recognize the influence of experience on our behaviour in later life and this demonstrates that both approaches acknowledge the importance of nurture on the operation of internal mental processes. EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: According to the cognitive understanding of schemas, past experiences provide the content of the mental representations that inform our expectations of future events, and thus shape our perception of them and our responses to them. This can of course, lead to the development of stereotypes, and the subsequent disregard for information that does not fit our pre-existing frameworks of knowledge. EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: The psychodynamic approach likewise places great emphasis on the role of childhood experiences in the shaping of adult behaviour. For example, Freud suggested that unresolved conflict that develops during our passage through the psychosexual stages could cause fixations in later life, and the psychological unease that is their result. POINT: One difference between the cognitive approach and psychodynamic approach are the methods in which they use to study behaviour. EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: Cognitive psychologists tend to use objective methods such as lab experiments because they require high control in order to establish cause and effect between internal mental processes and behaviour. For example Loftus & Palmer got all of the participants to watch clip of a car crash and then manipulated the verbs in a critical question. She found that more extreme verbs such as smashed caused individuals to predict higher speed estimates. EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: On the other hand, the psychodynamic approach tend to use more subjective methods such as case studies and observations because it focuses on unique behaviour that requires more in depth analysis. For example, Freud uses a case study on little Hans and collects observations from little Hans father in order to understand how his everyday experiences may give an insight into his unconscious mind. POINT: A final similarity is that both have been practically applied to help people in the real world. EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: The cognitive understanding has enabled psychologists to clinically address psychopathology, i.e. why faulty thinking may lead to psychological disorders; from this has developed treatments, such as CBT, to help people recognise and challenge distorted thinking patterns. EVIDENCE & EXPLAIN: Similarly, Psychodynamic therapy in the form of psychoanalysis has been a central feature in the history of psychiatry as a medical speciality. This therapy can include hypnosis, dream analysis, and other techniques aimed at accessing the unconscious. Whilst this therapy has reduced in popularity over the past few decades, the psychodynamic approach has been an influential element in the development of later therapies such as CBT.Research Methods Design Essay Experiments – Extended essayThis question requires you to bring in your understanding of how to design a piece of research. You will need to include:What, How & Why for every bullet point in the question A student carried out a study using an experiment to find out whether rewards effect pace of work. You are expected to carry up a follow up study on this topic. Explain how you would carry out an experiment to investigate if rewards effect pace of work.? Justify your decisions as part of your explanation. You must refer to:Self-selected or Opportunity samplingIndependent measures or Repeated measuresLab experiment or Field experimentAt least one control you would useJustify your design choices [12]WHAT: I collected the sample using?a self-selected sampling method?on the 15th of February. HOW: I put a poster up asking if psychology students would like to participate in a study in D4 about the effects of reward on pace of work. This poster was put up between 8am-6pm in café Africa at Chesham Grammar. Those who responded were part of the study.?WHY:?The reason why I have chosen a self-selected sampling method is because it reduces the chance of researcher bias, this is because I would not be able to choose specific people who I think would respond better to rewards in order to fit in with my study. They participants come to me, and I would have less of an influence on which participants volunteered. WHAT:?I will be using an?independent measures design?for this experiment. HOW: I would create these groups by putting all the student’s names in a hat. I would then pick out 10 names and they would go in to the reward group, the names left in the hat will go in the no reward group. In the reward group students would be offered a chocolate bar for completing a maths quiz of times tables and timed how long it takes to complete the quiz. The other group would be timed on the same quiz, but without a chocolate bar.?WHY:?The reason why I have chosen this experimental design is because I want to avoid order effects and demand characteristics which could reduce the validity of the effects of reward on work pace. If students participated in both conditions the chocolate and no chocolate condition, they may work out the study and work at a slower/faster pace than usual.?WHAT:?I will be using?a lab experiment?for my investigation in order to ensure?high control?of my variables. HOW: I will do this by ensuring that the participants complete the multiple-choice quiz in the same room of c6 and are given the same multiple choice quiz which will they be timed on, and will also be given the same amount of chocolate e.g. 50 grams, depending on what condition they are in.?WHY:?Although a natural experiment might be more ecologically valid than a lab experiment, due to the IV naturally occurring in the participant, in this study it is set out in a school setting where they will be learning and using knowledge that they learn in psychology, therefore already quite realistic. WHAT:?I would also create a?control?by ensuring that everyone in my experiment liked chocolate as this could act as an extraneous variable on pace of work. HOW: I would do this by asking if they liked chocolate before they participated in the study. Those who do not like chocolate would be removed from the experiment.?WHY:?The reason why I have controlled for this is because it could act as an extraneous variable and effect the pace of work that participants work at. This would make my findings less valid as the reward would not be the only variable effecting pace of work, but in fact their dislike for chocolate.? ................
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