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Chapter 12:Development of the Self and Social Cognition DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF-CONCEPTSelf-Differentiation in Infancy2 months – a limited sense of personal agency – they are responsible for some eventsSelf-Recognition in InfancySelf-concept – who or what we are5 months – recognize the self as familiar Self-recognition Rouge test18-24 months, most realized the person in the mirror was them 2 to 3 years, limited to present self4 to 5 years, extended selfContributors to Self-RecognitionCognitive development is necessarySocial experienceSecure attachment Parents provide descriptive informationCultural differencesYounger self-recognition if autonomy was stressedSocial and Emotional Consequences of Self-RecognitionNecessary for self-conscious emotionsInfants become more socially skilledMay begin to cooperateBegin to categorize themselves on dimensions of how people differWho Am I? Responses of Preschool Children3 ? - 5 – use psychological dimensions SociabilityIntelligenceAthleticismTends to be stable over timeConceptions of Self in Middle Childhood and AdolescenceBecomes more abstract with ageRecognize they are not the same in all situationsMay use false self-behaviors – acting out of character to improve image, etc.Becomes more integrated with ageCultural Influences on the Self-ConceptSelf descriptors American students – more likely to be personal or individualisticJapanese students – more likely to be social or relationalSELF-ESTEEM: THE EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF SELFOrigins and Development of Self-Esteem4 – 5 years, an early, meaningful, stable sense of self-esteemSecurely attached children more likely to have high sense of self-esteemReasonably accurate with how others (teachers) evaluate their social competenciesComponents of Self-EsteemAcademics, social acceptance, appearance, athleticism, and behaviorAdolescence – relational self-worth, importance of relationshipsFemales – supportive friendshipsMales – influencing friendsChanges in Self-EsteemSome children experience a decline into middle and high schoolMultiple stressors contribute to declinesOverall stability is lowest in childhood and early adolescenceRelatively stable in late adolescence and early adulthoodGradual increase in young adulthoodImportance of Self-EsteemHigh self-esteemLow self-esteemSocial Contributors to Self-EsteemParenting StylesWarm, supporting, nurturing / democratic leads to high self-esteemPeer InfluencesSocial comparison, especially in individualistic societiesSocial support from peers – high esteemCulture, Ethnicity, and Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem appears lower in collectivist societiesEthnic minorities express lower levels of esteem in elementary school, but equal or higher by adolescenceSupport and pride in ethnic groupDevelopment of Achievement Motivation and Academic Self-ConceptsAchievement motivation Willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasksTo meet standards of accomplishmentMastery motive Inborn motivation to master the environmentEarly Origins of Achievement MotivationPhase 1: Joy in MasteryPrior to 2 years, pleased with successes, but do not seek recognition, failures don’t matterPhase 2: Approval-SeekingNear age 2, seek approval for successes, expect disapproval for failurePhase 3: Use of Standards (3+ years old)Adopted objective standardsPride after success, shame after failureLess dependent on others evaluations Achievement Motivation During Middle Childhood and AdolescenceHome Influences on Mastery Motivation and AchievementQuality of attachment Secure attachment results in being more self-assured, and comfortable about taking risks and seeking challengesThe home environment66% of children from intellectually stimulating homes doing well in schoolLed to intrinsic orientation to achievement70% of children from unstimulating homes were doing poorlyChild-rearing and achievementIndependence training Achievement training Praising successes, not being overly critical of occasional failures aids achievement motivation Authoritative parenting – style described above (warm, firm, democratic)Peer Group InfluencesAfrican American and Latino peer groups in low-income areas may discourage academic achievementParents value education, individuals may associate with peers sharing those valuesCultural InfluencesChinese children much more critical of personal failures in learning versus American childrenBeyond Achievement Motivation: Development of Achievement AttributionsTypes of Achievement AttributionsStable versus unstableInternal versus external Dweck’s Learned-Helplessness TheoryMastery orientation: attribute successes to ability, externalize failures or attribute them to unstable causesPersist after failure, increase effortLearned helplessness orientation: attribute failures to stable and internal factorStops tryingTends to persist over timeHow does learned helplessness develop?Praise hard work if child succeeds, and criticize ability when failure occursWant to criticize lack of effort when failure occursCan be changed relatively easily through attribution retrainingWHO AM I TO BE?: FORGING AN IDENTITYIdentity – firm and coherent sense of who one is, where one is heading, and where one fits into societyIdentity diffusion: not yet thought about or resolved identity issuesForeclosure: committed to identity but without a crisis of decisionMoratorium: identity crisis, actively asking questions and seeking answersIdentity achievement: resolved identity issues by making personal commitments to goals, beliefs, and valuesDevelopmental Trends in Identity Formation12-18 – majority are identity diffused or foreclosed21 and older – moratorium status or achieved a stable identityWomen place more importance on sexuality, gender roles, family/careerLikely to be at different statuses in different domainsHow Painful Is Identity Formation?Moratorium - not a stressful statusIdentity achievement – healthy, leads to higher self-esteem, fewer personal concerns than other statusesLong-term failure to establish an identity is negativeSmall minority of adolescentsInfluences on Identity FormationCognitive Influences – formal-operational thought helps imaging and contemplate future identitiesParenting Influences Being neglected/rejected = diffused Too controlling = foreclosedAffection, mutual respect = moratorium, achievement Scholastic InfluencesCollege pushes people toward career setting College students behind working peers in terms of political or religious identitiesSocial-Cultural InfluencesDesire to choose a personal identity after exploration may only apply in industrialized societies todayIdentity Formation Among Minority YouthDeciding to establish an ethnic identityOnce achievedHigher self-esteem, relationships with parents and peers of other ethnicitiesParents need to Teach traditions and foster pridePrepare children to handle prejudiceBe warm and supportive confidantsTHE OTHER SIDE OF SOCIAL COGNITION: KNOWING ABOUT OTHERSAge Trends in Person PerceptionYounger than 7-8, characterize people in same concrete, observable terms used to describe the self4-6 are capable of thinking about traits in meaningful waysLess likely to think they are stableTraits are used to describe recent behaviorTheories of Social-Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Theories of Social CognitionCognitive-development theoryGrowth of social-cognitive abilities is related to cognitive developmentSelman’s role-taking theoryRole-taking skills allow one to assume a different perspectiveDevelopmental sequence Role-taking and thinking about relationshipsPreschool – any positive interaction equals a friendship6-8 years – common activities and one-way friendships8-10 – reciprocal friendshipsAdolescence – exchange of intimate thoughts or feelingsSocial Influences on Social-Cognitive DevelopmentSocial experience as a contributor to role-takingEqual-status contacts with friends and peers are importantParents and siblings also importantSocial experience as a direct contributor to person perceptionExperience with others teaches what others are likeMotivation and practice to understand others ................
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