CHAPTER 22
CHAPTER 22
FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURES
I. FLOUR MIXTURE INGREDIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
A. Flours
1. Characteristics provided to breads
a. structure
b. texture
c. flavor
i. action of enzymes (amylases) breaks down flour
- dextrin
- malt
- glucose
ii. these three compounds
- add a slight sweetness
- darken the crust color
- improve fermentation
- adds shininess to breads baked layer
2. Crumb
a. definition – texture of a baked product’s interior
b. created from
i. number and size of air cells produced
ii. degree of starch gelatinization
iii. amount of protein coagulation
c. types
i. fine – small, densely packed air bubbles
ii. coarse – large, irregular air holes
3. Gluten
a. definition – protein portion of wheat flour with the elastic characteristics necessary for the structure of most baked products
b. protein content has a direct effect on a baked product’s ability to rise
c. wheat flour has the highest concentration of proteins that form gluten
d. two types of protein in flour
i. gliadin (sticky)
ii. glutenin (elastic)
e. kneading expands and stretches gluten
f. baking causes further expansion of the gluten
g. a baked product’s structure will set when heat causes
i. protein coagulation
ii. starch gelatinization
h. critical steps for gluten formation
i. hydrating flour
- the greater the protein content, the greater the amount of water that will absorb
ii. kneading dough
- compresses and stretches the dough to increase gluten strength
- evenly distributes the yeast
- redistributes air bubbles
- warms the dough
- increases fermentation
- increases CO2 production
- too much kneading will break gluten strands
4. Too much / too little flour
a. too much
i. lower volume
ii. tunneling
iii. drier, tougher crumb
b. too little
i. coarse texture
ii. weak structure
5. Milling
a. definition – separation of bran and germ from grain kernel and grinding of endosperm into fine powder
b. any grain can be milled
c. process
i. breaking
- removal of bran and germ layers
ii. purifying
- final removal of bran from endosperm done by blowing air currents
- these particles are referred to as middlings
iii. reducing
- grinding of middlings to flour
iv. sifting
- separation of milled flour based on particle size (stream)
- types of streams
- fine (first break)
- coarse (clear)
v. classifying
- flour is derived from the streams
- patent (long, medium, short)
- straight
- clear (fancy, first, second)
6. Types of wheat flour
a. soft wheat
i. least protein and highest starch content
ii. ideal for tender, fine crumbed cakes
b. hard wheat
i. higher protein content
ii. yeast bread production
c. types
i. whole-wheat flour
- made from entire wheat kernel (bran, germ, endosperm)
- bran’s coarse granules can cut gluten decreasing final volume
- usually has white flour added
ii. white flour
- made from endosperm of wheat grain
iii. bread flour
- long patent white flour made from hard, winter wheat
- very high gluten content
iv. durum flour
- made from hard, winter durum wheat
- produces semolina flour used in pasta produciton
v. all-purpose flour
- blend of hard and soft wheats
- protein content varies depending on region of flour production
vi. pastry flour
- derived from soft wheat with short patents
- low protein content
vii. cake flour
- soft, extra-short patent wheat flour
- same amount of protein as pastry flour, but more starch
7. Types of non-wheat flour
a. rye
b. cornmeal
c. soy
d. buckwheat
e. potato
8. Treated flours
a. aging
i. allows flour to oxidize and become white
ii. improves functional qualities of flour
b. bleaching
i. bypasses aging process
ii. done with chlorine gas or benzoyl peroxide
iii. oxidizes carotenoid pigments
iv. improves condition of gluten
v. improves volume, texture, and crumb structure of baked product
vi. semolina flour is never bleached
c. phosphating
i. allows baking soda to be used instead of baking powder
d. self-rinsing
i. all-purpose flour with salt and leavening agent already added
e. instant
i. mixes easily with water
f. enriched
i. addition of riboflavin, niacin, and iron to reach federal standards
B. Leavening Agents
1. Purpose – to help flour mixture to rise
2. Accomplished by carbon dioxide gas from either chemical or biological sources
a. biological
i. yeast
ii. used in bread production
b. chemical
i. baking powder / soda
ii. used in quick breads
3. Physical leavening agents
a. air
b. steam
4. Biological leavening agents
a. yeast
i. naturally found in air, water, and living organisms
ii. produce CO2 through fermentation
iii. feed of saccharides from either the flour or added sugar
iv. yeast hydrolyzes starch to glucose and fructose
v. optimal fermentation temperatures for yeast is between 81 – 100 degrees F but specifically 95 degrees F
vi. too much salt or water will kill yeast by osmotically pulling water from their cells
vii. sold as active and inactive
b. bacteria
i. used in sourdough and salt-rising breads
5. Chemical leavening agents
a. baking soda
i. sodium bicarbonate
ii. used only in the presence of an acid
- lemon juice
- buttermilk
- vinegar
- yogurt
- cream of tartar
b. baking powder
i. baking soda + acid +cornstarch
ii. types
- single acting (upon hydration)
- double acting (hydration and heat)
6. Too much / too little leavening
a. too much
- low volume
- coarse texture
- soapy flavor
b. too little
- compact and heavy baked product
C. Sugar
1. Sweetness
2. Volume
a. allow incorporation of air into fat
b. food for yeast
c. raises the temperature at which gelatinization and coagulation occur
3. Moistness – retains water
4. Tenderness – competes with starch for water
5. Color – browning of crusts through caramelization and Maillard reaction
6. Appearance – used decoratively
7. Calories
8. Too much / too little
a. too much
i. low volume
ii. coarse grain
iii. gummy texture
iv. excessively browned crust
b. too little
i. dry
ii. reduced browning
iii. lower volume / less tender
D. Salt
1. Purpose
a. flavor
b. firmer dough (adjusts solubility and swelling capability of gluten)
c. improves volume, texture, and evenness of cell structure
d. prolong shelf-life
e. controls yeast growth
2. Too much / too little
a. too much
i. firm dough of low volume
ii. too salty a flavor
b. too little
i. too sticky a dough
ii. poor flavor
iii. lack of color
E. Liquid
1. Hydrates flour
2. Gelatinizes the starch
3. Allows gluten to be formed
4. Activates yeast
5. Solvent for dry ingredients
6. Provides steam for leavening
7. Allows baking soda / powder to react
8. Too much / too little
a. too much – very moist product of low volume
b. too little – dry product of low volume
F. Milk
1. Usually recommended over water
2. Advantages
a. dough is easier to shape
b. dough is less sticky
c. dough retains shape better
d. dough retains gas better
G. Fat
1. Purposes
a. tenderizer
b. adds volume, structure, flakiness, flavor, and color
c. provides a resistance to staling
d. heat transfer
2. Physically interferes with gluten development
3. Too much fat will result in poor volume of baked goods as gluten has been shortened too much
4. Allows dough to become more fluid and expand more easily
5. Too much / too little
a. too much
i. makes dough / batter too fluid
ii. weakens structure
iii. decreases volume of finished product
b. too little
i. makes dough / batter resistant to expansion
ii. tougher crumb
H. Eggs
1. Purposes
a. enhances structural integrity
b. color
c. flavor
d. emulsifier
2. Too much / too little
a. too much – tough, rubbery texture
b. too little
i. insufficient volume
ii. inferior color, flavor, and strength
I. Commercial additives
1. Malt
2. Antioxidants
3. Mold inhibitors
4. Enzymes
II. PREPARATION OF BAKED GOODS
A. Doughs and Batters (difference in flour to liquid ratio)
1. Doughs
a. able to be manipulated by hand
b. can be refrigerated with little harm
2. Batters
a. pour or drop
b. used immediately
B. High Altitude Adjustments
1. Bake at higher temperature
2. Use less leavening, fat, and sugar
3. Use more flour and liquid
C. Changes During Heating
1. Release of steam
2. Gas production
3. Starch gelatinization
4. Protein coagulation
5. Surface browning
6. Dough sets
III. STORAGE OF FLOUR AND FLOUR MIXTURES
A. Store in pest-proof containers
B. Keep in cool, dry place
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