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Cueing Systems and Teaching ReadingAshley JohnsonGrand Valley State University10 April 2014AbstractIn today’s society, students must become literate in both traditional print technologies, and in new digital technologies. These literacies have specific challenges, yet can also provide many benefits. Reading is a complicated process in which students must be taught to use three cueing systems simultaneously; in the context of digital literacies, students must still be able to use these systems in addition to other cues. If a child is unable to use even one of these, reading does not occur. It is clear that the process of teaching students how to read is changing in today’s society yet it is just as imperative as ever that they are taught how to do so effectively. Currently, this is an area of technological innovation; this paper will conclude by evaluating a few technological resources on their advantages and disadvantages in literacy education.The pedagogy behind teaching students how to read is a constantly debated topic. In spite of everyone’s opinions, there is no doubt that learning to read is a complicated process. It is one in which students must be taught to use three cueing systems simultaneously; if a child is unable to use even one of these cues, reading does not, in fact, occur. In today’s society, not only must children learn how to read in traditional print, they also must learn how to function in the context of digital literacies. With new technology constantly being introduced, students must still be able to use these systems, in addition to other learned skills. There are many different technological resources available that can help children to improve their literacy skills; three of these are analyzed at the end of this paper. It is clear that the process of teaching students how to read is changing in today’s society yet it is just as imperative as ever that they are taught how to do so effectively.Graphic cues are one of several integral parts of children learning how to read; they are the printed letters and words from the text. In order for students to actually receive the message from what they are reading, they must be able to understand the print symbols and their various combinations (Fox, 80). In the English alphabet, every word, sentence, or paragraph is just a different combination of the same 26 characters; children must be able to recognize, decipher, and decode them. In her book, Reading Magic, Mem Fox calls this first secret of reading, the magic of print. However, graphophonic knowledge is not enough; there are occasions “when readers – young and old – can see the print and read it phonically yet can’t decipher it enough to make meaning out of it” (Fox, 84). In these cases, people are able to make the correct sounds from the print cues but have no idea about what it truly means. This often occurs when people learn to read a different language for the first time; they are able to “read” (pronounce the words correctly) but are not able to comprehend the meaning. For instance, students may be able to read the text that represents the word, “Chicago.” They could sound out the symbols that make up the word however, they may not have any true comprehension of the word. Clearly, graphic cues are just one part of the reading process.Another imperative part of reading is the syntactic cueing system. Syntactic cues are a reader’s intuition regarding the structure of the language (Melvin, 279). They are entirely different and separate from graphophonic knowledge yet, they are just as important. Mem Fox would call this secret of reading, the “magic of language.” People must understand the way the language works; the more “we know about a language – in our case, the more we know about how English works – the more of the language we know, the easier it is to read it (Fox, 87). If a child is unable to understand the way that words link to form sentences, they will not be able to effectively learn to read. For instance, readers may already be able to sound out the word, “Chicago,” when using graphophonic cues but syntactic cues can help as well. In knowing how the English language works, readers will understand that a capital letter at the beginning of a word indicates the beginning of a sentence, or in this case, a proper noun. This will help them come to the realization that Chicago is a place. Understanding that, while putting graphophonic and syntactic cues together, will help to create more comprehension for students. The best way for children to learn about how the syntactic part of knowledge works is simply being exposed to it. Children “who haven’t been read to, don’t expect print to make sense” (Fox, 97). Reading to children will help students to know what to anticipate, regarding syntax, when they encounter text. However, it is possible that they could understand English and how it works, as well as understand how print functions, yet not be reading. A child could be “reading” (pronouncing words correctly and accurately pausing at different punctuation marks) but still not comprehend the material. The final cueing system that allows children to actually read is the semantic one. Semantic cues are the reader’s prior knowledge of words and concepts (Melvin, 279). Mem Fox refers to this system as the magic of general knowledge; the more information “we know about life, the easier it is to read” (Fox, 103). Once again, the easiest way to build this information for children, is to read aloud to them and expose them to a wide variety of experiences. The more we read aloud to children, the more they will “read by themselves, the more experience they’ll have in the world through the things they encounter in books. And the more experience they have of the world, the easier it will be to read” (Fox, 104). Although children learn about the world vicariously through books, they also increase their amount of semantic knowledge from experiencing things in real life. Another important part of these systems is pragmatic knowledge; this is a small part of the semantic cueing system. Pragmatics is the cultural and social influences from society and in language. It is most helpful in “interpreting humor, sarcasm, and other social and cultural linguistic features” (D. Goodman, 14). Once again, if a reader is unaware of these concepts, it will be incredibly difficult for them to create comprehension from the text; it is an important part of the background knowledge needed to gain meaning from reading. Using the previous example of the word, “Chicago,” semantic cues are the missing piece of the puzzle to help readers gain comprehension. Once students have experienced Chicago in real life or vicariously through pictures or other books, they will understand that it is a busy city with many tall buildings where people are always moving. These semantic cues will help to build readers to understand what is truly occurring in the book by combining the three cueing systems. Semantic cues are the final system that can work together with the other cueing systems in order to create meaning behind the act of reading.As a child is learning to use the cuing systems simultaneously, one of a teacher’s responsibilities, should be to observe miscues, the errors a child makes when reading. In analyzing miscues, educators are able to help students improve on the cueing systems in which they need the most improvement. These simple observations can make all the difference in a child who is struggling to read; if he or she is able to focus in on the true problem and work on solving it, the child may be able to overcome his or her reading difficulties. For a child who is struggling to read, this could be life-changing. It is possible for readers to support themselves while reading, on just one of the cueing systems; however, it often results in many miscues when reading. This should be apparent to their teachers by the type of miscues they are making. For instance, students who are using graphophonic cues may make miscues that look or sound similar to the actual words in the text (Wohlwend, 111). They are concentrating on the print and text and ignoring their own semantic or syntactic background information. By focusing on the symbols so much, they may mistake them for a different word and pronounce it aloud, resulting in a miscue. If a reader is using only syntactic cues when reading, they may make substitution, omission, or insertion miscues that would fit in a conventional word order; it is also likely that they would substitute the same part of speech (verb for a different verb) or even substitute words that fit the child’s developing understanding of rules for language and grammar (for example, goed for went) (Wohlwend, 111). When a reader focuses on the syntax so much, they are not able to incorporate the other cueing systems. There are also some signs that a reader is using semantic cues. Students may make substitutions, omissions, or insertion miscues that still preserve the sense of the sentence; they may also self-correct miscues that do not make sense. (Wohlwend, 111). For these miscues, students focus on their background knowledge and use that information incorrectly. It is imperative that teachers are able to help their students to know what category their miscues are falling under, in order to continue to grow as a reader. The progression in miscues in developing readers can be a useful tool in discovering the best way to teach as well. There have been several studies done, analyzing miscues that occur in developing readers. One study employed running records of 30 first grade, at-risk emergent readers to analyze the types of cues used when reading. After much investigation, researchers found that these students tended to use semantic and syntactic cues when they were challenged by the reading (Kelly & Klein, 1). This study found that students “draw upon their knowledge of the world and their familiarity with language structure when they approach the initial task of learning how to read” (Kelly & Klein, 5). As students grow as readers, they seem to continue to use their prior knowledge of meaning and structure in addition to their use of graphic cues. Another study discussed a university sponsored program for 8- to 13-year olds in which they worked on developing students as readers. Examples of dialogue and growth are mentioned in the article, however the main goal was to teach students strategies for faster and more accurate word pronunciation. One student worked to become more flexible in using all cueing systems instead of simply graphophonic information, as he was previously doing. While working with students, the teachers used traditional books as a way to build student’s semantic and syntactic knowledge (Fielding, 392). Their goal was to keep the focus on meaning and enjoyment of the books while helping children to balance their use of the cueing systems. When the graphophonic, syntactic, and semantic systems work together, productive reading is able to occur; they work together to help readers to create comprehension. When the systems work separately, “they function badly. Reading is a grand guessing game, and if one of the secrets of reading fails to help us ‘guess’ or read correctly, the other two kick in to help us along (Fox, 109). For instance, if a roommate with barely legible handwriting leaves a note on the kitchen counter that says: “I’ll miss you; have a grout weekend!” we may not be able to decipher the print. However, our general knowledge helps us to realize that it has to be a ‘great’ weekend because we know that ‘grout weekend’ does not make much sense. When we read, we do not actually have to read every word; many are unimportant and can be skimmed through. For example, new drivers may attempt to read a sign as they drive by but as other cars drive past, some of the words are blocked. Although they can only read “Be … Roads … slippery,” that is enough to understand the general meaning. They could also use syntactic and semantic knowledge to fill in the sentence in their head to read “Be careful, Roads may be slippery.” When the unimportant words are left out, readers are sometimes still able to make sense of a piece of writing by using other cueing systems to fill in the blanks. Clearly, reading is not just a visual process; readers see the print while also using their prior knowledge to make sense of the text. As children read, they anticipate the structure of language as well as the flow of words. Primarily, readers must use their knowledge of the language in order to actually read. When reading, people “read some words, predict (subconsciously) what will come next, then read just enough to test the prediction” (Melvin, 278). If their anticipation is correct, the reader will proceed through the text. Reading is an activity in which prediction is extremely important. When the flow is interrupted by an incorrectly guessed meaning of a misread word, the reader must stop and carefully confirm or deny the correct meaning. In predicting unknown words, the semantic cueing system allows readers to use their prior knowledge as context (Wheat & Demond, 2). Another way to use the tool of prediction is in the structure of the print. Readers that use the syntactic cueing system are able to take his or her knowledge of oral language and use it in reading printed materials (Wheat & Demond, 2). Proficient readers will use semantic and syntactic cues, however they will also use some graphic cues. The “more control the learner has of his oral language and the greater his background of experiences, the less visual information he needs to gain meaning from the text” (Wheat & Demond, 3). As students begin to read, they often focus most of their efforts on studying graphic cues. As they continue to develop their literacy skills however, they will need fewer graphophonic cues. They will develop more and more syntactic and semantic understanding as they continue learning to read; this knowledge will help immensely in reading effectively. All systems are necessary for reading, but as students grow as readers, they will increase the amount of non-visual information (semantic and syntactic cues) while decreasing the visual input (graphophonic cueing system). Teachers should help students to incorporate the three cueing systems immediately when starting the learning process. “Students should integrate cueing systems and strategies from the beginning… to ensure a smoother, faster transition to independent reading” (Lusche, 13). If teachers are aware of a cue that is not being used by a student, it is their responsibility to help them learn to use it more frequently. When children do not learn to read, “It’s often due to too great a focus on one of the secrets of reading to the exclusion of the others” (Fox, 109). Using the cueing systems simultaneously and immediately when beginning to read is imperative for developing readers. The purpose in reading is, very simply, to gain meaning. In using the cueing systems, children are able to make language into a meaning-seeking process (K. Goodman, 458). This is often created, when students are first beginning to read, by reading graphic cues. However, as the reader becomes more advanced, his or her prior knowledge of grammar, make it possible to predict the syntax while also creating an expectation for the semantic meaning (K. Goodman, 459). While learning how to read, readers are able to develop “strategies for picking out the most productive cues before he encounters them” (K. Goodman, 459). Although children begin to read by using the graphophonic cueing system, they learn to use the syntactic and semantic systems more effectively as they develop at readers. Clearly all three cueing systems are imperative to actually reading. However, in today’s society, according to a survey from 2012, adolescent literacy, comprehension, and new literacies/digital literacies were three of the eight most critical literacy topics (Cassidy & Loveless, 16). There were 25 qualified people from all over the United States who discussed 27 separate topics and their relative importance for today’s literacy professionals; each of the topics was then assigned as either “hot” or “not hot” (Cassidy & Loveless, 16). Adolescent literacy and the need for comprehension have been topics of great discussion for many years. However, new literacies/digital literacies is a newer “hot” topic and one that is affecting the way students learn to read. In today’s society, students are growing up in a world where they are constantly inundated with technology; this can change the way they learn to read and function as readers.One of the biggest changes with new literacies is the idea that texts have changed from graphemes being the primary source of meaning to digital technologies in which combinations of sound, print and images work together to create meaning (Hassett & Schieble, 62-63). Because of these changes, students must be taught a new way to read, write, interpret and interact with these literacies. The three cueing systems are used in creating comprehension, however, there is more to think about and navigate through in digital literacies. These new combinations of words sounds, and illustrations working together can help students to grow as readers; however, they can also be more challenging at times. Although students are encountering new forms of literacy every day, “literacy instruction is currently dominated by traditional texts in schools” (Hassett & Schieble, 67). It is imperative that students are directly taught how to find comprehension in a world that has constantly changing and evolving technology.This change in society is demonstrated in the fact that 47.9% of all 12- to 17-year-olds in the United States have access to the internet at home (Schmar-Dobler, 80). To be considered literate in today’s world, students must know how to read and write in print, but also in the digital realm. The skills that students use while reading print must crossover and converge with the skills used for technology. For instance, readers of print use a set of comprehension strategies that include skills from the three cueing systems; readers of print must draw inferences, synthesize, determine important ideas, repair comprehension, monitor comprehension, activate prior knowledge, and ask questions (Schmar-Dobler, 82). In addition to those skills, readers must also be able to navigate by locating information while also making meaning from the text. Readers must know how to navigate the internet through “their use of prior knowledge about the topic and the structure of the text,” similar to the semantic and syntactic cues previously mentioned (Schmar-Dobler, 85). Future teachers must help their students to take their knowledge of reading cues from print and apply that to their use of technology. It is their job, to include technology as a part of their literacy education in today’s world. In science programs especially, expository or informational texts can be difficult for students to comprehend. When transitioning into reading more informational texts, teachers can include multimedia resources as a way to engage students and scaffold their learning (Montelongo & Herter, 89). Many educators believe that “the time has come to take technology more seriously as a component of middle-school literacy curriculum and pedagogy” (Montelongo & Herter, 95). It is clear that technology can be used as a tool to help students to comprehend texts.In spite of technology being a huge advantage, it can also add some challenges to a classroom. Lillian M. Martin writes about some of these in her classroom. For instance, she discovered time being wasted searching for appropriate information that was difficult to find, many students misbehaving with off-task behavior, very little note taking and discussion, and information that was too difficult to read (Martin, 736). However, there are many ways to combat these difficulties. For instance, Martin uses prereading and post reading, in her classroom, as ways to discover more information about a specific topic. Also, she encourages teachers to create a simple plan and set bookmarks for students to work in small groups and make classmates accountable to each other (Martin, 737). Students will need to be guided through their use of technology but it allows each student to "make connections with the print, work[s] cooperatively, communicate[s] with his class, and reflect[s] on how the computer aids his learning" (Martin, 737). Although technology can be a distraction, the benefits to using it in a classroom largely outweigh the possible negative effects. Technological Literacy Tool ResearchOne technological resource that could be used in order to assist in teaching reading is Electronic books, or E-books; there are many different websites, applications, and handheld devices that offer these tools. In my research however, I have evaluated three different services in order to understand how traditional print and new digital technologies can work together to aid in children reading. E-books are perfect examples of how combinations of sound, print, and images work together to create meaning; they are an entertaining way to keep students’ attention while also providing an educational opportunity. TumbleBooks ResearchThe first online resource that I analyzed is TumbleBooks. It is the most extensive of the three that I evaluated; TumbleBooks are animated, talking picture books. This website takes picture books that already exist, add animation, sound, music and narration to create an electronic picture book. In order to gain access to TumbleBooks, one must have a paid, 12 month subscription; it costs $599 per year for each school or library branch. TumbleBooks also offers a free 30 day trial period if one wants to check out the product before investing for an entire year. TumbleBooks, however, is only available for schools and libraries (no individuals or homeschoolers). TumbleBooks can be accessed online from every computer in the school or library with internet connection or from home with a direct link on the school or library website. TumbleBooks requires the latest Flash plugin if using a Windows computer; however, it is also available on iPads, iPhones and tablets. I am able to access TumbleBooks for free through my public library’s website. It is possible to change the language of TumbleBooks to English, Spanish, or French. Figure 1: TumbleBooks Homepage01325245There are 540 different titles available through TumbleBooks as of 2013. Also, there is no limit as to how many students that can access the collection at the same time or the number of times they can view each title. There are many different sections of TumbleBooks (seen on the homepage in figure one). One of the biggest areas of the website is the story books; they are the animated, talking picture books, the biggest draw of the resource. These books are ones that have been published in print and are now animated for this website. Users are able to have ability to automatically or manually turn the pages. They are also able to choose whether or not the website reads aloud. When reading aloud, the sentence that is being read is highlighted. Chapter books are another option that can be used on TumbleBooks; the target age for this section is older than the story books. There are no animations but the E-books still have the option of being narrated. They also have a chapter menu so that students are able to jump to a specific chapter; it is possible to make bookmarks and notes in this part of the website as well. Users are able to change the color of the background and text, as well as the font style, size, and line spacing. In the chapter books, readers are able to choose automatic or manual page turning and narration or silence. There is a much smaller selection of chapter books than the story books. There are nonfiction books available with the same options as well; the subjects vary from health to astronomy to biology.By each book selection, there is a list of the suggested grade, lexile, and accelerated reader level. There is also a tumbletime listed; this is the duration of time that it will take to read the book when set to read and play automatically. There is a link to learn more about the author or illustrator as well. When a student has completed his or her book, there is a reading comprehension skills test that he or she can take. There are also audioquizzes available that could be done as a whole-class activity. There is an opportunity for users to write a book report, as well as many lesson plans available. There are many activities that could be done in conjunction with reading an E-book to further educate a child.The Playlist tool allows users to listen to pre-loaded playlists of several books. They combine books with similar themes, reading levels, or authors and can be up to twenty-five minutes of entertainment. It is also possible to create an original playlist of several books to play consecutively. The favorites section is also very easily accessible. Under each book, there is a button that says “add to favorites.” If a user clicks on that button, the book will be added to his or her favorite list.TumbleBooks is not just based upon the E-books; it is an extensive website that contains many other features. There are puzzles and games available. These are educational tools that relate to the stories that are available through TumbleBooks. There is a language learning section that includes books in Spanish, French, Russian, and Chinese. There are National Geographic videos (2-5 minutes long) on various topics that can be paired with an E-book to introduce a topic. It is possible that users can download their own E-book or create their own E-card to send as well. Figure 3: Syntax in TumbleBooks (Duck! Rabbit!)-1619254969510Figure 2: Graphemes in TumbleBooks (One Duck Stuck)1400175975995Although it is clear that TumbleBooks is an extensive website with many different sections, the real question is whether or not the resource actually helps students to develop their literacy skills. Graphophonically, the print is not difficult to read, as seen in figure two. All of the story books have text that is large enough to read; the size is not adjustable, however, all of the story books that I viewed, had text that is of adequate quality. I found the same to be true in the nonfiction books; the text is not adjustable, however, I had no trouble reading it. In the chapter book section, it is possible to change the size, font, color, and spacing of the text. It makes it incredibly user friendly and graphically easy to read. It is also helpful that the text that is being read is highlighted, as shown in figure three; this helps with readers who are still learning to decode. If the narrator reads a sentence, the reader is easily able to follow along and see the symbols that represent the audible voice. Ultimately, matching up the narrator with the text will help readers to decode the words more easily. Syntactically, hearing the narration will also help students to understand how sentences form paragraphs. The highlighted sentences aid in gaining syntactic knowledge as well. TumbleBooks seems to have the same standards in each of the sections on their website regarding the syntactic cueing systems. Semantically, the animations in the story books and nonfiction books help to create meaning. When the illustrations move, they draw attention to themselves. This reminds readers to look at them and allow them to help create comprehension. They are not able to create much background knowledge for readers much beyond that of what a traditional print book could do. However, they do remind the reader to pay attention and use semantic knowledge for clues as to the meaning. It is clear that this resource would help students to engage in each of the cueing systems, improving their literacy skills.Bookflix ResearchAnother electronic resource that could plausibly assist in students’ development of literacy skills is BookFlix. This website pairs a fiction book with a nonfiction book for students’ viewing pleasure. There are nine different categories under which a pair can fall from family and community to imagination. There are over 400 titles available. This resource is provided to local libraries by the state through MeL (Michigan eLibrary) but the pricing varies on the size of the library. These are titles that have been published in print and are now available online as well. There is no installation of this website required; however, Flash version 9.x or higher is necessary.Figure 5: Pairs of related books on BookFlix25403485515Figure 4: BookFlix Homepage2667000-8890From the home page (shown in figure four), users are able to choose a category and then the book pairs are listed in alphabetical order by story title. In each pair, there is a fiction book in which users can “Watch the Story.” There is also a related nonfiction book for users to “Read the Book.” As seen in figure five, the pair of related books work together for users. The fiction story allows children to view an animated storybook from Weston Woods (part of Scholastic). Students are able to choose the read along option if they would like the words to appear on the bottom of the video (similarly to closed captions). Otherwise, students simply listen as a narrator speaks while the video plays. In the related nonfiction book, students are able to read an E-book similar to traditional print. This text has a read along function (or that can be turned off for students to read to themselves) as the word that is being read is highlighted. Also, key vocabulary words are highlighted in yellow and users can hover the mouse over the word in order to display the definition. If the student clicks on the definition, the narrator will read that as well. Users must click to turn the page and continue the narration. There are some Spanish versions available in both the fiction and nonfiction books. There is a button that children can click on under each pair to learn more about the author, as well as lesson plan ideas along with the curriculum correlations for teachers or parents. Finally, there are links to other websites where students could learn more about these topics.28098752599055Along with each pair, there are educational games called “Puzzlers.” “Word match” is a game that asks students to match a definition to the correct vocabulary word. “Fact or Fiction” asks students to identify statements as either fact or fiction. “Which came first” asks students about the sequence of events from the fictional book. Although there are only these three options for games, it allows students to know how the games work without having to learn new rules each time. They are simple enough to operate for even young children. It is a much smaller selection than the ones available through TumbleBooks yet they are effective in engraining the learning done by users.Figure 6: Graphemes in BookFlix (Bark, George)Graphophonically, the text from BookFlix is large enough to read without any trouble, as referenced in figure six. Most of the books from this resource are smaller than those from TumbleBooks. However, BookFlix allows users to toggle to full-screen mode; this fills the entire screen with the book and enlarges the words exponentially. Other than that, there is no way to change the way the text appears. BookFlix also highlights each individual word as it is read; this helps readers with the decoding and being able to connect how the audible word looks in print form. This focus on one word at a time would help students to visualize each individual word in 19050600710the text when they hear it aloud. In the fiction videos, when the read along option is turned off, as seen in figure seven, users are able to listen to the video; however, there are no words to read. This is not helpful for students’ graphophonic awareness. In order to build on this knowledge, there must be print to read. Syntactically, each individual word is highlighted on BookFlix; when only one word at a Figure 7: No graphemes when read along option turned off in BookFlix (Diary of a Fly)time is highlighted, it does not help students to be able to see the entire sentence. However, simply hearing the words read aloud will help readers to better understand how the English language works. Semantically, the pairing of books helps to create a better understanding of the topic. The fictional book works to pull in the reader and create interest and the nonfiction book draws on that with true information. The pairing of the books is a wonderful tool to help readers build on their semantic cueing system. The animations in the fictional stories will also help to entertain readers and remind them to use the illustrations as cues when reading. Also, by viewing nonfiction books, students are learning about the real world vicariously and gaining more awareness of the world around them. Finally, the puzzles that link to each pairing can help to engrain the knowledge into their minds. This information can be building blocks for other books to continue to gain semantic knowledge. BookFlix is easy to navigate. It has fewer sections than TumbleBooks and is simpler for users to explore. It also provides many ideas for lesson plans, connections to the curriculum standards, and information about the author. Clearly, BookFlix is another resource that is similar to traditional print books in some ways yet also has obvious advantages to it for increasing literacy skills.Read Me Stories ResearchRead Me Stories is another resource in which children can explore and increase their digital literacies skills. This is an app for iOS (4.0 or later) and Android (minimum operating system of 2.2). This resource begins with a homepage that encourages the reader to choose a series of books. There are eight different series available. Once he or she does so, there is one free sample book from each series. After that, the user must pay $1.99 for the other books in the series. The number of books in the series vary from four to twenty-nine; however, it is $1.99 for the rest of the series no matter the number of books. These books are not ones that are published in traditional text. This may be beneficial for readers who want something different; however, it also means that the story has not had to go through many extensive steps in order to be published. Once students select a series, they are prompted to press a button to indicate whether they want to listen to the book being read or read the book by themselves. In the read aloud option, the app narrates the text and each individual word is highlighted as it is read. After each “page” is read, there is sometimes an option to click on a character in the story. When this occurs, there is a small amount of text that usually explains what the character is thinking. After all of the information has been read, the user must press the arrow button to move to the next screen. In the read aloud option, there is no way to stop the narration until it has finished reading the entire page. It is usually not a large amount of text; however, there is no way to simply pause the narration in the middle of a scene. If a reader is reading the book to themselves, they still must press the arrows in order to move the story to the next screen. The illustrations in this app are cartoon-like drawings but they are not animated. At the end of the story, it usually leaves the reader on a cliff-hanger ending in order to market the next book. It actually tells the reader that it has a new book for them and to “go get mommy or daddy to help you.” This app is very obviously geared towards very young children.Although this app is much simpler than the two previous websites, its easy accessibility makes it Figure 8: Graphemes in Read Me Stories (The Lion and the Mouse)16510631190a useful resource. Graphophonically, this app highlights individual words as they are being read, helping the reading to increase their knowledge of the text. Similarly to the previous resources, hearing the narrator read the words helps to decode the text and understand what word the symbols represent. The text is much smaller (as seen in figure eight) since it is on a smaller device which may make the graphemes more difficult for some users, Figure 9: Syntax in Read Me Stories (Hullabaloo Down at the Zoo)2924175883285 especially early readers. Syntactically, the individual word highlighting, referenced in figure nine, once again, does not help readers to identify the whole sentence. However, the option of narration helps readers to hear how the English language forms sentences. There are many silly voices that draw readers in and help to improve their syntactic knowledge. Semantically, the bright illustrations remind readers to pay attention and use them for clues in order to create meaning. If the user is reading by themselves and meaning breaks down graphophonically or syntactically, the illustrations may help them to create comprehension. However, there is no nonfiction or true information of any kind attached Figure 10: Semantics in Read Me Stories (Tuffy the Pony)to this app. Also, when the reader is able to click on a character (when there is a purple ring around them) visible in figure ten, they may gain some insight into how the character is feeling or what they are thinking; this may help to build some semantic knowledge. Because of the few options available, this app would be easy for even very young children to navigate. 19050-2614930Quantitative Data AnalysisAfter analyzing these different resources, it is clear that each has its own advantages and disadvantages. However, I wanted to create some kind of quantitative way to evaluate them. I created a system in which each resource, in addition to traditional print books, is assessed in several different categories. Each literacy resource is assigned a number (one through four) representing its rank in the category. For instance, if one resource is very clearly the winner of the specific category, it receives a four; therefore, the resource that has the least quality in a specific category receives a one. This quantitative data can be viewed in Appendix A. A short explanation of each category, along with the requirements for a high score for each can be seen in Appendix B. Graphophonically, TumbleBooks was the clear winner; it received a four. The story books are of good size, including the print, but the chapter books have many different options when it comes to the text formatting. This appeals to readers and helps them to decode the symbols more easily if the text is readable. Print books received second place in this category; regarding the print, books are published using symbols that are big enough to read. They are not able to be changed by the click of a button, however, they are evident and of decent size. BookFlix is the next resource in this category, which received two points. The text is a good size, however, in the fictional stories, it is possible to completely turn the text off. In the read aloud option, users are able to simply watch the video and listen to the story; there is no text visible at all. Finally, Read Me Stories received one point in the graphophonic category. The text is incredibly small; it is all contained to a small phone screen. It is readable but may be difficult for beginning readers. In evaluating the winner for the syntactic cueing system, TumbleBooks won once again. All of the electronic resources have the option to narrate the story; that helps readers to grow syntactically if they are able to hear the way the language sounds. However, TumbleBooks received the highest score in this category because it reads the page aloud while also highlighting the entire sentence. It is important that students hear the way individual words sound. Yet, seeing the entire sentence at once helps to build the knowledge of how sentences are formed even more. Both Bookflix and Read Me Stories have the option of a narrator but highlight individual words as they are read. This earned both of these technological resources a score of two (in a tie) for the syntactical cueing system category. Finally, traditional print books came in last place in helping to build syntactic knowledge. Although print can be read aloud, it does not have an automatic button that will do so for the user. The reader must find someone to read to them if they want to hear how the sentences are formed and better understand how the English language sounds. In the semantic cueing system category, Bookflix was the winner. The pairing of a fictional story with a nonfiction book helped this resource to receive the highest score. In the fictional story, the animations draw the reader in and entertain them while reminding them to use the illustrations as clues to create meaning. Bookflix also allows readers to view nonfiction books; this helps them to gain important knowledge about the world around them. The books working together on Bookflix, along with the puzzler games helping with comprehension made it the clear winner. The next highest score semantically was TumbleBooks. The illustrations are animated in this resource, helping to remind readers to use them to gain comprehension. Next, Read Me Stories, has illustrations: they are cartoonish in nature with bright colors that will draw readers attention to them, yet they are not animated. This app does however allow users to click on characters occasionally in the story in order to gain some insight into what they may be thinking. This will help readers to gain some knowledge about their inner thoughts and may assist in building comprehension. Finally, traditional print books are able to create some meaning for readers from illustrations or true information. They do not have animated illustrations but readers are able to use the pictures to gain comprehension when meaning breaks down. In looking at the ease of navigation, print books received the most points for the category. Traditional books are clearly the easiest to traverse. Readers are able to open the cover and read the book from left to right by turning the pages; there are no buttons to click or different webpages to travel through. Read Me Stories received the next highest score for ease of navigation. Because this app is only available through iOS and Android on a phone system, it is the simplest of the technological resources. Users start out on a home page where they are able to select a book; without buying more options, there are only a few selections. The reader is able to navigate the E-book by clicking on the arrow button and arriving at the next scene. There are not many extra pages that users are able to access; it is a very simple app. Bookflix is the resource that received a two in the ease of navigation category. Both Bookflix and TumbleBooks are much more complicated than traditional print books and Read Me Stories. Bookflix has many more books to choose from, as well as, different games, resources, and lesson plans. Even the books themselves, have many different options that can be changed from the narration to the text size. Finally, TumbleBooks has even more buttons to click, different pages to explore, and options to change. As the websites contain more resources, they are more difficult to explore. Since TumbleBooks is the most extensive website with the most resources available, it is also the most difficult to navigate. Accessibility is another huge factor that should be taken into consideration when analyzing these literacy tools. The winner of this category is the app that is available for iOS and Android, Read Me Stories. Most people in today’s society, have a phone that readers could use in order to access this app. However, if their phone is not an iOS or Android, Read Me Stories is not downloadable. This was still the winner in this category however because of the size needed in order to use Read Me Stories. The amount of physical space that a phone demands, is very small. A phone can fit into a woman’s purse or a man’s pocket; if the user (or the user’s parents) own an iOS or Android phone, the accessibility is incredibly easy. Print books is the runner-up in the category of accessibility. Generally, traditional books take up a fairly small space. They too can sometimes be carried in a woman’s purse, in a backpack, or another bag; they are easy for children to carry. There are no requirements to download the books; people are simply able to carry them where they go. Finally, both TumbleBooks and Bookflix tied for last in the category of accessibility. Both of these resources must be accessed on a computer with internet access; it is possible to use either a laptop. Still, this would take up much more space than traditional books. This was a difficult category to analyze qualitatively. However, according to space accessibility, TumbleBooks and Bookflix do not receive high numbers. Not only is accessibility an important aspect of these resources, but price is another factor that should be considered. Traditional books are the winner in this category; generally, the price range can be anywhere from five dollars up to around thirty; however, picture books generally cost fewer than thirty dollars. It is also possible to visit a local library and have access to thousands of books for free. Read Me Stories received the next highest amount of points for price. There are a few stories that can be read for free; yet, to buy the rest of the E-books, it is only $1.99 for the rest of the series. This is less than the cost of most traditional books, however Read Me Stories requires a phone in order to upload it. The cost of a smart phone that is able to access this app can vary widely; for instance, this can depend on the type of phone to how new it is. In almost all circumstances, an iOS or Android phone will cost more than a print book. Bookflix had the next ranking for the price category. This resource is provided to local libraries by the state through MeL (Michigan eLibrary). The pricing varies depending on the size of the library. Bookflix is a subscription-based resource for schools and libraries only; it is not possible to purchase as an individual. TumbleBooks also is only available through schools and libraries. It received the lowest points in this category because of its price of $599 per year. In using both Bookflix and TumbleBooks, readers may be able to use it free because of their local library or school. However, they would still need a computer to access the website. These, once again, may be used through the library or school but if the reader is using their own computer, the cost exceeds that of a phone or print book. Pedagogical value is the last category in which I analyzed these resources. Bookflix received the most points. The lesson plans and resources were the most extensive provided of the literacy tools I analyzed. TumbleBooks received the next highest amount of points in the pedagogical value category. TumbleBooks also has an extensive amount of lesson plans and resources available. However, Bookflix’s pairing of fiction with nonfiction books helped to narrowly win the category. Both Bookflix and Tumblebooks have books that could be played for an entire class if technology allows in the classroom. Traditional print books are the next best in this category; they could easily be read aloud by students. Teachers could research or come up with their own lesson plan ideas based on the book; however, there are no ideas attached to the book in any way that could be used for teaching. Finally, Read Me Stories, has very little pedagogical value. It is not a resource that could be used to read aloud in the classroom; the screen is too small for that. It also does not have any ideas for lessons as a part of the app. In the end, traditional print books received the highest total score of 18 when I analyzed these literacy tools quantitatively. Tumblebooks and Bookflix tied with scores of 17 and Read Me Stories received 16. All of the scores are very close in proximity and demonstrate the fact that all of these resources can be helpful in different ways. At first glance, the technological resources seem like much better tools to help children in reading, but after taking into consideration ease of navigation, accessibility and price, it is clear that they are not always the best tool for the situation. As a future teacher, I would recommend each of these resources in different situations. The lesson plans and extra resources attached to TumbleBooks and Bookflix could be extremely helpful. Read Me Stories may be a useful app to have for parents of my future students. However, a traditional print book is able to help develop the same reading skills for a much lower price and greater ease of navigation and accessibility. It is true that traditional print books are not as showy as the electronic resources however, they are still helpful in developing readers. Clearly, in any kind of text, graphophonic, syntactic and semantic cues work together to create comprehension. Although there are many different technological resources available to help improve these skills in today’s society, traditional print books are often just as useful. Ultimately, any exposure that students have to reading will help to improve children’s literacy. However, it is imperative that children are taught at an early age how to use the three cueing systems simultaneously in any type of text; they are the future generation and must be prepared to function in a society that uses both print and digital literacies. Appendix ATumbleBooksBookFlixRead Me StoriesTraditional Print BooksGraphophonic cues4213Syntactic cues4221Semantic cues3421Ease of navigation1234Accessibility1143Price1234Pedagogical value3412Total17171618Appendix BExplanation of qualitative analysis: Each literacy resource is assigned a number (one through four) representing its rank in the category. The resource with the most points has the highest quality in that category. For instance, if one resource is very clearly the winner of the specific category, it receives a four; therefore, the resource that has the least quality in a specific category receives a one. The best resources receive higher points and vice versa. Each category is listed below with the requirements that would earn a high score.Graphophonic cues (printed letters and words in the text): A high rating requires large text, print that is easy to read, and/or possible to change text size.Syntactic cues (structure of the language): A high rating requires an optional narrator and/or highlighting each sentence as it is read.Semantic cues (prior knowledge of words and concepts): A high rating requires ability to build on prior knowledge, engaging illustrations, and/or related educational games.Ease of navigation: A high rating requires a simple resource that is easy for readers to use.Accessibility: A high rating requires convenience of the electronic device that the resource requires and/or having a small physical space demand. Price: A high rating requires a low cost and/or accessibility for an individual.Pedagogical value: A high rating requires many resources (outside links), ideas for lesson plans, and/or overall helpfulness for teachers.Works CitedBookFlix. (2014). Retrieved from , Jack & Loveless, Douglas J. (October 2011). Taking Our Pulse in a Time of Uncertainty: Results of the 2012?What's Hot, What's Not?Literacy Survey.?Reading Today, Oct/Nov 2011,?16-21. Retrieved from?. gvsu.edu/docview/906506675Fox, Mem (2008).?Reading Magic.?Orlando, FL: Harcourt, Inc.Fielding, L.G. (1999). Making Balanced Use of Cues When Reading.?The Reading Teacher, Vol. 52, No. 4,?392-393. Retrieved from docview/203268991Goodman, Debra (1999).?The Reading Detective Club.?Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.Goodman, Kenneth S. (April 1971). Decoding - From Code to What??Journal of Reading, Vol. 14, No. 7,?455-462, 498. Retrieved from stable/40009682Hassett, Danene D. & Schieble, Melissa B. (September 2007). Space and Time for the Visual in K-12 Literacy Instruction.?The English Journal, Vol. 97, No. 1,?62-68. Retrieved from?, Patricia R. & Klein, Adria & Neal, Judith?(December 1993).?High-Risk Emergent Readers' Use of Cueing Systems.?Retrieved from , Pat (2003).?No More Letter of the Week.?Peterborough, NH: Crystal Springs Books.Martin, Lillian M. (May 2003). Web Reading: Linking Text and Technology.?The Reading Teacher, Vol. 56, No. 8,?735-737. Retrieved from /stable/20205285Melvin, Mary P. (May 1979). Psycholinguistics and the Teaching of Reading.?The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 79, No. 5,?276-283. Retrieved from?. gvsu.edu/stable/1001494.Montelongo, Jose A. & Herter, Roberta J. (2010) Technology to Support Expository Reading and Writing in Science Classes.?Science Activities, Vol. 47, No. 3,?89-102. Retrieved from? Me Stories. (2014). Read Me Stories. [Mobile application software]. Retrieved from , Elizabeth (September 2003). Reading on the Internet: The Link Between Literacy and Technology.?Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 47, No. 1,?80-85. Retrieved from? Library. (2014). Retrieved from home_tumblebooks.aspWheat, Thomas E. & Demond, Rose Mary (May 1974).?An Analysis of the Concept of Comprehension.?Retrieved from?, Karen E. (2012). A New Spin on Miscue Analysis: Using Spider Charts to Web Reading Processes. Language Arts, Vol. 90 No. 2, 110-118. Retrieved from ................
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