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Task Analysis:A Practical EvaluationFull NameName of InstitutionDaily life is comprised of individual tasks. All main activities and events are made up of little tasks that together form a broader context. Cooking a meal, for example, can be seen as one activity. When it is examined, however, cooking involves countless little tasks, such as opening the refrigerator, gathering ingredients and supplies, cutting or chopping, mixing, turning on the oven, and so forth. For most people, these activities and the minor actions that comprise them are second nature. For children, however, who are still developing their motor and cognitive capacities, things are not that simple. Even a small task like cutting a picture out of a magazine, or coloring within the lines, takes a high level of focus and concentration for these children, as they develop and use such skills for the first time. Task analysis is a method of instruction that has been developed to help teach what must be done to accomplish a given task. This method of analysis uses a step by step breakdown of both the cognitive and physical or manual actions involved in the task. While task analysis is often used for instructing children, as they develop their skills and learning things for the first time, it can also be used for individuals of all ages, as they seek to develop new skills or perform new roles. An understanding of the theories behind task analysis, in addition to the process itself and examples of its practical application can lead to a better overall understanding and evaluation of this instructional method. Cognitive TheoristsThe task analysis instructional method was developed by cognitive theorists of learning. Cognitive theories of learning are contrasted with the behavioral theories. The cognitive theories emphasize the importance of the mental processes that go on during a given action, and their effect. The behavioral theories focus more on habit and behavioral conditioning; they therefore favor more rote forms of learning and training and do not emphasize the cognitive realm as much. The three main cognitive theorists in the past century have been Jerome Burner, David Ausubel and Robert Gagne. Bruner’s theory of intellectual development revolves around three stages: enactive, iconic, and symbolic (Cognitive Theories of Learning, 2010). In the enactive stage, the person learns through action and observing the effect of actions on objects. In the iconic stage, the person learns by models and images. Finally, in the symbolic stage, the person reaches abstract thought.Ausubel focused mainly on the importance of information processing and meaningful learning (Cognitive Theories of Learning, 2010). This requires having a mental structure or aid that helps the individual receive information in a more effective manner and, as a result, apply it better. Ausubel called this structuring an “advanced organizer.” In terms of meaningful learning, Ausubel stressed the importance and effectiveness of putting as much meaning into learning as possible, avoiding mere rote learning that leads to a habit or memorized information but leaves one incapable of active application and understanding.Gagne used both cognitive and behavioral theories, and dedicated himself to studying and identifying job requirements, and breaking down a given job or role into the skills and knowledge needed for successful completion (Cognitive Theories of Learning, 2010). He shows that such an analysis can then be used to develop highly successful training programs. Gagne also identified five main categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes (Kristinsdóttir, 2008). Although these three theorists focused on education and learning in general, their theories all pertain to task analysis and are very effective when helping children learn skills for the first time. Bruner’s stages reflect the main stages a child goes through in learning, first observing and experiencing through action, then recognizing and observing through pictures or models and finally, being able to recall and think about the same subject or action in an abstract manner. Ausubel’s emphasis on structure and meaning also render task analysis for children more effective by preparing the child ahead of time through explanations, examples and relations, to be able to best comprehend and assimilate a task or concept. Furthermore, Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning is highly applicable to active education and can be used, for example, to help a child learn to read more quickly by learning a system of decoding that can be meaningfully applied to many words, rather than learning each word by rote. Finally, Gagne’s method most closely resembles task analysis itself, as he focused on the breakdown of tasks into skills and steps. His categories of learning also connect to task analysis because a thorough task analysis will include the different categories – mental, verbal, active, etc.Pros and Cons of the Task AnalysisThe task analysis method provides advantages for both the teacher and the learning. For the teacher, the analysis methods ensures a well thought through and structured plan that takes into account both the cognitive dimension and the active dimension. Thinking through the steps ahead of time through task analysis helps the teacher make sure the information or training imparted is complete and well structured. It also provides the teacher the opportunity to identify possible points of difficulty that need to be explained or demonstrated several times, and helps the teacher identify needed materials and conditions ahead of the lesson. All of these factors enable the teacher to be better prepared and more effective. For the learning, task analysis is advantageous because it takes a difficult task that one does not know how to do, and breaks it down further and further into a series of tasks that the child does know how to do. Task analysis simplifies the process without simplifying or lessening the outcome. This breakdown also enables the child to remember, repeat, and apply the process later in different situations, as a result of being able to remember individual steps that can be repeated, combined and changed in different manners. The main negative element I found in the task analysis process based while implementing it lies in the discrepancy between the sequential nature of the task analysis process and the actual requirements of the task. In the task analysis process, both the cognitive and active steps must be described and given in a certain sequence. This leads to an isolation of steps that does not happen in real life. Many of the steps that have to be given in sequential order in the analysis happen simultaneously in real life. Many of the elements that are given as either cognitive or active in the analysis are really a combination of both. Therefore a teacher using the task analysis method must break down and isolate the steps to perform the analysis, but then help the child understand that they have to go together and can’t be completed sequentially as seen in the analysis.Lesson Plan AnalysisI found that the task analysis process and lesson method for decoding the three letter word “dog” was more effective and straightforward than that of teaching a child to jump rope. While, in the end, the child learned to accomplish both tasks, the lesson of jumping rope took a longer period of time and required greater focus and improvisation. The lesson of jumping rope required a more complicated combination of thinking, motion, and coordination. It therefore required more simultaneous responses than merely sequential ones. The explanation and guiding the child’s hands worked, but I needed to give more demonstrations that expected for the child to understand the continuity and simultaneous aspects of the skill. The lesson was effective, however, to the extent that the child in the end learned how to jump rope at a simple level, and know all the tasks involved, including the preparation and clean up. As a result, the child will be able to complete the task independently in the future, not needing assistance, because the steps were clearly laid out.The lesson in decoding was also successful. By the end, the child was able to locate and identify, read, and pronounce the word “dog.” I found that the number of steps in the decoding task analysis were more numerous and repetitive than required for the child’s retention and understanding of how to pronounce the word “dog.” Nevertheless, all steps needed to be included for the child to learn the decoding system in order to be able to apply it to other words in the future.Points for ImprovementWhile implementing and evaluating the two task analyses and lesson plans, I took note of the following points in order to improve in the future:I should include demonstration in the lesson plan prior to having the child begin following the steps. As the child has never completed this task before, seeing it first in its entirety can help him/her be able to identify the parts more easily. For example, in decoding the words, I could have begun with a different simple word like “cat” and gone through the same steps with the student watching me. Then the student has seen the steps and can more easily follow them to learn how to decode the word “dog.”For lesson plans such as the one about decoding the word “dog,” where the task analysis for a given skill (decoding) is more repetitive and involved than the learning of the word, “dog,” I should include more examples, so the child can practice on the word dog and other simple words as well. This way the skill will be reinforced and the child will broaden his vocabulary even more, without losing focus due to repetition.It would be beneficial to include a follow up in each lesson plan, such as a later moment when the child will demonstrate the ability to get the jump rope, find a suitable place and jump rope without my direction/ assistance, or where the child is able to identify and read the same words the next day and follow the decoding process without assistance (for simple words).ConclusionOverall, the task analysis method is very effective and advantageous. It responds to the needs of the child and can be adapted and applied to all levels of mental and skill development, from early childhood learning to adulthood career training. Educators would therefore benefit from thoroughly understanding this method, in terms of both theory and application. Nevertheless, this theory is not perfect and does not replace the presence of a skilled and attentive educator. Educators should be able to use this theory together with observation, adaption, and other methods in order to achieve the most effective learning process possible based on the individual needs of each student and situation.ReferencesCognitive Theories of Learning. (2010). Charles Sturt University. Retrieved from Kristinsdóttir, Sólrún B. (2008). Robert M. Gagne. Retrieved from APPENDIXLESSON PLANSJumping RopeDecoding the word “dog”Objective: The child will be able to perform simple, forward jump roping. In this way, the child will develop further motor skills, eye-hand coordination, and cognitive participation in relation to physical activities.Objective: In learning to decode a simple word, the child will advance in vocabulary, enhance speech capability (broadening the combinations of pronounced letters), and improve in reading proficiency.Materials: Jump RopeA cleared outdoor locationMaterials:A book or sheet of paper with the word dog written on it.A blank sheet of paper and pencil for the child to use.Cut outs or block lettersInstructions:Show the child where the jump rope is kept. Allow the child to actually take the jump rope from its place.If there are several jump ropes of different lengths, show the child how to measure to make sure the jump rope taken is the right length:Have the child stand on the rope. The rope middle of the rope should be under the child’s shoes.The child should grip both ends of the rope in each hand, pulling them up to see how high they reach. The ends of the rope should come to around the child’s shoulder on both sides.Bring the child to a suitable location: an area outdoors and clear of objectsHave the child grip both ends of the rope, with the rope starting on the ground just behind the child’s feet.Guide the child’s arms up and over his/her shoulders, with the rope moving over the head, so he/she understands the arm movement required.Tell the child to jump when the rope is past the knees and nearing the ground in front of the child.Once the child has jumped and the rope has passed under his/her feet, one rotation of jumping rope has been completed.Let the child practice several times, and begin making consecutive rotations, not needing to stop between jumps.Instructions:Have the book/ paper prepared ahead of time, with the word “dog” located.Show the child the book and the word “dog.”Ask the child if he/she knows how to read this word and what it means (the answer will be no…).Show the child the set of cut out or block letters, and ask him to find the same three letters that correspond to the letters of the word.Once the letters d, o, and g have been isolated, have the child put them in the same order as seen on the printed page, but spread apart.Ask the child to pronounce the sounds that correspond to each individual letter.Have the child now pronounce these sounds together, in a row.Move the letters together (now forming the word), and have the child repeat the pronounced sounds more fluently, showing how the combination of these three sounds is the pronunciation of the word.Give the child the paper and pencil, and help the child write the three letters himself to form the word and pronounce it a final time.If the word was in a story book and is repeated more than once, have the child locate the word in a different place in the book and pronounce it.Assessment:Assess motor skills: is the child able to smoothly rotate wrists and shoulders as required?Assess cognitive and hand/eye coordination. This will be seen by the child’s ability to remember when to jump (cognitive), jump on time (hand-eye coordination), and be able to continue the cycle after a little practice, not needing to stop each time.Assess overall learning of the skill: by the end of the lesson, the child should be able to regularly jump over the rope, and should be able to jump at least 3 consecutive, non-stop rotations without tripping or twisting the rope.Assessment:Pronunciation: This should be assessed as the child is sounding out each letter. If the appropriate sounds are pronounced, the child has learned the basic pronunciation.Decoding: Is the child able to select the same letters from the set of block letters? This shows the ability to decode the word by isolating its letters in order to sound them out.Reading: Is the child able to pronounce the word not only repeating after someone, but when seeing it on the page?Overall assessment: by the end of the lesson, the child should be able to identify the word “dog” on its own and in a short sentence/string of words. He should be able to pronounce it properly – the individual letters and the word as a whole. Finally, he should be able to apply the same simple decoding steps to other words. ................
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